MODULE 4______________________________
Study of stresses, strains, & slope
Structural Design
An art and science of understanding the behaviour of
structural members (footings, slabs, columns, beams, etc.)
which are subjected to loads and designing them with
economy to give a safe, serviceable and durable structure.
Structural Plan
Designed by Structural Designer and used by engineers,
especially Civil Engineers, concerning with the load-carrying
members of the structure showing their details,
specifications, and schedules.
Objectives:
1. To determine the methodology to be used in constructing
a project.
2. Safety: The structure should be able to carry all expected
loads safely, without failure, that is, without breaking or
collapsing under the loads.
3. Stability: The structure should not move (by sliding or
overturning)
under the expected loads.
4. Serviceability: The structure should not deform or crack
unreasonably under the expected loads.
5. Durability: The structure should last for a reasonable
period of time. Components of Structural Drawing
1. Construction Notes & Specifications
- shows the general notes, methods, & specifications to be
used during construction.
2. Foundation Plan
- is a plan view drawing, showing the location and size of
footings,
columns, foundation walls, and supporting beams such as
footing tie beam and grade beam.
3. Framing Plan
- shows the location and sizes of columns, beams, and slab
designations.
4. Details
- separated plan showing the specific details such as cross
section, steel reinforcement, sizes from a portion of a plan.
5. Schedules
- schedule provides section, sizes, and steel reinforcement of
beams, slab, column, and footing.
Process of Structural Design
A. Structural Planning & Layouting
1. Ideal position & orientation of columns
a. Columns should preferably be positioned symmetrically
about the
center of the building.
b. Should preferably be located “at” or “near” the corners of
the building & at beam intersections.
c. Avoid larger center-to-center distance between columns.
2. Established design criteria
a. Selection of materials & their strength
b. Established all loads which the building requires.
c. Types of loads
c.1. Dead Load – includes the weights of all materials to be
used in the building.
c.2. Live Load – building occupants including
fixtures/furnitures
c.3 Lateral Load – wind & earthquake
forces
3. Structural Analysis
a.
deflections of structural members.
4. Structural Design
a. Designing the members considering the strength, economy,
& serviceability.
5. Structural Detailing
a. Preparation of structural drawings & informations needed
for construction.
FOUNDATION PLAN
- is a plan view drawing, showing the location and size of
footings, columns, foundation walls, and supporting beams
such as footing tie beam and grade beam.
Why a Foundation is provided
o Distribute the weight of the structure over a large area of
soil.
o Avoid unequal settlement.
o Prevent the lateral movement of the structure.
o Increase structural stability.
Types of Foundation
A. Shallow Foundation – the width of the foundation is
greater than the depth of the foundation
1. Isolated Spread Footing – the most common and simplest
type of footing and used to support a single column only.
2. Wall or Strip Footing – used to distribute loads of structural
load-bearing walls to the ground and runs along the direction
of the wall. Stone, brick, reinforced concrete etc. are used.
Width = 2-3 times the width of wall
3. Combined Footing – provided when the
SBC is low and isolated footings are overlap to each other.
They may be rectangular, tee-shaped or trapezoidal in shape.
4. Strap or Cantilever Footing – consists of single footing
connected with a strap beam. Generally, when the edge of
the footing cannot be extended beyond the property line the
exterior footing is connected by strap beam with interior
footing.
5. Raft or Mat Footing – consist of a concrete slab placed
over the entire building area. Used when the SBC is relatively
low.
B. Deep Foundation – the width of the foundation is smaller
than the depth of the foundation.
1. Pile Foundation – a long and slender members with small
cross sectional area that transmit loads to deeper and
stronger strata which are beyond the reach of shallow
foundations. Also used to anchor structures against uplift
forces.
2. Pier Foundation – is a cylindrical structural member which
transfer heavy load from superstructure to the soil by end
bearing.
Unlike pile, it can only transfer load by bearing and by not
skin friction.
3. Caisson Foundation – is a watertight retaining structure
used as a bridge pier, construction of dam etc. It is generally
used in structures which requires foundation beneath a river
or similar water bodies. There are several types of caisson
foundation such as:
o Box Caissons
o Floating Caissons
o Pneumatic Caissons
o Open Caissons
o Sheeted Caissons
o Excavated Caissons
Building Codes For the depth of footing:
1. Footings shall be of sufficient size and strength to support Ultimate pressure is to be considered to for finding the depth
the load of the dwelling and shall be at least 250 millimeters of the footing,
thick and 600 millimeters below the surface of the ground.
2. Footings located at least 2.40 meters below grade along
national roads or public highway may project not more than
300 millimeters For isolated footing, the critical sections for shear are
beyond the property line. discussed as follows:
3. Foundations may be permitted to encroach into public
sidewalk areas to a width not exceeding 500 millimeters;
provided, that the top of the said foundations is not less than The shear strength of slabs and footings in the vicinity of the
600 millimeters below the established grade; and provided columns, concentrated load, or reactions is governed by the
further, that said projection does not obstruct any existing more severe of the two conditions.
utility such as power, communication, gas, water, or sewer • Wide-beam shear :
lines, unless the owner concerned shall pay the
corresponding entities for the rerouting of the parts of the
affected utilities.
• Two way shear or Punching Shear:

