STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS OF A BUILDING

A load bearing structure has the components of a building which carries and
transfers the load to the ground safely. This structure guarantees stability of the
building and its performance. Commonly walls, columns, beams, foundation
Understanding the structural principles of load bearing structure is the
fundamentals required for the design process and bring up the design solution.
This will help in coming up with suitable materials and construction techniques.

FOUNDATION
A foundation is necessary to evenly distribute the entire building load on the soil
in such a manner that no damaging settlements take place. Hence, the foundations
need to be constructed on good/solid ground.
Types of foundation and their uses
Following are different types of foundations used in construction:

 Shallow foundation
I. Individual footing or isolated footing
II. Combined footing
III. Strip foundation
IV. Raft or mat foundation
  Deep foundation
I. Pile foundation
II. Drilled shafts or caissons

Types of shallow foundations:

I. Individual footing or isolated footing

Individual footing or an isolated footing is the most common type of foundation

used for building construction. This foundation is constructed for single column
and also called as pad foundation.

The shape of individual footing is square or rectangle and is used when loads from
structure is carried by the columns. Size is calculated based on the load on the
column and safe bearing capacity of soil.

Rectangular isolated footing is selected when the foundation experiences moments

due to eccentricity of loads or due to horizontal forces.

For example, consider a column with vertical load of 200 kn and safe bearing
capacity of 100 kn/m2 then the area of the footing required will be 200/100 = 2m2.
So, for a square footing, length and width of footing will be 1.414 m x 1.414 m.

II. Combined footing

Combined footing is constructed when two or more columns are close enough and
their isolated footings overlap each other. It is a combination of isolated footings,
but their structural design differs.

The shape of this footing is rectangle and is used when loads from structure is
carried by the columns.

III. Spread footings or strip footings and wall footings

Spread footings are those whose base is more wider than a typical load bearing
wall foundations. The wider base of this footing type spreads the weight from the
building structure over more area and provides better stability.
 Spread footings and wall footings are used for individual columns, walls and
bridge piers where the bearing soil layer is within 3m (10 feet) from the ground
surface. Soil bearing capacity must be sufficient to support the weight of the
structure over the base area of the structure.

These should not be used on soils where there is any possibility of ground flow of
water above bearing layer of soil which may result in scour or liquefaction.

IV. Raft or mat foundations

Raft or mat foundations are the types of foundation which are spread across the
entire area of the building to support heavy structural loads from columns and
walls.

The use of mat foundation is for columns and walls foundations where the loads
from structure on columns and walls are very high. This is used to prevent
differential settlement of individual footings, thus designed as a single mat (or
combined footing) of all the load bearing elements of the structure.

It is suitable for expansive soils whose bearing capacity is less for suitability of
spread footings and wall footings. Raft foundation is economical when one-half
area of the structure is covered with individual footings and wall footings are
provided. These foundations should not be used where the groundwater table is
above the bearing surface of the soil. Use of foundation in such conditions may
lead to scour and liquefaction.
Types of deep foundation

I. Pile foundations

Pile foundation is a type of deep foundation which is used to transfer heavy loads
from the structure to a hard rock strata much deep below the ground level.

Pile foundations are used to transfer heavy loads of structures through columns to
hard soil strata which is much below ground level where shallow foundations such
as spread footings and mat footings cannot be used. This is also used to prevent
uplift of structure due to lateral loads such as earthquake and wind forces.
Pile foundations are generally used for soils where soil conditions near the ground
surface is not suitable for heavy loads. The depth of hard rock strata may be 5m to
50m (15 feet to 150 feet) deep from the ground surface.

Pile foundation resists the loads from structure by skin friction and by end bearing.
Use of pile foundations also prevents differential settlement of foundations.

II. Drilled shafts or caisson foundation

Drilled shafts, also called as caissons, is a type of deep foundation and has action
similar to pile foundations discussed above, but are high capacity cast-in-situ
foundations. It resists loads from structure through shaft resistance, toe resistance
and / or combination of both of these. The construction of drilled shafts or caissons
are done using an auger.

