Engineering Mechanics Module 2

ENGINEERING MECHANICS – STATICS OF RIGID BODIES
MODULE 2
I. TOPICS/SUBJECT MATTERS
4. Analysis of Structures
4.1 Types of elementary structures
4.2. Nature of supports and their reactions
4.3. Structural stability/instability
4.4. Static indeterminacy of structures-external and internal
4.5. Analysis of plane trusses; methods of joints; methods of sections
4.6. Analysis of pin-jointed frames—method of members
II. LESSON PRESENTATION
ANALYSIS OF STRUCTURES
Learning outcomes:
a. Determine the elements of structures, classification and its purposes.
The Analysis of structures is the process by which we determine how the

loads applied to a structure are disturbed throughout the structure. Our
purpose is to determine the forces acting in the bars and upon the pins
or hinges of the structure.
LESSON 4.1: Types of Elementary Structures
Structure: refers to a system of connected parts that can support loads while
performing its primary functions. Structures can be classified according to their
uses:
Civil Structures - Building, bridges, towers etc. are used by civilians or
general public.
Military Structures-ships, aircraft frames, tanks etc. used by the military
etc.
Normally all static/stationary structures used by the common public are designed
by CIVIL Engineers. Engineers must design the structure for:
✓ Safety
✓ Serviceability
✓ Aesthetics
✓ Economy
✓ Environmental conditions
Engineers must consider several possibilities for a structure before selecting a final
design based on several performance criteria.
DESIGN PROCESS - creative and technical

• Requires a fundamental knowledge of material properties and mechanics
• Requires knowledge of various types of structural forms and configurations
• Calculation of loads and load effects acting on the structure
• Knowledge of structural analysis to calculated design forces
• Requires knowledge of designing structural members and connections
• Ability to evaluate designs and consider other option.
CLASSIFICATION OF STRUCTURES
An engineer must be able to classify structures according to their form and
function and must also be able to recognize various types of elements composing a
structure.
1|ENGINEERING MECHANICS -STATICS OF RIGID BODIES

STRUCTURAL SYSTEM-composed of structural members joined together by
structural connections. Each structural system may be composed of one or more of
the four basic types of structures. The four basic types of structures are:
(a) Trusses
(b) Cables and Arches
(c) Frames
(d) Surface Structures
a. TRUSSES
Trusses consist of slender members, arranged in a triangular pattern.
Planar trusses are composed of members that lie in the same plane. They are
frequently used to support bridges and roofs.
Space trusses have members extending in three dimensions and are suitable for
transmission line towers etc.
• All members are connected together by PINS, which are free to rotate.
• Loads that cause the entire truss to bend are converted into axial tensile and
compressive forces in the members.
• Truss members are usually subjected to axial forces only.
• Truss members use less material to support a given load. But, they require a lot
of fabrication.
FIGURE 4.1(a): TRUSSES
b. CABLES AND ARCHES

Cables: Cable type structures are used to span long distances; they are usually
flexible and carry their loads in tension. The external load is usually applied
vertically (not along the axis of the cable). As a result, the cable deforms with SAG.
• Cables are commonly used to support bridges and building roofs.

• Cables have an advantage over beams and trusses, especially for spans greater
than 45m.
• Past and future uses -Rope bridges and Composite Cables
• Cables are limited by their SAG and methods of anchorage.
FIGURE 4.1(b): CABLE
Example 4.1-1
Determine the tension in each segment of the cable shown in Fig. 4.1-1a. Also, what is the
dimension h?
SOLUTION
By inspection, there are four unknown external reactions ( 𝐴𝑥, 𝐴𝑦, 𝐷𝑥, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐷𝑦 ) and three
unknown cable tensions, one in each cable segment. These seven unknowns along with the
sag h can be determined from the eight available equilibrium equations (∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0, ∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0)
applied to points A through D. A more direct approach to the solution is to recognize that
the slope of cable CD is specified, and so a free-body diagram of the entire cable is shown in
Fig. 4.1-1b. We can obtain the tension in segment CD as follows:
Now we can analyze the equilibrium of points C and

B in sequence. Point C (Fig. 4.1-1c);
Point B (Fig. 4.1-1d);
Hence, from Fig. 4.1-1a,
h = 2 tan 53.8o = 𝟐. 𝟕𝟒 𝐦𝐞𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐬

Self – Checked Exercise 4.1
1. Determine the tension in each segment of the cable and the distance 𝑦𝐷 .
Answer:
An arch has the reverse curvature of a cable and it achieves

its strength in compression. The arch must be rigid in order
to maintain its shape. It is primarily subjected to
compression (but also some shear and moment).
• Arches are used in bridge structures, dome roofs, and openings in masonry walls.
FIGURE 4.1(c): ARCHES
are composed of beams and columns that are connected

together; they are commonly used in building structures.
Steel frames and Concrete frames are the most commonly
used buildings
➢ Planar (2D) frame with all members in one plane
➢ Space (3D) frame with all members in more than one plane.
There are different types of frames depending on the connections between

beams and columns.
✓ Braced frames - All connections between beams and columns are pinned
and there are diagonal bracing members
✓ Moment resisting frames - Connections between beams and columns
are rigid and there is no need for diagonal bracing members.

FIGURE 4.1(d): FRAMES
Membrane, plate, or shell type

structures with much less
thickness as compared to its other dimensions. The structure is subjected to in-
plane (tension or compression forces mainly).
Surface structures may be made of rigid material such as reinforced concrete.