MODULE 4.1_____________________________
FOUNDATION DESIGN & DETAILING
Foundation Plan For the thickness of the footing
• A plan layout of footings, footing tie beams, wall footing,
columns and slabs on fill. All in reference to grid lines.
Footings are structural
members used to support columns and walls. And to Distribution of flexural or Main Reinforcement
distribute column & wall loads. Footing may be classified as a one-way footing or two way
footing. One-way footings are those, which are reinforced in
one direction only, while two-way footings are reinforced in
two directions.
Wall Footing For simplification and for plates purposes only we will be
• A strip footingused to support all types of wall (load bearing, using minimum requirement for flexural reinforcement of the
non-load bearing, retaining, etc.) footing
• Specifications: CHB Wall (6” CHB for all exterior walls, & 4”
CHB for all interior walls).
Isolated Footing
• Isolated footing is the single or individual footing which
transfers load to the underground soil. It is provided when a Sample Problem: Prepare a footing detail for grid B-2. SBC =
single column is to be provided. A foundation is the part of 120kPa, f’c=20.7 Mpa
the substructure which makes a direct contact or rested
inside the ground.
Notes:
1. No footing shall rest on fill
2. Minimum concrete cover = 75mm
3. Section 5.15.7, the depth of footing above bottom
reinforcement may not be less than 150 mm for footing in soil.
The required footing area A as per NSCP Section 5.15.2.2 is:

For permissible soil pressure, we should take into account

the weight of all objects above the lower base of the footing,
we will call this effective soil pressure, qe.

Then;
MODULE 4.2_____________________________
COLUMN DESIGN & DETAILING
A column or pillar in architecture and structural engineering
is a structural element that transmits, through compression,
the weight of the structure above to other structural elements
below. In other words, a column is a compression member. It
is used to support beams, floors, and roofs. There are several
types of columns which are used in different parts of
structures. Column is a vertical structural member that carry
loads mainly in compression. It might transfer loads from a
ceiling, floor slab, roof slab, or from a beam, to a floor or
foundations. Commonly, columns also carry bending
moments about one or both of the cross-section axes. In this
article, different types of columns used in building
construction will be discussed.
TYPES OF COLUMNS IN BUILDING CONSTRUCTION
Columns are classified based on the several conditions which
include:
1. Based on Types of Reinforcement
2. Based on Types of Loading
3. Based on Slenderness Ratio
4. Based on Shape
5. Based on Construction Material
6. Based on Types of Reinforcement
1. Based on Types of Reinforcement
1.1. Tied Column
This type of column is commonly construction from
reinforced concrete. Longitudinal reinforcement are confined
within closely spaced tie reinforcement. It is estimated that
95% of all columns in buildings are tied.
1.2. Spiral Column
Spiral column is also construction from reinforced concrete.
In this type of column, longitudinal bars are confined within
closely spaced and continuously wound spiral reinforcement.
Spiral reinforcement provide lateral restrains (Poisson’s
effect) and delays axial load failure (ductile).
1.2. Composite column
When the longitudinal reinforcement is in the form of
structural steel section or pipe with or without longitudinal
bars, it is called as a composite column.
This type of column have high strength with fairly small cross
section, in addition to exhibit good fire performance.
2. Based on Types of Loading
2.1. Axially Loaded Column
- If vertical axial loads act on the center of gravity of the
cross-section of the column, then it is termed as axially
loaded column.
- Axially loaded column is rare in construction since
coinciding vertical loads on the center of gravity of column
cross section is
not practical.
- Interior column of multi-storey buildings with symmetrical
loads from floor slabs from all sides is an example of this type
of column.
2.2. Column with Uniaxial Eccentric Loading
- When vertical loads do not coincide with center of gravity of
column cross section, but rather act eccentrically either on X
or Y axis of the column cross section, then it is called
uniaxially eccentric loading column.
- Column with uniaxial loading are generally encountered in
the case of columns rigidly connected beam from one side
only such as edge columns.
2.3. Column with Biaxial Eccentric Loading
- When vertical on the column is not coincide with center of
gravity of column cross section and does not act on either
axis (X and Y axis), then the column is called biaxially
eccentric loaded column.
- Columns with biaxial loading is common in corner columns
with beams rigidly connected at right angles at the top of
columns.
3. Based on Slenderness Ratio
- Based on slenderness ratio, (effective length/ least lateral
dimension), columns are categorized as follow:
3.1. Short Column
- If the ratio effective length of the column to the least lateral
dimension is less than 12, the column is called as the short
column. A short column fails by crushing (pure compression
failure).
3.2. Long Column
- If the ratio effective length of the column to the least lateral
dimension exceeds 12, it is called as long column. A long
column fails by bending or buckling.
4. Based on Shape
4.1 Shape of Reinforced Concrete Column
4.1.1 Square or Rectangular Column
- They are generally used in the construction of buildings. It is
much easier to construct and cast rectangular or square
columns than circular ones because of ease of shuttering and
to support it
from collapsing due to pressure while the concrete is still in
flowable form.
4.1.2. Circular column
- They are specially designed columns, which are mostly used
in
piling and elevation of the buildings.
4.1.3. L-Shape Column
- Commonly, L-shaped column is utilized in the corners of the
boundary wall and has similar characteristics of a rectangular
or square column.
4.1.4. T-Shape column
- It is utilized based on design requirements of a structure. T-
Shaped column is widely used in the construction of bridges.
4.2. Shape of Steel Column
- There are different standard and built up shape of steel
columns which are shown in Fig. and Fig. Common shapes of
steel columns include Wide Flange, I, channel, equal angle,
and Tee-shape.
4.3. Shape of Composite Column
- The usual shape of composite columns are shown in Fig.
5. Based on Construction Material
- Types of columns based on construction materials include
Reinforced Concrete, Steel, timber, Brick, Block, and Stone
Column.
REINFORCED CONCRETE TIED COLUMN
- has reinforcement consisting of vertical bars held in position
by lateral reinforcement called lateral ties.