Drilled shafts can transfer column loads larger than pile foundations. It is used
where depth of hard strata below ground level is location within 10m to 100m (25
feet to 300 feet).
Drilled shafts or caisson foundation is not suitable when deep deposits of soft clays
and loose, water-bearing granular soils exists. It is also not suitable for soils where
caving formations are difficult to stabilize, soils made up of boulders, artesian
aquifer exists.

PLINTH BEAM
Plinth beam is a reinforced concrete beam constructed between the wall and
its foundation. Plinth beam is provided to prevent the extension or propagation of
cracks from the foundation into the wall above when the foundation suffers from
settlement. Plinth beams distributes the load of the wall over the foundation
evenly.
Applications of plinth beam
 It is mandatory to provide plinth beam in areas that prone to earthquake.
 Construction of plinth beam above the natural ground is another application
of this type of beam.

FORMWORK FOR PLINTH BEAM

Formwork used for plinth beam construction should be properly installed

and adequately secured prior to concrete placement as shown in figure-4. The
concrete needs to be compacted sufficiently to prevent steel bars from aggressive
elements

BEAMS
A beam is a structural element that primarily resists loads applied laterally
to the beam's axis. Its mode of deflection is primarily by bending. The loads
applied to the beam result in reaction forces at the beam's support points. The total
effect of all the forces acting on the beam is to produce shear forces and bending
moments within the beam, that in turn induce internal stresses, strains and
deflections of the beam. Beams are characterized by their manner of support,
profile (shape of cross-section), length, and their material.
Beams are traditionally descriptions of building or civil engineering structural
elements, but any structures such as automotive automobile frames, aircraft
components, machine frames, and other mechanical or structural systems contain
beam structures that are designed to carry lateral loads are analyzed in a similar
fashion
Types of beams:
Beams can be classified into many types based on three main criteria. They are as
follows:
1. Based on geometry:
1. Straight beam – beam with straight profile
2. Curved beam – beam with curved profile
3. Tapered beam – beam with tapered cross section
4. Based on the shape of cross section:
i. I-beam – beam with ‘i’ cross section
ii. T-beam – beam with ‘t’ cross section
iii. C-beam – beam with ‘c’ cross section
2. Based on equilibrium conditions:
1. Statically determinate beam – for a statically determinate beam,
equilibrium conditions alone can be used to solve reactions.
2. Statically indeterminate beam – for a statically indeterminate beam,
equilibrium conditions are not enough to solve reactions. Additional
deflections are needed to solve reactions.
3. Based on the type of support:
1. Simply supported beam
2. Cantilever beam
3. Overhanging beam
4. Continuous beam
5. Fixed beam

Classification of beams based on the type of support is discussed in detail below:

i. Simply supported beam:

A simply supported beam is a type of beam that has pinned support at one end and
roller support at the other end. Depending on the load applied, it undergoes
shearing and bending. It is the one of the simplest structural elements in existence.

The following image illustrates a simply supported beam.

Simply supported beam (ssb)

 b) Cantilever beam:
A cantilever beam is fixed at one end and free at other end. It can be seen in the
image below.

Cantilever beam

c) Overhanging beam:
A overhanging beam is a beam that has one or both end portions extending beyond
its supports. It may have any number of supports. If viewed in a different
perspective, it appears as if it is has the features of simply supported beam and
cantilever beam.

Overhanging beam

d) Continuous beam:
A continuous beam has more than two supports distributed throughout its length. It
can be understood well from the image below.

Continuous beam
 e) Fixed beam:
As the name suggests, fixed beam is a type of beam whose both ends are fixed.

Fixed beam

COLUMNS

 
Column or pillar in architecture and structural engineering is a structural element
that transmits, through compression, the weight of the structure above to other
structural elements below. In other words, a column is a compression member. The
term column applies especially to a large round support (the shaft of the column)
with a capital and a base or pedestal  which is made of stone or appearing to be so.
A small wooden or metal support is typically called a post, and supports with a
rectangular or other non-round section are usually called piers. For the purpose
of wind or earthquake engineering, columns may be designed to resist lateral
forces. Other compression members are often termed "columns" because of the
similar stress conditions. Columns are frequently used to
support beams or arches on which the upper parts of walls or ceilings rest. In
architecture, "column" refers to such a structural element that also has certain
proportional and decorative features. A column might also be a decorative element
not needed for structural purposes; many columns are "engaged", that is to say
form part of a wall.
Types of columns in building construction
Columns are classified based on the several conditions which include:

a) Based on types of reinforcement

b) Based on types of loading
c) Based on slenderness ratio
d) Based on shape
e) Based on construction material

Based on types of reinforcement 

1) Tied column

This type of column is commonly construction from reinforced concrete.