• The structures may be shaped as folded plates, cylinders, etc.
• They are referred to as thin plates or shells.
CLASSIFICATION OF STRUCTURAL MEMBERS

There are five basic types of structural members. These are as follows:
✓ Tension Members or Tie Rods
✓ Compression Members or Columns or Struts
✓ Flexural Members or Beams
✓ Members subjected to combined loading or Beam-Columns.
1) Tension Members
o Structural members subjected to tensile forces are often referred to as

tie rods.
o These members are usually slender and often chosen from rods, bars,
angles.
o They occur most commonly in truss structures and in braced frames.
2) Columns and Struts

o Column members are generally vertical and resist axial compressive
loads.
o Tubes and I-sections are often used for metal columns.
o Circular and square cross-sections with reinforcing bars are used for
concrete compression members.
o Compression members that occur in trusses are usually called struts.
They may be vertical or inclined depending on the layout of the truss.
3) Beams and flexural members

• Beams are usually straight horizontal members that are used primarily to
carry vertical loads. Beams are usually classified according to their support
conditions. When the beam cross-section varies along the length it is called as
a tapered or haunched beam.
• Beams are primarily designed to resist bending moment and shear force.
The optimized cross-section looks like an I-shape. The horizontal plates are
called flanges and the vertical plate is called 'web'.
• Concrete beams are generally rectangular in cross-section since it
is easy to construct this form directly in the field.
• Concrete as a material is weak in resisting tension. Therefore, steel
'reinforcing rods' are cast into the beam within regions of the cross-
section subjected to tension.

4) Beam-column members
• Columns that are subjected to flexural forces (bending moment) in

a d d i t i o n to axial forces are called beam-columns.
• Steel beam-columns are also usually designed with I shaped sections.
• Concrete beam-columns are similar to concrete columns, but
reinforcing steel is added to resist the additional bending moment.
The building structure must be designed to carry or resist the loads that are
applied to it over its design-life. The building structure will be subjected to
loads that have been categorized as follows:
a) Dead Loads :
These are permanent loads acting on the structure. These include the
self-weight of structural and non-structural components. They are
usually gravity loads.
b) Live Loads:
These are non-permanent loads acting on the structure due to its use
and occupancy. The magnitude and location of live loads changes frequently over
the design life. Hence, they cannot be estimated with the same accuracy as dead
loads.
c) Wind and Seismic Loads:
They cause horizontal lateral loads (forces) on the structure, which can be
critical for tall buildings. Wind loads also cause uplift of light roof systems.
d) Snow Loads:
These are vertical gravity loads due to snow, which are subjected to
variability due to seasons and drift.
e) Roof Live Load:

These are live loads on the roof caused during the design life by planters, people,
or by workers, equipment, and materials during maintenance.
LESSON 4.2: Nature of supports and their reactions
Learning outcomes:
Defined the types of supports, classification, purposes and its application.
Though there are many types of supports, yet the following are important from the subject
point of view:
1. Simple supports or knife edge supports
2. Roller support
3. Pin-joint (or hinged) support
4. Smooth surface support
5. Fixed or built in support
1. Simple supports or knife edge supports

A beam supported on the knife edges A and B is shown in Fig. 4.2-1(a). The reactions at
A and B in case of knife edge support will be normal to the surface of the beam. The
reaction R A and RB with free-body diagram of the beam is shown in Fig.4.2-1 (b)

FIGURE 4.2-1: Simple supports or knife edge supports
2. Roller support
Are free to rotate and translate along the surface upon which the roller rests. The
surface can be horizontal, vertical, or slope at any angle. It allows thermal expansion
and contraction of the span and prevents damage on other structural members such as
a pinned support. The typical application of roller supports is in large bridges.
FIGURE 4.2 (c): Roller support
3. Pin-joint (or hinged) support

A beam, which is hinged (or pin-joint) at A, is shown in Fig.4.2 (d). The reaction at the
hinged end may be either vertical or inclined depending upon the type of loading. If the
load is vertical, then the reaction at the hinged end will be inclined.
FIGURE 4.2 (d): Pin-joint (or hinged) support
4. Smooth surface support

Fig.4.2-2 shows a body in contact with a smooth surface. The reaction will always act
normal to the support as shown in Fig.4.2-2 (e) and 4.2-2(f).

e f
FIGURE 4.2-2: Smooth surface support
Fig.4.2-2(g) shows a rod AB resting inside a sphere, whose surface are smooth. Here the
rod becomes body and sphere becomes surface. The reactions on the ends of the rod
(i.e., at point A and B) will be normal to the sphere surface at A and B. The normal at
any point of the surface of the sphere will always pass through the centre of the sphere.
Hence reactions R A and RB will have directions AO and BO respectively as shown in
Fig.4.2-2(g).
5. Fixed or built in support

Fig.4.2 (h) shows the end A of a beam, which is fixed. Hence the support at A is known
as a fixed support. In case of fixed support, the reaction will be inclined. Also the fixed
support will provide a couple.
FIGURE 4.2(h): Fixed or built in support
TYPES OF LOADING
The following are the important types of loading:
a) Concentrated or point load,
b) Uniformly distributed load, and
c) Uniformly varying load.
A. Concentrated or point load.

Fig.4.2 (i) shows a beam AB, which is simply supported at the ends A and B. A load
W is acting at the point C. This load is known as point load (or concentrated load).
Hence any load acting at a point on a beam, is known as point load.
In actual practice, it is not possible to apply a load at a point (i.e., at mathematical

point) as it must have some contact area. But this area in comparison to the length
of the beam is very small (or area is negligible)

FIGURE 4.2(i): Concentrated or point load
B. Uniformly distributed load.

If a beam is loaded in such a way, that each unit length of the beam carries
same intensity of the load, then that type of load is known as uniformly
distributed load (which is written as U.D.L.). Fig.4.2 (j) shows a beam AB, which
carries a uniformly distributed load.
For finding the reactions the total distributed load is assumed to act at the C.G.
of the load.
FIGURE 4.2(k): Uniformly Distributed load.
C. Uniformly varying load.