where:
∅ =
These maximum load limits govern wherever the moment is
small enough to keep the eccentricity under 0.10h where h is
the column width parallel to the applied moment.
Sizes and spacing of main bars and ties
I. For cast – in – place construction, size of the spiral shall not
be less than 10 mm. (Section 5.7.10.4.2)
II. Clear spacing s between spiral or pitch shall not exceed
75mm, nor less than 10 mm. (Section 5.7.10.4.3)
III. Anchorage of spiral reinforcement shall be provided by 1
½ extra turns of spiral bar. (Section 5.7.10.4)
IV. Splices of spiral reinforcement shall be lap splices of 48db
but not less than 300 mm or welded. (Section 5.7.10.5)
V. The percentage of spiral steel ρs is computed from the
following equation.

Minimum Requirements:
Limits of reinforcement for tied columns (Section 5.10.9) VI. The minimum spiral percentage is given by: (Section
I. Ast shall not be less than 0.01Ag and Ast shall not be more 5.10.9.3)
than 0.06Ag.
II. The minimum number of longitudinal bars is 4 for bars
within rectangular. With a minimum diameter of 16mm.

Sizes and spacing of main bars and ties

I. Sh or clear distance between longitudinal bars must not Sample Problem
exceed 150mm, otherwise provide additional ties. Also It 1. A square tied is to support an axial dead load of 575 kN
shall be not less than 1.5db nor 40mm and 4/3 aggregate size. and an axial live load of 795 kN. Assuming 2% longitudinal
(Section 5.7.6.3) steel is req’d., calculate the dimension of the column.
II. dt, Minimum diameter of lateral ties = 10 mm for 32mm Ø Assume fc’ = 27.6 Mpa and fy= 414 Mpa.
or less vertical bars ; or 12 mm for larger than 32mm Ø and 2. Calculate the required spiral (pitch) for a 450 mm diameter
bundled longitudinal bars. (Section 5.7.10.5.1.2) spiral column reinforcement with 6 – 28 mm Ø bar. Assume
III. Vertical Spacing of ties shall be the smallest of the 38 – mm concrete cover. Use fc’ = 27.6 Mpa and 414 Mpa.
following: (Section 5.7.10.5.1.2)
a. 16 x db (db = longitudinal bar diameter)
b. 48 x dt (dt = tie bar diameter)
c. Least dimension of the column
IV. Sc, or concrete clear cover is equal to 38mm or 40mm.
V. Ties shall be arranged such that every corner and alternate
longitudinal bar shall have lateral support provided by the
corner of the tie with an included angle of not more than
135˚.

Notes:
a. Splice of vertical bars shall be located at the midheight of
the column.
b. Spacing of ties within confinement zone “y” must be at
0.10 m, where confining zone “y” largest between ; maximum
column dimension. 1/6 clear height of the column, and 450
mm.