Longitudinal reinforcement are confined within closely spaced tie reinforcement. It
is estimated that 95% of all columns in buildings are tied.

2) Spiral column
Spiral column is also construction from reinforced concrete. In this type of
column, longitudinal bars are confined within closely spaced and continuously
wound spiral reinforcement.

Spiral reinforcement provide lateral restrains (Poisson’s effect) and delays axial
load failure (ductile).

3) Composite column

When the longitudinal reinforcement is in the form of structural steel section or

pipe with or without longitudinal bars, it is called as a composite column.

This type of column has high strength with fairly small cross section, in addition to
exhibit good fire performance.

Based on types of loading

4) Axially loaded column

If vertical axial loads act on the centre of gravity of the cross-section of the
column, then it is termed as axially loaded column.

Axially loaded column is rare in construction since coinciding vertical loads on the
centre of gravity of column cross section is not practical.
Interior column of multi-storey buildings with symmetrical loads from floor slabs
from all sides is an example of this type of column.

5) Column with uniaxial eccentric loading

When vertical loads do not coincide with centre of gravity of column cross section,
but rather act eccentrically either on x or y axis of the column cross section, then it
is called uniaxially eccentric loading column.

Column with uniaxial loading are generally encountered in the case of columns
rigidly connected beam from one side only such as edge columns.

6) Column with biaxial eccentric loading

When vertical on the column is not coincide with centre of gravity of column cross
section and does not act on either axis (x and y axis), then the column is called
biaxial eccentric loaded column.

Columns with biaxial loading are common in corner columns with beams rigidly
connected at right angles at the top of columns.
Based on slenderness ratio
Based on slenderness ratio, (effective length/ least lateral dimension), columns are
categorized as follow:

7) Short column

If the ratio effective length of the column to the least lateral dimension is less than
12, the column is called as the short column. A short column fails by crushing
(pure compression failure).

8) Long column

If the ratio effective length of the column to the least lateral dimension exceeds 12,
it is called as long column. A long column fails by bending or buckling.

Based on shape
Shape of reinforced concrete column

9) Square or rectangular column

They are generally used in the construction of buildings. It is much easier to

construct and cast rectangular or square columns than circular ones because of ease
of shuttering and to support it from collapsing due to pressure while the concrete is
still in flowable form.
10) Circular column

They are specially designed columns, which are mostly used in piling and
elevation of the buildings.

11) L-shape column

Commonly, l-shaped column is utilized in the corners of the boundary wall and
has similar characteristics of a rectangular or square column.
12) T-shape column

It is utilized based on design requirements of a structure. T-shaped column is

widely used in the construction of bridges.

13) Shape of steel column

There are different standard and built up shape of steel columns which are shown
in fig. And fig. Common shapes of steel columns include i, channel, equal angle,
and  t-shape.
14) Shape of composite column

The usual shape of composite columns is shown in fig.

Based on construction material

Types of columns based on construction materials include:

15) Reinforced concrete, steel, timber, brick, block, and

stone column.
DAMP PROOF COURSE (DPC)
Damp proof course is a layer of water proofing material such as asphalt or
waterproof cement. Walls are constructed above the damp proof course.
Damp proof course prevents surface water from rising into the walls.
Dampness reduces the strength of the walls and creates unhealthy living
conditions. Also it affects the paint and plaster and increasing the cost of
maintenance.
Damp proofing layer is not required where a plinth beam is constructed, because
the plinth beam already performs like a DPC.