Fig.4.2.(l) shows a beam AB, which carries load in such a way that the rate of
loading on each unit length of the beam varies uniformly. This type of load is
known as uniformly varying load. The total load on the beam is equal to the
area of the load diagram. The total load acts at the C.G. of the load diagram.
FIGURE 4.2(l): Uniformly varying load.
LESSON 4.3: Structural stability/instability
Is a field of mechanics that studies

the behavior of structures under
compression. When a structure is
subjected to a sufficiently high compressive force (or stress), it has a tendency to
lose its stiffness, experience a noticeably change in geometry, and become
unstable. When instability occurs, the structure loses its capacity to carry the
applied loads and is incapable of maintaining a stable equilibrium configuration.
Examples of structural instability include: buckling of a column under a

compressive axial force, lateral torsional buckling (LTB) of a beam under a
transverse load, sideways buckling of an unbraced frame under a set of
concentric column forces, buckling of a plate under a set of in-plane forces, and
buckling of a shell under longitudinal or axial stress, etc.
Types of Instability
Instability can generally be classified into: Bifurcation instability, limit point
instability, finite disturbance instability, and snap-through instability. A short
description of each is given below.
1. Bifurcation Instability
Bifurcation instability refers to the scenario when deformation that occurs in one
direction suddenly changes to another direction. An example is that of a perfectly
straight column subject to a concentric compressive load. When the load is first applied,
the column shortens or experiences axial deformation in the direction of the applied
force. When the applied load gradually increases, there comes a point when the mode of
deformation suddenly switches from one of axial to one of lateral in which the column
buckles in a direction perpendicular to the direction of the applied force. The load at
which this occurs is referred to as the bifurcation, or critical, load.
Bifurcation instability can be symmetric or asymmetric. As shown in Figure 4.3.(a), for

symmetric bifurcation the secondary equilibrium path (i.e., the equilibrium path that
corresponds to the buckled configuration of the structure) is symmetric about the
primary equilibrium path (i.e., the equilibrium path that corresponds to the pre-buckled
configuration of the structure). The symmetric bifurcation is stable if the secondary
equilibrium path rises above the critical load (Curve a), and it is unstable if the
secondary equilibrium path drops below the critical load (Curve b). Examples of
structures that exhibit stable symmetric bifurcation are elastic buckling of a perfectly
straight slender column subjected to a concentric compressive force and a geometrically
perfect thin plate subjected to an in-plane compressive force. An example of unstable
symmetric bifurcation is the elastic buckling of a guyed tower.
In asymmetric bifurcation, the secondary equilibrium path is not symmetric about the
primary equilibrium path (Curve c). An example of asymmetric bifurcation is a
geometrically perfect L-shaped frame subject to a concentric column axial force. The
secondary equilibrium path drops below or rises above the critical load depending on
whether the frame buckles in a direction that results in the beam shear acting down or
up on the column, respectively.
FIGURE 4.3(a): Bifurcation Instability
2. Limit Point Instability
Limit point instability refers to the scenario when a single deformation mode exists
throughout the load history. The deformation increases when the load increases from
start of loading to final failure. The load-deflection behavior of a structure that
experiences limit point instability is shown in Figure 4.3(b). The maximum load that the
structure can carry before failure is referred to as the limit load. Examples of structures
that exhibit limit point instability are geometrically imperfect (crooked) columns subject
to concentric compressive forces, and frames subject to gravity loadings that are eccentric
to the longitudinal axes of the columns.
10 | E N G I N E E R I N G M E C H A N I C S - S T A T I C S O F R I G I D B O D I E S
FIGURE 4.3(b): Limit Point Instability
3. Finite Disturbance Instability
Finite disturbance instability occurs when a compressive force is applied along the
longitudinal or axial direction of a thin-walled cylinder shell. As depicted schematically in
Figure 4.3 (c), the load deflection curve rises to the (theoretical) critical load Ncr, and then
drops suddenly to a lower value in order for the structure to maintain equilibrium. The
value of Ncr has been shown by Donnell and Wan to be very sensitive to the initial
geometrical imperfections present in the shell. The slightest imperfections drastically
reduce Ncr.
FIGURE 4.3(c): Finite Disturbance Instability
4. Snap-through Instability
Snap-through instability is characterized by a sudden increase in deformation under a

constant load.
For some systems, such as in-plane buckling of a shallow truss or arch subject to a
transverse load, and buckling of a shallow spherical cap subject to a radial load, once a
load reaches a certain value as denoted by point A in Figure 4.3(d), the system can
maintain equilibrium only if the displacement snaps suddenly from point A to point B as
shown by the solid horizontal line.
The dotted curved line represents an unstable equilibrium state and can be observed only if
the system is subjected to an ideal displacement controlled condition.
FIGURE 4.3(d): Snap-through instability
LESSON 4.4: Static Indeterminacy of structures-external and internal
Learning outcomes:
a. Review of the concepts of determinate and indeterminate structures, the
unstable systems and the degree of static indeterminacy for both external and
internal.
b. Identify statically indeterminate structures.
If the number of independent static equilibrium equations is not sufficient for solving
for all the external and internal forces (support reactions and member forces,
respectively) in a system, then the system is said to be statically indeterminate. A
statically determinate system, as against an indeterminate one, is that for which one
can obtain all the support reactions and internal member forces using only the static
equilibrium equations. For example, for the system in Figure 1.10, idealized as one-
dimensional, the number of independent static equilibrium equations is just 1 (
𝑅𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅𝐵 ), while the total number of unknown support reactions are 2 ( ∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0), that is
more than the number of equilibrium equations available. Therefore, the system is
considered statically indeterminate. The following figures illustrate some example of
statically determinate Figure 4.4(a) and indeterminate structures Figures 4.4(b).
FIGURE 4.4(a): Statically determinate structures
FIGURE 4.4(b): Statically Indeterminate Structures
The equilibrium equations are described as the necessary and sufficient conditions to
maintain the equilibrium of a body. However, these equations are not always able to
provide all the information needed to obtain the unknown support reactions and internal
forces. The number of external supports and internal members in a system may be more
than the number that is required to maintain its equilibrium configuration. Such systems
are known as indeterminate systems and one has to use compatibility conditions and
constitutive relations in addition to equations of equilibrium to solve for the unknown
forces in that system.
For an indeterminate system, some support(s) or internal member(s) can be removed
without disturbing its equilibrium. These additional supports and members are known as
redundant. A determinate system has the exact number of supports and internal members
that it needs to maintain the equilibrium and no redundant. If a system has less than
required number of supports and internal members to maintain equilibrium, then it is
considered unstable.
For example, the two-dimensional propped cantilever system in Figure 4.4(c) is an