REINFORCED CONCRETE SPIRAL COLUMN

- A circular column concrete core with vertical bars enclosed
by spirals

These maximum load limits govern wherever the moment is

small enough to keep the eccentricity under 0.05h where h is
the column width parallel to the applied moment.
Limits of reinforcement for spiral columns (Section 5.10.9)
I. Ast shall not be less than 0.01Ag and Ast shall not be more
than 0.06Ag.
II. The minimum number of longitudinal bars is 6 for bars.
With a minimum diameter of 16mm.
MODULE 4.3_____________________________
SLAB DESIGN & DETAILING
A slab is a structural element, made of concrete, that is used
to create flat horizontal surfaces such as floors, roof decks
and ceilings. A slab is generally several inches thick and
supported by beams, columns, walls, or the ground. Concrete
slabs can be prefabricated off-site and lowered into place or
may be poured in-situ using formwork. If reinforcement is
required, slabs can be pre-stressed or the concrete can be
poured over rebar positioned within the formwork. On basis
of reinforcement provided, beam support, and the ratio of
the spans, slabs are generally classified into one-way slab and
two-way slab. The former is supported on two sides and the
ratio of long to short span is greater than two. However, the
latter is supported on four sides and the ratio of long to short
span is smaller than two There are several different types of
slab, including:
1. Flat Slab
- This is a typically a reinforced slab supported directly by
columns or caps, without the use of beams. This type of slab
is generally easy to construct and requires little formwork.
Also, flat slab is defined as one sided or twosided support
system with shear load of the slab concentrated on the
supporting columns and a square slab called “drop panels”.
2. Flat plate Slab
- The flat plate is a two-way reinforced concrete framing
system utilizing a slab of uniform thickness, the simplest of
structural shapes. A flat plate is a one- or two-way system
usually supported directly on columns or load bearing walls. It
is one of the most common forms of construction of floors in
buildings. The principal feature of the flat plate floor is a
uniform or near-uniform thickness with a flat soffit which
requires only simple formwork and is easy to construct.
3. Waffle Slab
- Waffle slab is a reinforced concrete roof or floor containing
square grids with deep sides and it is also called as grid slabs.
This kind of slab is majorly used at the entrance of hotels,
Malls, Restaurants
for good pictorial view and to install artificial lighting.
4. Hollow core Slab
- It is a type of precast slab through which cores are run. Not
only do these cores decline slab selfweight and increase
structural efficiency but also act as service ducts. It is suitable
for cases where fast construction is desired.
5.1. One Way Slab:
One-way slab is supported by beams on the two opposite
sides to carry the load along one direction. The ratio of longer
span (l) toshorter span (b) is equal or greater than 2,
considered as One-way slab. In this type, the slab will bend in
one direction i.e. in the direction along its shorter span.
However minimum reinforcement known as distribution steel
is provided along the longer span above the main
reinforcement to distribute the load uniformly and to resist
temperature and shrinkage stresses.
Min. thickness:
1. Simply supported = S/20
2. One – end continuous = S/24
3. Both – end continuous = S/28
4. Cantilever = S/10
Example: Generally, all the Cantilever slabs are one Way
slab.Chajjas and Verandahs are a practical example of one-
way slab
5.2. Two Way Slab:
Two-way slab is supported by beams on all the four sides and
the loads are carried by the supports along with both
directions, it is known as two-way slab. In two-way slab, the
ratio of longer span
(l) to shorter span (b) is less than 2. The slabs are likely to
bend along both the directions to the four supporting edges
and hence distribution reinforcement is provided in both the
directions.
Min. thickness:
1. Min. t = (2S+2L)/ 180
These types of slabs are used in constructing floors of
multistoried building