The points to be kept in view while making selection of dpc materials are briefly
discussed below:

 DPC above ground level

For DPC above ground level with wall thickness generally not exceeding 40 cm,
any one of the type of materials mentioned above may be used. Cement concrete is
however commonly adopted material for DPCat plinth level, 38 to 50mm thick
layer of cement concrete m15 (1:2:4 mix) serves the purpose under normal
conditions.

In case of damp and humid atmosphere, richer mix of concrete should be used. The
concrete is further made dense by adding water proofing materials like pudlo,
impermo, waterlock etc. In its ingredients during the process of mixing. It is used
to apply two coats of hot bitumen over the third surface of the concrete DPC.
  DPC material for floors, roofs etc.
For greater wall thickness or where DPC is to be laid over large areas such as
floors, roofs, etc., the choice is limited to flexible materials which provide lesser
number of joints like mastic, asphalt, bitumen felts, plastic sheets etc.

The felts when used should be properly bonded to the surface with bitumen and
laid with joints properly lapped and sealed.

FLOOR

This is the surface on which we do most of our activities. Floorings is laid over the
filling of the plinth and on subsequent floors.
Flooring can be done with different materials, but care must be given that the
ground below the floor is well compacted. Flooring is done to prevent dampness
from rising to the top and to have a firm platform that can be kept hygienic and
clean.

Types of flooring
 Stone flooring:
Stone flooring is beautiful, natural, and always stylish. Natural stones tiles always
come in different types of granite, limestone, sandstone, travertine, and slate. The
natural chard surface, cool is ideal for warm and hot climates

 Terrazzo (marble chips) flooring:

Terrazzo flooring is other types of popular flooring which is used by many people
which commonly recommended for dining rooms, bathrooms, hospitals, offices,
rooms, etc. Terrazzo is a concrete surface which is a special type of marble chips
embedded in it.
  Marble flooring:
Marble flooring is a natural stone, and when done properly finished it can be
transformed into beautiful flooring. Marble flooring is one of the best and most
luxurious and sophisticated floorings to add up in a home.

 PVC flooring:
PVC which stands for polyvinyl chloride. These tales are very blight, colorful and
have a very smooth top surface and a top lower surface. Pvc flooring has a shiny,
modern appearance and is popular for its quality, durability and is cost effective.

 Glass flooring:
Glass flooring is very common which can be used in aristocratic building in both
the commercial and residential particularly to have the pleasure and smooth
surface. Glass flooring is generally dirt resistant and bacteria free.

 Laminate flooring:
Laminate flooring which is created by several layers of material which is fusing
together. It is clean and more durable and can also resist chipping and scratches.
Laminate flooring is faded resistant and stain free.

 Carpet flooring:
On carpet flooring, the carpet is made up of synthetic fibres or wool such as nylon,
polypropylene or polyester. It is the most versatile flooring out of all the of all
options which features more textures, patterns, and colours than any other flooring.
It resists crushing, mildew, and moisture, etc.

 Brick flooring:
Brick flooring is the oldest types of flooring which is on the market for so many
years. It is used in godowns, courtyards, stores, etc. Brick flooring provides
sufficiently hard floor surface and is durable. It provides fire-resistant surface and
is non-slippery.

 Concrete flooring:
Concrete flooring is one of the essential floors of all time. It is very common
around the globe for all types of e right Chou buildings. Concrete flooring is
extremely strong and which can withstand the pressure from cars, trucks, etc.
  Cork flooring:
It is a natural material which is obtained from the outer bark of cork oak tree which
is available in the form of coloured sheets or tiles. These types of flooring
materials are not commonly used in other parts of the world.

WALLS

Walls are the vertical elements on which the roof finally rests. They can be made
of different materials like bricks, stones, mud, concrete blocks, lateritic blocks etc.
If the walls are very long, columns can be provided to carry the roof.
Walls provide privacy and enclosure. Walls also provide security and protection
against natural elements such as wind, rain and sunshine.
Openings are to be provided in wall for access and ventilation.