indeterminate system because it possesses one support more than that are necessary to
maintain its equilibrium. If we remove the roller support at end B Figure 4.4(d), it still
maintains equilibrium. One should note that here it has the same number of unknown
support reactions as the number of independent static equilibrium equations. The
unknown
Reactions 𝐻𝐴 , 𝑉𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑀𝐴 are, and Figure 4.4 (e) and the equilibrium equations are:
∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0 Equation 4.4 -1
∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0 Equation 4.4 - 2
∑ 𝑀𝑧 (𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡) = 0
An indeterminate system is often described with the number of redundant it

possesses and this number is known as its degree of static indeterminacy. Thus,
mathematically:
Degree of static indeterminacy = Total number of unknown (external and internal) forces
- Number of independent equations of equilibrium
It is very important to know exactly the number of unknown forces and the
number of independent equilibrium equations. Let us investigate the
determinacy/indeterminacy of a few two-dimensional pin-jointed truss systems.
Let m be the number of members in the truss system and n be the number of pin
(hinge) joints connecting these members. Therefore, there will be m number of
unknown internal forces (each is a two-force member) and 2 n numbers of
independent joint equilibrium equations (∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0 and∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0) for each joint, based
on its free body diagram). If the support reactions involve r unknowns, then:
Total number of unknown forces = m + r
Total number of independent equilibrium equations = 2 n
So, degree of static indeterminacy = (m + r) - 2 n
For the trusses in Figures 4.4 (f), b & c, we have:
4.4. (f): m = 17, n = 10, and r = 3. So, degree of static indeterminacy = 0, that
means it is a statically determinate system.
4.4. (g): m = 18, n = 10, and r = 3. So, degree of static indeterminacy = 1.
4.4(h): m = 17, n = 10, and r = 4. So, degree of static indeterminacy = 1.
It should be noted that in case of 4.4(g), we have one member more than what is
needed for a determinate system (i.e., 4.4(f)), whereas 1.14(h) has one unknown
reaction component more than what is needed for a determinate system.
Sometimes, these two different types of redundancy are treated differently; as
internal indeterminacy and external indeterminacy. Note that a structure can be
indeterminate either externally or internally or both externally and internally.
We can group external and internal forces (and equations) separately, which will
help us understand easily the cases of external and internal indeterminacy. There
are r numbers of external unknown forces, which are the support reactions
components. We can treat 3 system equilibrium equations as external equations.
This will lead us to:
Degree of external static indeterminacy = r - 3.
The number of internal unknown forces is m and we are left with (2n-3)
equilibrium equations. The 3-system equilibrium equation used earlier were not
independent of joint equilibrium equations, so we are left with (2n-3)
Degree of internal static indeterminacy = m - (2 n - 3).
Please note that the above equations are valid only for two-dimensional pin-jointed
truss systems. For example, for three-dimensional (“space”) pin-jointed truss
systems, the degree of static indeterminacy is given by (m + r - 3 n). Similarly, the
expression will be different for systems with rigid (fixed) joints, frame members, etc.
LESSON 4.5: Analysis of plane trusses; methods of joints; methods of sections
Learning outcomes:
a. Draw clear and appropriate Free – body diagrams

b. Demonstrate an understanding of two forces and three force members, and
the assumptions that are required for truss analysis.
c. Analyze plane trusses
d. Analyze trusses using the method of joints and sections
is a structure composed of members fastened together