FOR LABORATORY COMPUTATIONS

5. Conventional Slab
The slab which is supported on Beams and columns is called a
conventional slab. In this kind, the thickness of the slab is
small whereas the depth of the beam is large and load is
transferred to
beams and then to columns. It requires more formwork when
compared with the flat slab. In the conventional type of slab
there is no need for providing column caps. The thickness of
conventional slab is 4″ or 10cm. 5″ to 6″ inches is
recommended if the concrete will receive occasional heavy
loads, such as motor homes or garbage trucks. Conventional
concrete slabs are square in shape and have a length of 4m.
Reinforcement is provided in conventional slab and the bars
which are set in horizontal are called Main Reinforcement
Bars and bars which are set in vertical are called Distribution
bars. Based on the length and breadth of Conventional Slab is
classified into two types:
MODULE 4.4_____________________________
BEAM DESIGN & DETAILING
A beam is a structural element that primarily resists loads
applied laterally to the beam's axis. Its mode of deflection is
primarily by bending. The loads applied to the beam result in
reaction forces at the beam's support points. The total effect
of all the forces acting on the beam is to produce shear forces
and bending moments within the beam, that in turn induce
internal stresses, strains and deflections of the beam. Beams
are characterized by their manner of support, profile (shape
of cross-section), equilibrium conditions, length, and their
material. Different types of beams are used in the
construction of buildings and structures. These are horizontal
structural elements that withstand vertical loads, shear
forces, and bending moments. Beams transfer loads that
imposed alog their length to their endpoints suc as walls,
columns, foundation, etc.
In this module, different types of beams used in buildng
construction will be discussed based on their manner of
support, cross-section shape (profile), length, and material.
TYPES OF BEAMS IN CONSTRUCTION
These are different types of beams which are classified based
on the following conditions
1. Based on Support Conditions
2. Based on Construction Materials
3. Based on Cross-Section Shapes
4. Based on Geometry
5. Based on Equilibrium Condition
6. Based on Method of Construction
7. Others
1. BASED ON SUPPORT CONDITIONS
1.1 Simply Supported Beam
- It is one of the simplest structural elements that both ends
rest on supports but is free to rotate. It contains pinned
support at one end and a roller support at the other end.
Based on the assigned load, it sustain shearing and bending.
1.2 Fixed Beam
- It is supported both ends and fixed to resist rotation. It is
also called a built-in beam. The fixed ends produce moments
other than the reactions.
1.3 Cantilever Beam
- If beam is fixed at one end and set to be free at the other
end, it is termed as a cantilever beam. The beam distributes
the load back to the support where it is forced against a
moment and shear stress.
Cantilever beams allow the creation of a bay window,
balconies, and some bridges.
1.4 Continous Beam
- A continous beam has more than two supports distributed
along its entire length.
2. BASED ON CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS
2.1 Reinforced Concrete Beams
- It is constructed from concrete and reinforcement as shown
in the figure. Sometimes reinforced concrete beam is
concealed in reinforced concrete slab and it is called hidden
beam or concealed beam.
2.2 Steel Beams
- It is constructed from steels and used in several applications.
2.3 Timber Beams
- The timber beam is constructed from timber and used in
the past. However, the application of such a beam in the
construction industry is significantly declined now.
2.4 Composite Beams
- Composite beams are constructed from two or more
different types of materials, such as steel and concrete.
3. BASED ON CROSS-SECTION SHAPES
Several cross – sectional shapes of beams are available and
used in different parts of structures. These beams can be
constructed from reinforced concrete, steel, or composite
materials:
3.1 Reinforced concrete cross sectional shapes
3.1.1 Rectangular Beam
- This type of beam is widely used in the construction of
reinforced concrete buildings and other structures.
3.1.2 T – section and L – section Beam
- This type of beam is mostly constructed monolithically with
a
reinforced concrete slab. Sometimes, Isolated T – beam is
built to increase the compression strength oc concrete.
- Added to that, T – beam can also be constructed according
to the
requirements of loading imposed.
- This type is constructed monolithically with a reinforced
concrete slab at the perimeter of the structure, as illustrated.
3.2 Steel cross sectional shapes
- There are various steel beam cross – sectional shapes. Each
cross – sectional shape offer superior advantages in a given
condition compare with other shapes.
- Square, rectangular, circular, I – shaped, T – shaped, H –
shaped, C – shaped, and tubular are examples of beam cross
– sectional shapes constructed from steel.
4. BASED ON GEOMETRY
4.1 Straight Beam
- Beam with a straight profile and the majority of beams in
structures are straight beams.
4.2 Curved Beam
- Beam with curved profile, such as in the case of circular
buildings.
4.3 Tapered Beam
- Beam with tapered cross section.
5. BASED ON EQUILIBRIUM CONDITION
5.1 Statically determinate beam
- For statically determine beam, equilibrium conditions
alone be used to solve reactions. The number of unknown
reactions
is equal to the number of equations.
5.2 Statically indeterminate beam
- For statically indeterminate beam, equilibrium conditions
are not enough to solve reactions. So, the analysis of this
type is more complicated than that of statically determinate
beams.
6. BASED ON METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION
6.1 Cast In – situ Concrete Beam
- This type of beam is constructed on the project site. So,
forms are initially fixed, then fresh concrete is poured and
allowed to hardened. Then, loads would be imposed.
6.2 Precast Concrete Beam
- This type of beam is manufactured in factories. So, the
construction condition is more controllable compare with on
– site construction. Consequently, the qualtiy of the concrete
of the beam would be greater.
- Various cross sectional shapes can be manufactures such as
T – beam, Double T – beams, Inverted T – beam, etc.
6.3 Prestressed Concrete Beam
- The pre – stressed concrete beam is constructed by
stressing strands before applying loads on the beam. Pre –
tensioned concrete beam and post – tensioned concrete
