Structural Theory 1

Lecture Notes 1
in
STRUCTURAL THEORY 1
CE-03
First semester
2021-2022
BSCE Curriculum 2018

Presented by: NENITA M. ABARADO, C.E.

BOHOL ISLAND STATE UNIVERSITY MAIN CAMPUS
College of Engineering and Architecture

1
Structural Theory 1

Lesson 1
Introduction to Structural Engineering; the Analysis and Design Process; Structural Forms,
Nature of Loads; Building Materials

Learning Objectives:

At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:

1. define the basic terminologies in structural theory;

2. recall the main characteristics of the basic components of a structure;
3. determine the various types of loads to be considered in the analysis;
4. prepare a preliminary plan of any two story structural building with complete
dimensions;
5. use the building code in dimensioning and
6. specify the project occupancy and its geographical location.

Time Frame: 6 hours

Introduction

A structure refers to a connected components unit used to support a load. These are
the civil engineering representations which include buildings, bridges and towers.

Structural engineering is the science and art of planning, designing, and building strong
functional structures that will serve their intended purposes.

1.1 The Analysis and Design Process

In designing a structure to support a specific purpose for public use, the engineer should
take into consideration the safety, appearance and usability of the structure, while taking
account environmental and economic constraints. This design process is both conceptual and
technical, and demands a detailed understanding of material properties and mechanics
regulations concerning material response.

a) Planning Phase (conceptual design)

A project starts with a particular customer need. The designer starts by considering all
possible layouts and structural systems which could meet project requirements. At this phase,
architects and engineers often discuss as a team to develop layouts that not only meet
architectural (functional and aesthetic) requirements but also lend themselves to efficient
structural systems

The design process typically includes:

 functional specifications of the proposed structure;

 general configuration and structural dimensions;
 evaluating alternative types of structures (e.g., rigid frame or truss) that might
be feasible, and
 types of materials to be used (e.g., structural steel or reinforced concrete).

2
Structural Theory 1

Functional requirements:

Structural Planning

The structural planning of the building frame is achieved after having an

architectural plan of the buildings. This includes determining what follows.

1. Column position and column orientation

a. Below are some of the building principles which help to determine the positions of
the columns.
 Columns should ideally be positioned at (or) the corners of a building and the
beams / walls intersection.
 Select column position to minimize bending moments in beams.
 Avoid excessive longer beam lengths..
 Avoid a larger range from center to center between columns;
 Columns on property line.

b. Orientation of columns

 Avoid projection of columns:

It is important to avoid the projection of columns outside the wall in the room as
they not only offer a bad appearance but also impede the use of floor space, causing
problems in putting furniture flush with the wall. The width of the column must be held not
less than 200 mm to avoid slender column.

The spacing of the column can be reduced considerably, so that the load on the
column on-floor is lower and there is no need for wide parts for columns.

 Place the column to include the depth of the column in the main bending
direction, or to be perpendicular to the main bending axis.

This is given to increase the moment of inertia and thus the capacity to resist the
moment. It will also reduce the Leff / d ratio resulting in an increase of the column's load
carrying capacity.

2. Positioning of Beams

a. Beams are usually placed under the walls or under a heavy focused load to prevent
such loads falling directly on slabs.

b. Avoid greater beam spacing from the requirements of deflection and cracking.
(Deflection varies directly with the span cube and inversely with the depth cube,
i.e. L3 / D3. Accordingly, span L increases, resulting in greater deflection for larger
span).

3
Structural Theory 1

3. Spanning of Slabs

That is determined by the supporting arrangements. The slab acts as a one way
supported slab whether the supports are either on opposite sides or in one direction only. The
slab acts as a one way supported slab whether the supports are either on opposite sides or in
one direction only. If the rectangular slab is supported along its four edges it behaves as a one
way slab when L2 / L1< 2.

Slab's two-way action relies not only in aspect ratio but also on the direction-related
reinforcement ratio.