in such a way to resist change in shape; it is a rigid
structure. The purpose of a truss is to support a larger
load or span a greater distance than any individual
member from which the truss may be built. To make a
structure rigid, its member must be fastened together
in such a way as to prevent any movement between them. A pin – connected
structure meeting this condition is shown in the Figure 4.5(a). This structure is
composed of three bars. A pin-connected structure composed of four bar arranged
as shown in Figure 4.5(b) is not inherently rigid; it will collapse as indicated under
the action of the applied forces.
In order to analyze or
design a truss, it is
necessary to determine the
force in each of its
members. One way to do this is to use the method of joints. This method is based on the
fact that if the entire truss is in equilibrium, then each of its joints is also in equilibrium.
Therefore, if the free-body diagram of each joint is drawn, the force equilibrium equations
can then be used to obtain the member forces acting on each joint. Since the members of
a plane truss are straight two-force members lying in a single plane, each joint is
subjected to a force system that is coplanar and concurrent. As a result, only ∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0 and
∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0 = 0 need to be satisfied for equilibrium.
For example, consider the pin at joint B of the truss in Fig. 4.5(c). Three forces act on the
pin, namely, the 500-N force and the forces exerted by member’s BA and BC. The free-
body diagram of the pin is shown in Fig. 4.5(c)-b. Here, FBA is “pulling” on the pin, which
means that member BA is in tension; whereas FBC is “pushing” on the pin, and
consequently member BC is in compression. These effects are clearly demonstrated by
isolating the joint with small segments of the member connected to the pin, Fig. 4.5(c)-c.
The pushing or pulling on these small segments indicates the effect of the member being
either in compression or tension.
FIGURE 4.5 (c)
Procedures for Analysis using method of joints
1. Choose a pin or joint on which no more than two members act. When the force in
each member has been determined, it is indicated on the truss diagram by arrows
at each end of the member. These arrows act in the direction appropriate to the
force, towards the pin for compression and away from it is tension.
When the force in a member is determined and appropriate arrows are marked on
the original truss diagram, the member is called a marked member
2. Draw the free-body diagram of the pin having only two unmarked members. Assuming the
forces in the marked members to be either tension or compression. Solve the resulting
equilibrium problem of concurrent forces for the unknown forces. If a negative value is
obtained for any for any force, the result will be correct in magnitude, but opposite in
action to that assumed.
3. After determining the forces at a pin, mark the original truss diagram with appropriate
arrows at each end of the member whose force you have found. Remember that the arrows
act away from the pins for tension and towards them for compression.
4. From the original truss diagram, select the next pin at which there are only two unmarked
members. Draw a new free – body diagram and determine the forces in all members,
thereby indicating that the internal forces in all members have been found.
5. In many cases it is preferable to work from one end of the truss to the middle member, and
then from the other end of the truss back towards the same mid-member. A check on the
accuracy of the calculations is obtained if the forces in the mid-member agree as
determined with these two independent methods of analysis.
Example 4.5 – 1:
Determine the force in each member of the truss shown in Fig. 4.5-1 (a) and indicate
whether the members are in tension or compression.
SOLUTION
Since we should have no more than two unknown forces at the joint
and at least one known force acting there, we will begin our analysis
at joint B.
@Joint B. The free-body diagram of the joint at B is shown in

Fig. 4.5-1 (b). Applying the equations of equilibrium, we have
+ ( →) ∑ F x = 0 ; 500 𝑁 − 𝐹𝐵𝐶 𝑠𝑖𝑛 45𝑜 = 0 𝑭𝑩𝑪 = 707.10 𝑁 (𝐶)

+(↑) ∑ Fy = 0 ; 𝐹𝐵𝐶 𝑐𝑜𝑠 45𝑜 − 𝐹𝐵𝐴 = 0 𝑭𝑩𝑨 = 500 𝑁 (𝑇)
Since the force in member BC has been calculated, we can proceed to

analyze joint C to determine the force in member CA and the support
reaction at the rocker.
@Joint C. From the free-body diagram of joint C, Fig. 4.5-1 (c), we have
+ ( →) ∑ F x = 0 ; − 𝐹𝐶𝐴 + 707.10 cos 45𝑜 𝑁 = 0 𝑭𝑪𝑨 = 500 𝑁 (𝑇)

+(↑) ∑ Fy = 0 ; 𝐶𝑦 − 707.10 sin 45𝑜 𝑁 = 0 𝑪𝒚 = 500 𝑁
@Joint A. Although it is not necessary, we can determine the components

of the support reactions at joint A using the results of FCA and FBA. From
the free-body diagram, Fig. 4.5-1 (d), we have
+ ( →) ∑ F x = 0 ; 500𝑁 − 𝐴𝑥 = 0 𝑨𝒙 = 500 𝑁
+(↑) ∑ Fy = 0 ; 500𝑁 − 𝐴𝑦 = 0 𝑨𝒚 = 500 𝑁
NOTE: The results of the analysis are summarized in Fig. 4.5-1 (e). Note
that the free-body diagram of each joint (or pin) shows the effects of
all the connected members and external forces applied to the joint,
whereas the free-body diagram of each member shows only the effects
of the end joints on the member.
FIGURE 4.5 -1
Example 4.5 – 2:
Determine the forces acting in all the members of the truss shown in Fig. 4.5 – 2 (a).
SOLUTION
By inspection, there are more than two unknowns at each
joint. Consequently, the support reactions on the truss must
first be determined. Show that they have been correctly
calculated on the free-body diagram in Fig. 4.5 – 2 (b). We
can now begin the analysis at joint C. Why?
@ Joint C. From the free-body diagram, Fig. 4.5 – 2 (c).
+ ( →) ∑ F x = 0 ; − 𝐹𝐶𝐷 cos 30𝑜 + 𝐹𝐶𝐵 sin 45𝑜 = 0

+(↑) ∑ Fy = 0 ; 1.5 𝐾𝑁 + 𝐹𝐶𝐷 sin 30𝑜 − 𝐹𝐶𝐵 cos 45𝑜 = 0
These two equations must be solved simultaneously for each

of the two unknowns. Note, however, that a direct solution for
one of the unknown forces may be obtained by applying a
force summation along an axis that is perpendicular to the
direction of the other unknown force. For example, summing
forces along the y-axis, which is perpendicular to the direction
of FCD, Fig. 4.5 – 2 (d)., yields a direct solution for FCB.
@ Joint D. We can now proceed to analyze joint D. The free-body

diagram is shown in Fig. 4.5 – 2 (e).
FIGURE 4.5 - 2
NOTE: The force in the last member, BA, can be obtained from joint B or joint A. As an
exercise, draw the free-body diagram of joint B, sum the forces in the horizontal direction,
and show that FBA = 0.776 kN (C).
1. Determine the force in each member of the truss shown in Fig.4.5 - 3.