beams are variations of pre – stressed concrete beam.
7. OTHERS
7.1 Deep Beam
- A deep beam has considerable depth, as shown in Fig. 21,
ad its clear span to depth ratio is less than four, as per ACI
Code. A substantial load is carried to supports by a
compression force combining the load and the reaction.
Consequently, the strain distribution is no longer considered
linear, as in the case of conventional beams.
7.2 Girder
- Beams that take heavy loads, generally steel section are
used.
MODULE 5.0_____________________________
Planning the preservation of the structure and its contents
against fire damage or destruction, though secondary in
importance, is nonetheless, of serious concern to owner’s
and others having a financial interest in property. Although
the inclusion of Fire-fighting equipment in buildings is always
desirable and increasingly mandatory, good practice begins
with the design of the structure. This is necessarily affected
by the permitted, building density in the locality and by the
flammability of the building and its expected contents.
Some of the materials and equipment that must be
considered are:
a. Fire resistance of the selected structural type and material
and the contents of the building.
b. Limitations of Volumes within Fire-resistant barriers in
otherwise vulnerable buildings.
c. Precautions against perforations of approved and required
barriers.
d. Exits and Fire Tower Stairs.
e. Protection against fires caused by defective electrical
systems.
f . Protection against fires caused by lightning.
g. Detection and alarm system.
h. Standpipe and hose systems within and near buildings.
i. Automatic sprinkler systems.
j. Automatic smoke and heat venting.
k. Smoke
HIGH-RISE FlRE SAFETY
Definition of a high-rise building in terms of Fire Protection.
1. Too tall to be completely accessible to fire-fighting
equipment from the ground. This problem occurs anywhere
from 6 to 12 stories. but usually 8 to 10 stories. depending
upon the reach of aerial ladder equipment available. It means
that the fire must be fought internally above the levels.
2. Too tall to make complete evacuation of occupants
feasible. This occurs at about 25 stories, where complete
evacuation would take five minutes theoretically and about
50 to 150 percent longer than this· in reality . It means that
provision for safety and life, support for the occupants must
be made within the building.
3. Tall enough to make possible chimney or stack effects for
air and smoke flow. This is to some extent true in all buildings,
but it becomes especially pronounced in buildings about 8
stories high. This means that provision must be made for the
control of air flow and products of combustion. For all office
Buildings occupied by 100 persons above or below street
level or more than a total of 500 persons in the entire I
building.
FIRE SAFETY PLAN
1. Plan for Fire Drill and evacuation procedures including
appointment of Fire Safety Director, Fire brigade and Floor
Wardens.
2. Signs required at elevators and stairs. For buildings 100
feet (30 meters) or more in height.
FIRE STAIR DOORS
Door to interior stairs shall not be locked except:
1. On street floor to prevent access to stairs.
2. On stair side if every four stories or less, door is openable.
3. Where failsafe electric door lock, activated by any detector,
is provided.
CLASS E FIRE ALARM SYSTEM
1. Combination Fire Alarm signal system consisting of fire
alarm and two-way voice communication system (direct wire
radio, or carrier current). With at least one station per floor.
Activation of alarm station will identify its floor location at
the Fire command station, mechanical control center, and
the regularly assigned location of the Fire safety director,
sound alarm and notify automatically Fire department.
2. Fire Command Station, located in lobby of building
containing communication capability (two-way voice)
between Fire command station and floor warden stations,
mechanical control center elevators, air handling control
rooms. Audible alarm signal, visual display system to indicate
activation location on each floor.
DETECTORS
1. On each elevator landing. Activation shall stop all fans,
activate smoke exhaust or stair pressurization fans, return
affected elevators to terminal landing, and automatically_
sound alarm and notify fire
department.
2. At the return air shafts at each floor.
COMPARTMENTATION
(Applies to Floors located more than 12 meters above grade
served by multi·floor air conditioning system)
1. Areas to be compartmented by one hour separations, into
spaces not to exceed 750 sq. m.
2. Sub-division of area may be increased to 1500 sq. m.,
provided such area is completely protected with space
detectors.
3. Where total area exceeds 1,000 sq. m. at least one fire
separation shall be two hour rated and create areas of refuge.
SMOKE AND HEAT CONTROL
(Applies to buildings served by multi-floor air conditioning
system).
1. Smoke shaft to exhaust heat and smoke to outdoors.
2. Systems to be activated automatically upon activation ot
any detectors.
ELEVATORS
1. Elevators serving fire floor to be recalled and retained at
terminal
floor by activation of landing detectors or command station
control.
2. Three elevators servicing each floor shall be equipped with
Firemen's service.
3. Interlock wiring for elevator hoistway doors will be
required to be
resistant to high temperatures.
SPRINKLERS
1. For show rooms exceeding 750 sq. m. located more than
12m. above grade shall be sprinklered. Use of domestic water
permitted.
2. When floor is completely sprinklered, compartmentation
and smoke shaft and stair pressurization is exempted.
WATER AND STANDBY POWER
A very large industrial plant may settle in a suburb or
in a small community where the local company cannot
entirely cope. In such cases a reserve underground storage of
several hundred thousand of gallons or an adjacent artificial
lake would not be unusual. When such reserves must be
delivered by pumping during a fire, and electrical power
outage could be a tragedy; then standby power must cut in.
Dieselpowered pumps take over. These units and their fuel
storage should be separately housed in fire-resistant
enclosures. remote from the possible locations of fire in the
main buildings.
A. STANDPIPES AND HOSES
Fire companies with their apparatus find difficulty in
fighting fires from the street in tall structures. Standpipes and
hoses with a separate water reserve or upfeed pumping are
extremely valuable in any building but become highly
essential in tall buildings. The figure drawn here shows such a
system, which is intended for use by building personnel until