A slab is made to act as a one way slab spanning across the short span by providing
main steel along the short span and only distribution steel along the long span. The provision of
more steel in one direction increases the stiffness of the slab in that direction. Main steel is
distributed in one way slab along with short span and the load is transferred to two opposite
supports. The steel along the long span acts simply as the steel allocation and is not meant to
carry the load but rather to distribute the load and

Generally, a two-way slab is economical compared to a one-way slab since steel serves
as the main steel in both spans and moves the load to all its four supports. Two-way operation is
essentially advantageous for both large spans (> 3 m) and live loads (> 3kN / m2).

4. Layouts of stairs

5. Selecting proper type of footing.

The type of footing depends upon the load carried by the column and the bearing capacity of the
supporting soil.

b) Preliminary Structural Design

In the next step the member sizes thus chosen are used to estimate the structure's
weight. The sizes of the different members of the structural framework chosen during the
planning process are calculated in the preliminary structural design phase based on theoretical
analysis, previous experience and code specifications.

the boundary Codes:

line, a combined footing or a raft footing may be provided.
National Building Code of the Philippines
ASEP, National Structural Code of the Philippines, 2015

 Selecting proper type of footing.

c) Estimation of Load
isLoad
a tendency of theincludes
estimation load onconsidering
the slab by the sideloads
all the of support to get transferred
on structure that could to
bethe nearer
expected
support causing tension at top across this short supporting
to act on. Loading is based on codes and local specification. edge.

Since, there does not exist any steel at top across this short edge in a one way slab
interconnecting the slab and the side beam, cracks develop at the top along that edge. The4
cracks may run through the depth of the slab due to differential deflection between the
slab and the supporting short edge beam/wall.
Structural Theory 1

According to Manish Singh, any external force or moment or couple is said to be a

load when these are acting on the member during its functionality and as a result of the
construction process. https://www.civilsimplified.com/resources/What-is-load

Live Load refers to loads that change rapidly, or that may change, such as people
walking around a building (occupancy) or movable items as furniture. Live loads are
variable, depending on use and capacity. Design codes, however, provide the equivalent
loads for various structures.

NSCP Live Loads Table 205-1 – Minimum Uniform and Concentrated Live Loads,
Table 205-3 – Minimum Roof Live Loads

Dead load refers to weights of all materials permanently connected to the structure.
Dead loads are determined from the sizes of the members and approximate densities of
material.

Unit weight of building materials can be estimated in accordance with NSCP Dead
loads. Table 204-2 Minimum Design Dead Loads (kPa)

Other Loads (based on NSCP)

Soil Loads and Hydrostatic Pressure (H)

Loads due to Fluids (F)
Rain Loads (R)
Flood Loads (F)
Self-straining Loads
Wind Loads (NSCP Section 207)- Analytical technique for evaluating wind loads
on structures of all sizes, configurations, and conditions of exposure can be used.

Live loads are variable as they depend on usage and capacity. However, design
d) codes can provide
Structural equivalent loads for various structures.
Analysis

The values
Loads of thebyloads
prescribed codesare
areused in structural
empirical analysis methods
and conservative based ontoexperience
assess theand
stresses
or stress effects in the
accepted practice. members and the deflections at different points of the structure. In order
to better examine a system, some idealizations must be made as to how the members are
supported and bound together, and the forces within the members and their displacement.
ive Load?
Thus, structural analysis is a process or technique by which we determine how a
structure or a member of a structure performs when subjected to certain loads.
Refers to loads that do, or can, change over time, such as people walking around a
building (occupancy) or movable objects such as furniture.
In other words finding out internal forces (axial force, shear
Live loadsforce, moment), stress, strain, deflection etc in a structure
are variable as they depend on usage and capacity.
under applied load conditions.
However, design
codes can provide equivalent loads for various structures.
e) Safety and Serviceability Checks
Loads prescribed by codes are empirical and conservative based on experience and
accepted
Analysispractice.
findings are used to determine whether the system meets the protection and
serviceability criteria of the design codes or not. If these criteria are met, the design drawings
and construction specifications will be drawn up and the construction process will begin.