Indicate whether the members are in tension or compression.
ANSWER:
𝐂𝐱 = 600 N
𝐂𝐲 = 200 N
𝐅𝐀𝐁 = 750 N(C)
𝐅𝐀𝐃 = 450 N (T)
𝐅𝐃𝐁 = 250 N (T)
𝐅𝐃𝐂 = 200 N (C)
𝐅𝐂𝐁 = 600 N (C)
When we need to find the force in

only a few members of a truss, we
can analyze the truss using the
method of sections. It is based on the principle that if the truss is in equilibrium then any
segment of the truss is also in equilibrium. If the forces within the members are to be
determined, then an imaginary section, indicated by the blue line, can be used to cut each
member into two parts and thereby “expose” each internal force as “external” to the free-
body diagrams shown on the right. Clearly, it can be seen that equilibrium requires that
the member in tension (T) be subjected to a “pull,” whereas the member in compression (C)
is subjected to a “push.”
The method of sections can also be used to “cut” or section the members of an entire truss.
If the section passes through the truss and the free-body diagram of either of its two parts
is drawn, we can then apply the equations of equilibrium to that part to determine the
member forces at the “cut section.” Since only three independent equilibrium equations
( ∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0, ∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0, ∑ 𝑀𝑜 = 0 ) can be applied to the free-body diagram of any segment,
then we should try to select a section that, in general, passes through not more than three
members in which the forces are unknown.
For example, consider the truss in Fig.4.5(d)-a. If the forces in members BC, GC, and GF
are to be determined, then section aa would be appropriate. The free-body diagrams of the
two segments are shown in Fig.4.5(d)-b and Fig.4.5(d)-c. Note that the line of action of each
member force is specified from the geometry of the truss, since the force in a member is
along its axis. Also, the member forces acting on one part of the truss are equal but
opposite to those acting on the other part—Newton’s third law. Members BC and GC are
assumed to be in tension since they are subjected to a “pull,” whereas GF in compression
since it is subjected to a “push.” The three unknown member forces FBC, FGC, and FGF can
be obtained by applying the three equilibrium equations to the free-body diagram in
Fig.4.5(d)-b. If, however, the free-body diagram in Fig.4.5(d)-c is considered, the three
support reactions 𝑫𝑥, 𝑫𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑬𝑥 will have to be known, because only three equations of
equilibrium are available. (This, of course, is done in the usual manner by considering a
free-body diagram of the entire truss.)
Example 4.5 – 3:
Determine the force in members GE, GC, and BC of the truss shown in Fig. 4.5-3a.
Indicate whether the members are in tension or compression.
SOLUTION
Section aa in Fig. 4.5-3a has been chosen since it cuts through the three members whose
forces are to be determined. In order to use the method of sections, however, it is first
necessary to determine the external reactions at A or D. Why? A free-body diagram of the
entire truss is shown in Fig. 4.5-3b. Applying the equations of equilibrium, we have
Free-Body Diagram. For the analysis the free-body diagram of the left portion of the
sectioned truss will be used, since it involves the least number of forces, Fig. 4.5-3c.
Equations of Equilibrium. Summing moments about point G eliminates FGE and FGC and
yields a direct solution for FBC.
In the same manner, by summing moments about point

C we obtain a direct solution for FGE.
Since FBC and FGE have no vertical components, summing forces in the y direction directly
yields FGC, i.e.,
NOTE: Here it is possible to tell, by inspection, the proper direction for each
unknown member force. For example, ∑ 𝑀𝑐 = 0 requires FGE to be compressive
because it must balance the moment of the 300-N force about C.
Example 4.5 – 4:
Determine the force in member CF of the truss shown in Fig. 4.5-4a. Indicate whether the
member is in tension or compression. Assume each member is pin connected.
SOLUTION
Free-Body Diagram. Section aa in Fig. 4.5-4a will be used since this section will “expose”
the internal force in member CF as “external” on the free-body diagram of either the right or
left portion of the truss. It is first necessary, however, to determine the support reactions
on either the left or right side. Verify the results shown on the free-body diagram in Fig.
4.5-4b. The free-body diagram of the right portion of the truss, which is the easiest to
analyze, is shown in Fig. 4.5-4b. There are three unknowns, FFG, FCF, and FCD.
Equations of Equilibrium. We will apply the moment equation about point O in order to
eliminate the two unknowns FFG and FCD. The location of point O measured from E can be
determined from proportional triangles, i.e., 4/(4 + 𝑥) = 6/(8 + 𝑥), 𝑥 = 4 𝑚. Or, stated
in another manner, the slope of member GF has a drop of 2 m to a horizontal distance of 4
m. Since FD is 4 m, Fig. 6–17 c, then from D to O the distance must be 8 m.
An easy way to determine the moment of FCF about point O is to use the principle of
transmissibility and slide FCF to point C, and then resolve FCF into its two rectangular
components. We have
2. Determine the force in member EB of the roof truss shown in Fig. 4.5 - 4. Indicate
whether the member is in tension or compression.
ANSWER:
LESSON 4.6: Analysis of pin-jointed frames — method of members
Learning outcomes:
a. Draw clear and appropriate Free – body diagrams

b. Demonstrate an understanding of two forces and three force members, and
the assumptions that are required for pin – jointed frames analysis.
c. Analyze trusses using the method of members
are two types of