the fire engines arrive and thereafter
by the trained staff of the fire department. It is not practioal
to store enough water on the roof for a protracted fire-
fighting period and it is usually assumed that a half-hour's
supply will be more than enough to provide for the short
period it takes the fire engines to arrive.
After the engines are disconnected from the
Siamese, the water between the siamese and the adjacent
check valve drains out through the ball drip. The overhead
tank is considered a most dependable source, but it
sometimes requires a height that is architecturally
undesirable. In this case upfeed fire pumps operating
automatically to deliver water to higher stories from lower
suction reserve tanks may be used. Another alternate in this
case is a pneumatic tank used to deliver water by the power
of the air that is compressed in the upper portion of the tank.
The water zones as shown in the Figure of Hot and cold water
Zoning are also generally followed in planning for fire
protection. Fire standpipes, and their hoses are usually
located at or near fire stairs from which personnel or Fire
Fighters can approach a Fire.
B. SPRINKLERS
Automatic sprinkler systems consist of a horizontal
pattern of pipes placed near the ceilings of industrial
buildings, warehouses stores, theatres, and other structures
where the Fire hazard requires their use. These pipes are
provided with outlets and sprinkler heads so constructed that
temperatures of 135 to 160°F (55° to 70°C) celsius will cause
them to open automatically and emit a series of fine water
sprays.
Two Systems of Sprinklers:
1. Wet Pipe System - ordinarily with water constantly filling
both mains and distribution pipes.
2. Dry Pipe System - generally confined to unheated buildings.
There is no water in the distributing pipes of the dry-pipe
system except during a fire. Remote valves, may be actuated
by sensitive elements to admit water to sprinklers heads.
Sprinkler Heads - These are of the quanzoid bulb type. The
bulb is transparent and contains a colored liquid. At 136°F
the bulb breaks and releases a water stream. Nearly all fire
sprinklers are composed of the same components: a sealing
assembly or ‘plug’ that prevents water from escaping, a heat-
sensitive element that allows water to flow at a given
temperature, a deflector that distributes water effectively,
and a frame. Fire sprinkler heads feature heat-sensitive parts
– either a glass bulb or a fusible link – that cause them to
activate at a specific temperature.
Types of Sprinkler:
1. Upright - This type is used above piping when piping is
exposed. It is safer against damage by workers.
2. Pendent - A pendent (sometimes spelled "pendant") fire
sprinkler hangs from above-ceiling pipes and distributes
water in a domed or conical pattern using a convex deflector.
3. Sidewall - fire sprinklers install along walls or beneath
beams where ceiling piping is unavailable, or where aesthetic
concerns or obstructions weigh against the use of other
sprinkler types.
4. Concealed - install in walls or ceilings and fully cover a
pendent or sidewall sprinkler head using a concealed fire
sprinkler cover plate. This heat-sensitive plate detaches at
temperatures roughly 20 degrees lower than the fire
sprinkler head, allowing the concealed sprinkler's deflector to
drop and the head to activate.
Spacing of Sprinkler Heads
Is governed by several factors:
a. Type of occupancy and total area.
b. Fire rating of the building 11 or 2 hrsl.
c. Construction of the Ceiling.
d. Spacing of Joists
The coverage of one sprinkler head varies from about 20 sq.
m. (200 sq. ft.) per sprinkler for light hazard occupancy (like
hospital, residences) to about 9 or 10 sq. m. {90 sq. ft.} for
extra hazard conditions (like chemical, woodworking, aircraft
hangars) Nozzles are set about 8 to 12 feet 2.40 m to 3.60
apart on the supply pipes that, in turn, are spaced about 10
to 14ft. apart (3.00-4.20 m) and are usually run at right angles
exposed beams or panels.
Special Installation Requirements:
a. At least one fire department connection on each frontage.
b. A master alarm valve control for all water supplies other
than the department connections.
c. Special fire walls between protected areas and unprotected
areas.
d. Sloping waterproof floors with drains or scuppers to carry
away waste water.
Building Conveying Systems
mechanically moves occupants and goods. In most building,
these systems include passenger and freight elevators,
escalators, dumbwaiters, moving ramps and walkways, and
lifts for people and wheelchairs. This is an industrial
operation that requires material handling equipment (i.e.,
conveyors, chutes, and pneumatic tube
systems), hoist, cranes, and scaffoldings.
History of Building Conveying Systems 1600s
- Manually operated elevators (simple rope of chain hoists)
Purpose: lifting freight in warehouse and manufacturing
plants
1852 - Safety elevator by Elisha Otis
Purpose: prevents the fall of the elevator cab if the cable
broke. Otis safety device consisted of a knurled roller located
below the elevator platform and a governor device that
monitor descending speed. The safety device locked when
the elevator descended at a
higher than normal speed. It was the safety feature that
made the elevator a safe conveying system for building
occupants which then made sky drapers achievable
ELEVATORS - A conveying device used to move people or
freight vertically, usually between floors of a building.
Basic Components of Elevator System
 An elevator consists of a car mounted on a platform that
is connected to the elevator drive.
 The elevator car, also called a cage, is the load-carrying
unit, including the frame, enclosure, and car door.
 The platform is a flat, relatively horizontal framework to
which a car is mounted and on which passenger stand
or the load is placed.
 The cab is a decorative room in which occupants ride in
a passenger elevator
 The elevator car moves vertically in a hoist way. It is
enclosed by a fireproof wall.
TWO TYPES OF ELEVATOR
1. Hydraulic Elevators - use of fluiddriven hydraulic jack to lift
the elevator car.
2. Traction Elevators – have a drive machine with an electric
motor and pulleylike (grooved) drive sheave that holds cable
that move the elevator up or down.
CLASSIFICATIONS OF ELEVATORS
1. Passenger Elevators - are designed to carry people and
small packages. Typically have capacities from 1500 to 5000
lb (680 to 2300 kg), in 500 lb. (230 kg) increments.
2. Freight Elevators - elevators are used to carry material,
goods, equipment, and vehicles, rather than people.
3. Dumbwaiters - A dumbwaiter is a small freight elevator