5
Structural Theory 1

f. Revised Structural Design

If the code specifications are not met, the member sizes will be adjusted and phases
(c) through (e) will be repeated until all the criteria for safety and serviceability are met.

Detailing, Drawing and

Preparation of schedules

Therefore structural design follows a sequence of successive approximations in which

each cycle involves structural analysis.

1.2 Structural Forms

Structural system, the specific method of assembling and installing structural elements
of a building in building construction so that they support and transfer applied loads safely to
the ground without exceeding the permissible stresses in the members.

The term 'structure' refers to something that is built or designed with a fixed position on
the ground from interrelated elements.

Classification of structures: Please visit this website for more details

(https://theconstructor.org/building/12-basic-components-building-structure/34024/ 0).

Overall building forms:

 Low-rise  Supertall  Hyperbolic

 Multi-storey  Megatall. Paraboloid
 Mid-rise  Super-slender  Conoid
 High rise.  Megastructure  Tower
 Ground scraper  Anticlastic  Dome
 Skyscraper  Synclastic 

1.3 Structural elements:

The 12 essential components of a building structure are described below.

 Roof-the roof of a building frame. It spans the building's top face. Roofs may either be
flat or sloped, depending on the area's location and environmental conditions.

 Parapet-are short walls which extend above the slab of the roof. Parapets to flat roofs
are built. It serves as a wall of protection for people who use the roof.
 Lintels-are placed over wall openings such as doors, windows etc. These frameworks
support the wall load that passes over the opening. Typically lintels are made using
reinforced concrete cement. Lintels can be built in residential buildings either from
concrete or from bricks.
 Beams and slabs form the horizontal members in a building which resist vertical loads,
shear forces and moments of bending. Beams transmit loads that placed endpoints
such as walls, columns, foundations, etc. along their length.

6
 Types of Beams based on support conditions:
Simply supported beam
Fixed beam
Cantilever beam
Continuous beam
Propped beam
 Columns- are vertical sections installed above ground level. Columns can be of two
types: Architectural columns and structural columns. Architectural columns are meant
to promote the esthetics of the structure, whereas a structural column takes up the load
from the above slab and moves to the base safely.
 Damp Proof Course (DPC)-is a layer of waterproofing material that is added to the
basement floor to keep surface water from growing through the walls. The walls are
built above DPC. It is typically applied at the basement levels, limiting moisture
movement across walls and floors.
 Walls-are components that support the roof vertically. It can be made of stones , bricks,
concrete blocks and so on. Walls offer protection against wind, sunshine, rain etc.
Openings for ventilation and access to the building are provided inside the walls.
 Floor-is a laid surface on the top of the plinth. A variety of materials such as tiles,
granites, marbles, concrete etc. may be used to floor. The soil needs to be fully
compacted and graded before flooring.
 Stair-is a series of steps linking various floors within a building structure. The room that
a staircase occupies is called the stairway. Staircase is an essential building feature
that allows to travel between two floors. Improperly constructed staircases can cause
serious injury and even death if the necessary standards and building codes are not
properly followed.
 Plinth Beam-is a support structure built at or above ground level to take up the load of
the wall that falls over it.
 Foundation-is a structural unit that distributes the load from the superstructure evenly
to the underlying soil. This is the first structural unit built for any building. A strong
foundation avoids building settlement.

https://theconstructor.org/building/12-basic-components-building-structure/34024/

7
1.4 Building Materials

Many types of building materials, such as concrete, steel , wood, and masonry, are
used in building. Material has different characteristics such as weight, strength, durability and
cost which makes it suitable for certain applications. The choice of building materials is based
on cost and reliability to withstand the loads and stresses that work on the structure.

Building materials production is a well-established and regulated industry able to

provide our constructions with a secure supply of high quality materials. Production of
structural-grade building materials is subject to quality control procedures which include
inspection and testing in accordance with national standards and scientific test methods.

Part of the duties of the civil engineer would be to establish the project specifications
including all the building materials and applicable standards and requirement to be met. This
is a vital part of any project that sets out the nature and properties of the materials to be used.

 Concrete is a construction substance formed from cement, sand aggregates and

crushed stone and water. The properties of the concrete depend on the proportions used in
the design of the mix. For concrete suppliers, therefore, it is a common practice to include
material properties and test results for each concrete patch.

 Steel is one of the best construction materials used in both tension and compression,
with outstanding strength. It is ideal for structural systems of buildings or sizeable
manufacturing facilities for its strong strength-to - weight ratio.Structural steel is available in
standard shapes such are angles, I beams and C-channels. These shapes can be welded or
connected using high-strength bolts and build structures which can resist high large forces and
deformations.

Steel installation is less time-consuming than concrete installation, and can be installed
in any area.

 Wood is a construction material that provides cold insulation that makes it an excellent
building material for dwellings and residential buildings.

Wood pieces used in construction are machine-planed and sawn into certain
dimensional specifications. Dimensional lumber comes in widely available sections such as
2”x4”, 2”x6”, etc. This is commonly used in the construction of walls and floors.

Due to its light weight, wood is not the most suitable building material for carrying
heavier loads and is not ideal for long spans. Wood is seldom used for foundations and
basement walls, as its interaction with soil / moisture that can be fairly expensive requires
pressure treatment.

 Masonry construction usually uses mortar to bind the individual units together. The most
common material use in the design of masonry structures is concrete block, with vertical steel
reinforcing if required. Masonry is strong in resisting compression loads/stresses which makes
it ideal to use for the construction of load bearing walls. Other masonry materials include brick,
stone and glass block.. Masonry is a material which is highly resilient and fire-resistant, but it
can be sensitive to the performance of mortar and workmanship.

8
 Usually, the structural framework consists of concrete floors, which are protected by a
mixture of masonry and reinforced concrete walls depending on the number of floors and the
load upon on walls. Masonry walls with windows or openings require horizontal beams or lintels
over the openings that hold a wall’s weight above. Masonry is less suitable for wide openings
in walls than concrete.

Visit this website for some illustrations.

https://structuralengineeringbasics.com/what-types-of-
construction-building-materials/ ret. 7/10/20

1.5 Nature of Loads

The types of loads that act on building as well as

other structures can be classified mainly as vertical loads,
horizontal loads, and longitudinal loads. The vertical loads
are dead loads, live loads and
impact load. https://theconstructor.org/structural-
engg/types-of-loads-on-structure/1698
ret. 7/9/20)

1.6 Building Code

The next page shows a portion of the National Structural Code of the Philippines
(NSCP)
I purposely include this attachment of NSCP Loadings in this lecture notes so that you
will be familiar with the NSCP codes and specifications being used by the civil engineers in the
analysis and design of structures and this can be used also as a reference if there is a need.
But this is only for purposes of illustration. ⠀

ASEP, NSCP 2015

9
 ASEP, NSCP 2015

Assessments:

1. Be ready for Quiz 1:

(Paper-Pencil Test on the terminologies and characteristics of common structural elements

that comprise typical buildings and bridges and the various types of loads to be considered in
the analysis.

10
 Activity 1.

Using a short bond paper with 0.02 borderline, prepare a preliminary plan of any
two story structural building with complete dimensions. Make sure to follow the
building code for the dimensions and be specific with the occupancy and its
geographical location. Use any convenient scale.

Try to show good drafsmanship.

References:
Books:

 ASEP, NSCP 2015

 Aslam Kassimali, Sructural Analysis, 2nd ed.
 R.C. Hibeller, Structural Analysis 8th ed.

Internet:
 https://theconstructor.org/structural-engg/types-structural-design-process/1673/ ret.
7/10/20
 https://www.civilsimplified.com/resources/What-is-load
 https://structuralengineeringbasics.com/what-types-of-construction-building-
materials/ ret. 7/10/20WS 4- https://theconstructor.org/building/12-basic-
components-building-structure/34024/ 7/10/20
 https://theconstructor.org/structural-engg/types-of-loads-on-structure/1698 ret.
7/9/20)

11