structures which are
often composed of pin
connected multiforce
members, i.e., members that are subjected to more than two forces. Frames are
used to support loads, whereas machines contain moving parts and are designed to
transmit and alter the effect of forces. Provided a frame or machine contains no
more supports or members than are necessary to prevent its collapse, the forces
acting at the joints and supports can be determined by applying the equations of
equilibrium to each of its members. Once these forces are obtained, it is then
possible to design the size of the members, connections, and supports using the
theory of mechanics of materials and an appropriate engineering design code.
Free-Body Diagrams. In order to determine the forces acting at the joints and
supports of a frame or machine, the structure must be disassembled and the free-
body diagrams of its parts must be drawn. The following important points must be
observed:
1. Isolate each part by drawing its outlined shape. Then show all the forces
and/or couple moments that act on the part.
2. Identify all the two-force members in the structure and represent their free-
body diagrams as having two equal but opposite collinear forces acting at
their points of application.
3. Forces common to any two contacting members act with equal magnitudes
but opposite sense on the respective members. If the two members are
treated as a “system” of connected members, then these forces are “internal”
and are not shown on the free-body diagram of the system; however, if the
free-body diagram of each member is drawn, the forces are “external” and
must be shown as equal in magnitude and opposite in direction on each of
the two free-body diagrams.
EXAMPLE 4.6 - 1
Draw the free-body diagram of each part of the smooth piston and link mechanism
used to crush recycled cans, Fig. 4.6 -1 a.
FIGURE 4.6 – 1
SOLUTION
By inspection, member AB is a two-force member. The free-body diagrams of the
three parts are shown in Fig. 4.6 -1 b. Since the pins at B and D connect only two
parts together, the forces there are shown as equal but opposite on the separate
free-body diagrams of their connected members. In particular, four components of
force act on the piston: Dx and Dy represent the effect of the pin (or lever EBD), Nw
is the resultant force of the wall support, and P is the resultant compressive force
caused by the can C. The directional sense of each of the unknown forces is
assumed, and the correct sense will be established after the equations of
equilibrium are applied.
NOTE: A free-body diagram of the entire assembly is shown in Fig. 4.6 -1 c. Here
the forces between the components are internal and are not shown on the free-
body diagram.
The joint reactions on frames or machines (structures) composed of multi-force
members can be determined using the following procedure.
Free-Body Diagram.
o Draw the free-body diagram of the entire frame or machine, a portion of it, or each
of its members. The choice should be made so that it leads to the most direct
solution of the problem.
o When the free-body diagram of a group of members of a frame or machine is drawn,
the forces between the connected parts of this group are internal forces and are not
shown on the free-body diagram of the group.
o Forces common to two members which are in contact act with equal magnitude but
opposite sense on the respective free-body diagrams of the members.
o Two-force members, regardless of their shape, have equal but opposite collinear
forces acting at the ends of the member.
o In many cases it is possible to tell by inspection the proper sense of the unknown
forces acting on a member; however, if this seems difficult, the sense can be
assumed.
o Remember that a couple moment is a free vector and can act at any point on the
free-body diagram. Also, a force is a sliding vector and can act at any point along its
line of action.
Equations of Equilibrium.
o Count the number of unknowns and compare it to the total number of

equilibrium equations that are available. In two dimensions, there are three
equilibrium equations that can be written for each member.
o Sum moments about a point that lies at the intersection of the lines of
action of as many of the unknown forces as possible.
o If the solution of a force or couple moment magnitude is found to be
negative, it means the sense of the force is the reverse of that shown on the
free-body diagram.
EXAMPLE 4.6 - 2
Determine the tension in the cables and also the force P required to support the
600-N force using the frictionless pulley system shown in Fig. 4.6 – 2 a.
FIGURE 4.6 – 2 a
SOLUTION
Free-Body Diagram. A free-body diagram of each pulley including its pin and a
portion of the contacting cable is shown in Fig. 4.6-2 b. Since the cable is
continuous, it has a constant tension P acting throughout its length. The link
connection between pulleys B and C is a two-force member, and therefore it has an
unknown tension T acting on it. Notice that the principle of action, equal but
opposite reaction must be carefully observed for forces P and T when the separate
free body diagrams are drawn.
Equations of Equilibrium. The three unknowns are obtained as follows:
EXAMPLE 4.6 - 3
Determine the horizontal and vertical components of force which the pin at C
exerts on member BC of the frame in Fig. 4.6-3a.
SOLUTION I
Free-Body Diagrams. By inspection it can be seen that AB is a two force member.
The free-body diagrams are shown in Fig. 4.6-3b.
Equations of Equilibrium. The three unknowns can be determined by applying the
three equations of equilibrium to member CB.
SOLUTION II
Free-Body Diagrams. If one does not recognize that
AB is a two force member, then more work is involved
in solving this problem. The free-body diagrams are
shown in Fig. 4.6-3c.
Equations of Equilibrium. The six unknowns are
determined by applying the three equations of
equilibrium to each member.
The results for Cx and Cy can be determined by solving
these equations in the following sequence: 4, 1, 5, then 6.
The results are
By comparison, Solution I is simpler since the requirement that FAB in Fig. 4.6-3b
be equal, opposite, and collinear at the ends of member AB automatically satisfies
Eqs. 1, 2, and 3 above and therefore eliminates the need to write these equations.
As a result, save yourself some time and effort by always identifying the
two-force members before starting the analysis!
EXAMPLE 4.6 - 4
The compound beam shown in Fig. 4.6-4a is pin connected at B. Determine the
components of reaction at its supports. Neglect its weight and thickness.
FIGURE 4.6 - 4
SOLUTION
Free-Body Diagrams. By inspection, if we consider a free-body diagram of the entire beam