used to transport lightweight freight such as food, laundry,
books, records, and other small items.
4. Manlifts - A manlift is an elevator installed in a variety of
structures and locations to provide vertical transportation of
authorized personnel and their tools and equipment only.
ELEVATOR CODE STANDARD
Codes are established by the American National Standard
Safety Code for Elevators, Dumbwaiters, Escalators and
Moving Walks, ANSI/ASME A17.1 and local building codes.
Standard sizes and shapes for elevators are determined by
the National Elevator Industries, Inc. (NEII)
ESCALATORS are inclined, continuous moving stairs and
handrails that transport people from one floor to another.
They are used where elevators may be impractical but use of
stairways may be too slow for the anticipated crowd.
Common places they are found are in airports, arenas,
convention centers, department stores, hotels, shopping
malls, transit systems, and public buildings. Escalators can
move many more people faster than elevators, traveling at
typical speeds of 90- 100 ft/min.
BASIC TYPES OF AN ESCALATOR
1. Step Type Escalators – is one of the most common forms
of escalators used today. Their steps are usually made up of
metal. The movement of these type of escalators is upward
then flat and then downward and the vice versa as well. This
type of escalator is safer than most other forms of escalators.
2. 2. Wheelchair Escalator - Wheelchair accessible escalator
is nothing but a normal escalator with special provisions for a
wheelchair. In this type of escalators, there is a special
attendant. If a person with a wheelchair steps onto the
escalator, the escalator is put in a special mode where 3
steps level out and a platform is formed. Thereafter some
spikes come out from the back of the step closer to the lower
landing of the wheelchair, thereby preventing the wheelchair
along with the person to fall down.
3. Spiral Escalator - This type of escalators; have curved steps
giving them a fancy sort of appearance. They look very
beautiful and attractive and are only manufactured by
Mitsubishi since 1985.
4. Levytator - is the newest type of escalator. This is a free
type of escalator that can curve multiple times in either
upward or downward direction. In this system, there are two
escalators which
continuously share loops of steps and can also curve
differently. The steps of this escalator are also uniquely built
THREE BASIC CONFIGURATIONS THAT ARE USED IN MOST
COMMON ESCALATOR SYSTEMS
1. Parallel – up and down escalators “side by side or
separated by a distance”, seen often in metro stations and
multilevel motion pictures theaters
2. Crisscross – minimizes structural space requirements by
“stacking” escalators that go in one direction.
3. Multiple Parallel – two or more together that travel in one
direction next to one or more travelling in the opposite
direction.
WALKWAYS AND RAMPS
A moving walkway, also known as an autowalk, moving
pavement, moving sidewalk, people-mover, travolator, or
travelator, is a slow-moving conveyor mechanism that
transports people across a horizontal or inclined plane over a
short to medium distance. Moving walkways can be used by
standing or walking on them. They
are often installed in pairs, one for each direction.
An inclined moving walkway, also called a moving ramp or
power ramp, is a moving walkway that transports people on
an incline, up to a 12° angle of inclination. Moving walkways
are more accessible to those in wheelchairs, as they are
usually thought easier to use than getting in and out of small
elevators.
Moving walks are slow moving, approximately 1.5 mph, or
high speed, approximately 9-12 mph, horizontal conveyor
belts designed to move people. Moving ramps have a
maximum incline of 12 degrees and may move people up or
down an inclined area. They may be connected together or
used individually.
TYPES OF WALKWAYS AND RAMPS
1. Pallet Type – built from a series of connected metal plates
that are joined together to form a walkway. Pallet types
moving walkways are essentially flat elevators. This type of
moving walkway has a metal surface, although they are
available with a rubberized tread bonded on top of the metal
plates.
2. Moving Belt Type – are essentially human conveyor belts.
They are typically built with mesh metal balls, which is a
rubber surface over metal rollers.
LIFTS
1. Wheelchair Lits - a powered device designed to raise a
wheelchair or scooter and its occupant to overcome a step or
similar vertical barrier, usually 6 ft (1.8m) or less. They often
are designed to accommodate just one person in a
wheelchair or scooter at a time. Wheelchair lifts are used to
move a wheelchair and its passenger from one level to
another. One type of lift is a steel platform with steel sides,
entry and exit gates. The platform is covered with a rubber
skid-proof surface and is operated by an electric motor that is
controlled by the passenger.
Note: The wheelchair lift does not operate until all gates are
secure and the wheelchair and its passenger are in place. It
can be installed in vans, buses and other vehicles of
transportation.
2. Chair Lifts - are a type of aerial lift that consists of a
continuous steel cable loop string between two terminals.
The cable continuously circulates between the terminals and
intermediatetowers allowing the chairs to move in opposite
directions. Chairlifts are commonly used at ski resorts,
amusement parks, tourist attractions and in urban transport.
3. Car Lifts - A car lift is installed in small parking garages
where ramps are not feasible. The platforms are raised and
lowered hydraulically and are connected to steel chain gears.
In addition to the vertical motion, the platforms can rotate
about its vertical axis (up to 180°) to ease driver access
and/or accommodate building plans. In selecting lift
equipment, the building designer typically relies on
specifications available from equipment suppliers.4. Stair
Lifts - A stair lift will carry a user safely upstairs. To use a stair
lift, the user sits on the lift’s seat; the seat will then transfer
the user up or downstairs via a staircase-mounted track. It is
for people who have difficulty climbing stairs. This lift has a
chair that runs along a steel or extruded aluminum rail that is
mounted to the wall or the stair treads
Note: This stair lift is capable of moving around corners and
across landings, allowing the passenger to disembark safely
away from the top of the stairs. Controls are usually located
on the arm of the chair
and many have radio frequency or infrared remote
controllers. For stairs with turns, two lifts are required.