Types of walls
Following are various types of walls used in building construction:

1. Load bearing wall

It carries loads imposed on it from beams and slabs above including its own
weight and transfers it to the foundation. These walls support structural members
such as beams, slabs and walls on above floors above. It can be exterior wall or
interior wall. It braces from the roof to the floor.
Types of load bearing wall
o Precast concrete wall
o Retaining wall
o Masonry wall
o Pre panellized load bearing metal stud walls
o Engineering brick wall (115mm, 225mm)
o Stone wall
As the height of the building increased, required thickness of wall and resulting
stress on foundation will also increase and cause it to be uneconomical.
2. Non load bearing wall
Non-load bearing walls only carry their own weight and do not support any
structural members such as beams and slabs. These walls are just used as partition
walls or to separate rooms from outside. It is known as interior wall (doesn’t
carry other load than its own load.
Types of non load bearing wall
    a) Hollow concrete block
    b) Facade bricks
    c) Hollow bricks
    d) Brick wall (115mm, 225mm)

3. Cavity walls

It is a wall constructed in 2 leaves / skins with a space / cavity between them. A

type of building wall construction consisting of an outer wall fastened to inner wall
separated by an air space. Cavity walls help to prevent the penetration of rain to
the   internal surface of the wall.

4. Shear wall
Shear walls are a framed wall designed to resist lateral forces. It is a vertical
element of the horizontal force resisting system. It is used to resist wind and
earthquake loading on a building. It is typically a wood frame stud walls covered
with a structural sheathing material like plywood.

5. Partition wall
Partition wall is an interior non-load bearing wall to divide the larger space into
smaller spaces. The heights of a partition wall depend on the use which may
be one storey or part of one storey. These walls are made up of glass, fibre boards
or brick masonry.
6. Panel wall
Panel wall is generally made of wood and is an exterior non-load bearing wall in
framed construction. It is used for aesthetics of the buildings both inside and
outside. It remains totally supported at each storey but subjected to lateral loads.

7. Veneered walls
Masonry veneer walls are a single non-structural external masonry wall made of
brick, stone or manufactured stone. It has an air space behind and is called as
anchored veneer.

8. Faced wall
Faced walls has the facing and backing of two different materials are bonded
together to ensure common action under load.

OPENINGS

Openings in a building are used to provide natural light, for ventilation and also
for access. So if you have these three main reasons for opening its easy to know
which openings a structure will have. So we have the following,

1. Door-this type of opening is used to provide access to a structure. If

you don't have a door, you won't get into the structure. It’s also used to
provide natural light and ventilation for some residential buildings

2. Window- this type of opening is used to provide natural light to a

building and also for ventilation.

3. Ventilation-this type of opening is for ventilation. Normally warm air

is lighter than cold air. So the air we breathe out/the air in building is
warm, so since its lighter than cold air it will rise up and leave the
 structure through ventilation openings while cold fresh air which is heavy
enters the structure through doors and windows. But nowadays with
artificial ventilation this natural ventilation is not that important

STAIRS

A stair is a sequence of steps and it is provided to afford the means of ascent

and descent between the floors and landings.
The apartment or room of a building in which stair is located is called staircase.
The space or opening occupied by the stair is called a stairway.
There are different kind of stairs are used in buildings, like RCC stair, wooden
stair, metal stair, brick stair etc.
Various components or parts of staircase and their details

Following are the various components of staircase:

 Step
The step is composed of the tread and riser.
  Tread
The part of the stairway that is stepped on. It is constructed to the same
specifications (thickness) as any other flooring. The tread “depth” is measured
from the outer edge of the step to the vertical “riser” between steps. The “width” is
measured from one side to the other.

 Riser
The vertical portion between each treads on the stair. This may be missing for an
“open” stair effect.

 Nosing
An edge part of the tread that protrudes over the riser beneath. If it is present, this
means that, measured horizontally, the total “run” length of the stairs is not simply
the sum of the tread lengths, as the treads actually overlap each other slightly.

 Starting step or bullnose

Where stairs are open on one or both sides, the first step above the lower floor may
be wider than the other steps and rounded. The balusters typically form a
semicircle around the circumference of the rounded portion and the handrail has a
horizontal spiral called a “volute” that supports the top of the balusters.

Besides the cosmetic appeal, starting steps allow the balusters to form a wider,
more stable base for the end of the handrail.

Handrails that simply end at a post at the foot of the stairs can be less sturdy, even
with a thick post. A double bullnose can be used when both sides of the stairs are
open.

 Stringer, stringer board or sometimes just string

The structural member that supports the treads and risers. There are typically two
stringers, one on either side of the stairs; though the treads may be supported many
other ways. The stringers are sometimes notched so that the risers and treads fit
into them.

Stringers on open-sided stairs are often open themselves so that the treads are
visible from the side. Such stringers are called “cut” stringers. Stringers on a
closed side of the stairs are closed, with the support for the treads routed into the
stringer.
ROOF
The roof provides protection for the building and the people living in it. The
roof rests on the walls and requires proper anchoring so that wind and other
mechanical impact cannot destroy it. A roof can have different shapes but it is
always either flat or sloping.
Roof is typically made of RCC, stone slab, tiles etc.

Types of roofs

 Gable roof:
Gable roof designs are one of the more simple styles when it comes to roofs. The
gable roof style looks like an inverted/upside down v. Gable roofs are not ideal for
areas with high wind because they easily can catch the wind much like a sail
would.

 Flat roof:
Flat roofs are common especially with commercial buildings. Flat roofs are
definitely the simplest roof to build because they have little to no pitch. The most
common types of roofing systems used with flat roofs are rubber roofing systems.

 Hip roof:
Hip roofs are a common residential style roof. This type of roof is more difficult to
construct when compared to flat roofs and gable roofs because they have a more
complicated truss and rafter structure. A hip roof style roof has four sloping sides
with zero vertical roof lines/walls. Hip roofs can be both square and rectangular.
  Gambrel roof:
The best way to describe a gambrel roof is by saying barn roof. The gambrel style
roof is most commonly used on barns. However, it is also used in residential
construction. This type of roof has the benefit of providing a good amount of space
in the attic. In fact, it provides so much extra space that it is often turned into
bedrooms or other living areas.

 Shed roof:
A shed roof is basically a flat roof but has more pitch. It is frequently used for
additions on homes or other roof styles.

 Mansard roof:
The mansard roof is a French design and is more difficult to construct than the hip
or gable roof.

 Butterfly roof:
The butterfly roof is not a roof style that is widely used. The style provides plenty
of light and ventilation but is not the effective when it comes to water drainage.

 Winged gable roof:

The winged gable roof varies slightly from the tradition gable roof. It varies by
extended outwards from the peak of the roof.

 A-frame roof:
This type of roof is very popular for churches, cottages, homes, and other
structures. The roof acts as both the roof and the walls for a structure.

 Folded plate roof:

The folded plate roof has limited use in single family homes. It looks like a series
of small gable roofs placed side by side of each other.

ONE WAY SLAB:

One way slab is a slab which is supported by beams on the two opposite sides to
carry the load along one direction. The ratio of longer span (l) to shorter span (b) is
equal or greater than 2, considered as One way slab because this slab will bend in
one direction i.e. in the direction along its shorter span
Due to the huge difference in lengths, load is not transferred to the shorter beams.
Main reinforcement is provided in shorter span and distribution reinforcement in
longer span.

Example: Generally all the Cantilever slabs are one Way slab. Chajjas and
verandas are a practical example of one way slab.

TWO WAY SLAB:

Two way slab is a slab supported by beams on all the four sides and the loads are
carried by the supports along both directions, it is known as two way slab. In two
way slab, the ratio of longer span (l) to shorter span (b) is less than 2.
In two way slabs, load will be carried in both the directions. So, main
reinforcement is provided in both directions for two way slabs.
Example: These types of slabs are used in constructing floors of multi storyed
building.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ONE WAY SLAB AND TWO

WAY SLAB:

One Way Slab Two Way Slab

Slabs are supported by the beams on Slabs are supported by beams on all the
the two opposite sides four sides.

Main reinforcement is provided on Main reinforcement is provided in both

shorter span due to bending sides due to bending occurs on both sides

Main Reinforcement is provided in Main Reinforcement is provided along

only direction for one way slabs both the directions in two way slabs.

Loads are carried along one Loads are carried along both the
direction in one way slab. directions in two way slabs.