ABC, there will be three unknown reactions at A and one at C. These four unknowns
cannot all be obtained from the three available equations of equilibrium, and so for the
solution it will become necessary to dismember the beam into its two segments, as shown
in Fig. 6–29 b.
Equations of Equilibrium. The six unknowns are determined as follows:
Solving each of these equations successively, using previously calculated results,
we obtain.
The frame in Fig. 4.6 a supports the 50-kg cylinder. Determine the horizontal and
𝑘𝑔.𝑚
vertical components of reaction at A and the force at C. hint 2 = 𝑁(𝑁𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛)
𝑠
Answers:
Dx = Dy = 490 N
FBC = 245.25 N
Ax = 736 N
Ay = 490.5 N
---------------------------END OF LESSON ---------------------------------
MODULE 2
DIRECTION: Solve and Analyze the following problems in neat and orderly manner.
Use your indicated Format.
All problem solutions must include FBDs.
ACTIVITY 1:
Draw and name the different Types of Trusses
ACTIVITY 2: Methods of Joint
1. Determine the force in each member of the truss. State if the members are in
tension or compression.
3. Determine the force in members AE and DC. State if the members are in tension or
compression.
4. Determine the greatest load P that can be applied to the truss so that none of the
members are subjected to a force exceeding either 2 kN in tension or 1.5 kN in
compression.
6. Determine the force in each member of the truss and state if the members are in
tension or compression. Set P1 = 800 lb and P2 = 400 lb.
7. Determine the force on each member of the truss and state if the members are in
tension or compression. Set P1 = 500 lb and P2 = 100 lb.
8. Determine the force in each member of the truss, and state if the members are in
9. Determine the force in each member of the truss, and state if the members are in
10. Determine the force in each member of the truss and state if the members are in
ACTIVITY 3: Method of Sections
All problem solutions must include FBDs.
1. Determine the force in members BC, CF, and FE. State if the members are in
2. Determine the force in members LK, KC, and CD of the Pratt truss. State if the
members are in tension or compression.
3. Determine the force in members EF, CF, and BC of the truss. State if the members
are in tension or compression.
4. Determine the force in members GF, GD, and CD of the truss. State if the members
are in tension or compression.
5. Determine the force in members HG, HE, and DE of the truss, and state if the
6. Determine the force in members CD, HI, and CJ of the truss, and state if the
7. Determine the force in members CD, CJ, KJ, and DJ of the truss which serves to
support the deck of a bridge. State if these members are in tension or compression.
8. Determine the force in members EI and JI of the truss which serves to support the
deck of a bridge. State if these members are in tension or compression.
9. Determine the force in member GJ and GC of the truss and state if this member is
in tension or compression.
10. Determine the force in members BC, HC, and HG. After the truss is sectioned use
a single equation of equilibrium for the calculation of each force. State if these

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ENGINEERING MECHANICS – STATICS OF RIGID BODIES

II. LESSON PRESENTATION

The Analysis of structures is the process by which we determine how the

LESSON 4.1: Types of Elementary Structures

DESIGN PROCESS - creative and technical

1|ENGINEERING MECHANICS -STATICS OF RIGID BODIES

FIGURE 4.1(a): TRUSSES

b. CABLES AND ARCHES

• Cables are commonly used to support bridges and building roofs.

Now we can analyze the equilibrium of points C and

Point B (Fig. 4.1-1d);

Hence, from Fig. 4.1-1a,

h = 2 tan 53.8o = 𝟐. 𝟕𝟒 𝐦𝐞𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐬

3|ENGINEERING MECHANICS -STATICS OF RIGID BODIES

An arch has the reverse curvature of a cable and it achieves

FIGURE 4.1(c): ARCHES

are composed of beams and columns that are connected

There are different types of frames depending on the connections between

4|ENGINEERING MECHANICS -STATICS OF RIGID BODIES

Membrane, plate, or shell type

Surface structures may be made of rigid material such as reinforced concrete.

CLASSIFICATION OF STRUCTURAL MEMBERS

o Structural members subjected to tensile forces are often referred to as

2) Columns and Struts

3) Beams and flexural members

5|ENGINEERING MECHANICS -STATICS OF RIGID BODIES

• Columns that are subjected to flexural forces (bending moment) in

e) Roof Live Load:

LESSON 4.2: Nature of supports and their reactions

1. Simple supports or knife edge supports

6|ENGINEERING MECHANICS -STATICS OF RIGID BODIES

FIGURE 4.2 (c): Roller support

3. Pin-joint (or hinged) support

FIGURE 4.2 (d): Pin-joint (or hinged) support

4. Smooth surface support

7|ENGINEERING MECHANICS -STATICS OF RIGID BODIES

FIGURE 4.2-2: Smooth surface support

5. Fixed or built in support

FIGURE 4.2(h): Fixed or built in support

A. Concentrated or point load.

In actual practice, it is not possible to apply a load at a point (i.e., at mathematical

8|ENGINEERING MECHANICS -STATICS OF RIGID BODIES

B. Uniformly distributed load.

FIGURE 4.2(k): Uniformly Distributed load.

C. Uniformly varying load.

FIGURE 4.2(l): Uniformly varying load.

LESSON 4.3: Structural stability/instability

Is a field of mechanics that studies

9|ENGINEERING MECHANICS -STATICS OF RIGID BODIES

Bifurcation instability can be symmetric or asymmetric. As shown in Figure 4.3.(a), for

FIGURE 4.3(a): Bifurcation Instability

2. Limit Point Instability

3. Finite Disturbance Instability

FIGURE 4.3(c): Finite Disturbance Instability

Snap-through instability is characterized by a sudden increase in deformation under a

FIGURE 4.3(d): Snap-through instability

FIGURE 4.4(a): Statically determinate structures

FIGURE 4.4(b): Statically Indeterminate Structures

For example, the two-dimensional propped cantilever system in Figure 4.4(c) is an

∑ 𝑀𝑧 (𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡) = 0

An indeterminate system is often described with the number of redundant it

For the trusses in Figures 4.4 (f), b & c, we have: