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1. Importance of columns in any building and columns classifications.

 Columns carry axial loads and therefore are designed for compression
forces.
 Other loads like snow load, wind load, or other horizontal forces can
cause bending in the structure, to prevent the failure or settlement of
structure columns are provided.
 We shall build up a small size structure by random rubble masonry at a
certain height but the multi–story building cannot
be constructed by random rubble masonry because the structure is
capable to transmit the heavy load to the base of the foundation.
 The column is generally designed to distribute the compressive axial
load & additional forces like snow, wind to the foundation evenly and it
could be sustained the structure even in the earthquake or in any other
forces.
The various column types of columns used in construction are

A. Based on the Shape

1. Square or Rectangular Column

2. They are commonly used in the construction of buildings and heavy structures.

3. It is much effortless to construct and cast rectangular or square

columns than circular ones because of the ease of shuttering and to support it
from collapsing due to pressure while the concrete is still in flowable form.

4. The square or rectangular ones are better and cheapest in cost

2. Circular Column

Circular columns are mostly used in piling and elevation of the buildings for aesthetic
purposes.

In a circular column, more than 4 longitudinal steel bars are used as a reinforcement bar and
its bending resistance is generally higher than the square or rectangular column.

Other than buildings, circular columns are mostly used as bridge pillars due to good resistance
against deflection.

3. L and T shaped Column

Generally, the L-shaped column is utilized in the corners of the boundary wall and has similar
characteristics of a rectangular or square column.

The T-shaped column is utilized based on the design requirements of a structure. It

is widely used in the construction of bridges.
B. Based on the Type of Reinforcement

4. Tied Column

This is usually constructed from reinforced concrete. Longitudinal reinforcements are confined
within closely spaced tie reinforcement.

If ties are spaced too far apart, the column will experience shear failure and barreling in
between ties. It is estimated that 95% of all columns in buildings are tied columns.

5. Spiral Column

When spiral columns are reinforced with closely and uniformly spaced spiral reinforcement,
they are also known as spiral columns.

Mostly the spiral columns are providing to support in the transverse

direction and prevent the column from barreling. Spirally reinforced columns generally consist of 6
bars as longitudinal reinforcement.

6. Composite Column

These columns consist of structural steel or cast iron column enclosed with
concrete, reinforced with longitudinal as well as spiral reinforcement.

Composite columns are widely used in truss structures to avoid the corrosion of steel. This
type of column has more adequate strength with a fairly small cross–section, in addition,
to exhibit good fire performance

C. Based on the Type of Loading

7. Axially Loaded Column

If vertical axial loads act on the center of gravity of the cross–section of the column, then it
is termed as an axially loaded column.

The axially loaded column is rare in construction since coinciding vertical loads on the center
of gravity of the column section is not practical.

The Interior column of multi–story buildings with symmetrical loads from floor slabs from all
sides is an example of this type of column

8. Uniaxial Eccentrically Loaded Column

The axis of vertical loads doesn’t cross with C.G. (center of gravity) of a cross–section of
the column, but rather act eccentrically either on the X or Y axis of the column cross-
section, then it is called a uniaxial eccentrically loaded column.
A column with this loading system used in the case of columns rigidly connected beam from one
side only such as edge columns.

9. Biaxial Eccentrically Loaded Column

When vertical loads on the column do not coincide with the center of gravity of the
column cross-section and do not act on wither axis (X and Y axis), then the column is called
a biaxial eccentrically loaded column.

Columns with bi axial loading are mostly used in corner columns with beams rigidly
connected at right angles at the top of columns. These types of columns are used
in special types of construction.

D. Based on Slenderness Ratio

10. Short Column

If the ratio of the effective length of the column to the least lateral dimension is less than 12,
the column is called the short column. A short column fails by crushing of the concrete (pure
compression failure)

11. Long Column

If the ratio of the effective length of the column to the least lateral dimension exceeds 12, it
is called a long column. A long column fails by bending or buckling. Long columns are
weaker compare to short columns of the same cross-sectional area and
not generally preferred.

E. Based on Construction Materials

12. Reinforced Concrete Column

Reinforced Concrete Column

A column in which is reinforced with steel are known as reinforced concrete column.
This column majorly used in building construction. Concrete is strong
in compression and weak in tension. Therefore, steel
reinforcement is provided to increase its tension capacity.

13. Steel Column

Steel Column

The column which is made from steel is known as steel column. There are huge trends in steel
structure construction in the world.

The steel structure is comparatively more flexible, strong, and durable than the concrete
structure. There are different types of steel columns like the T section steel column which
is most commonly used in steel structures.
Brick Column

Brick masonry types of columns are generally used in the load–bearing structures. It plays
a vital role in supporting and increasing the stability of the masonry structure. Sometimes,
the construction of brick masonry columns over the concrete column increases its aesthetic
appearance. Brick masonry column may have different cross-sections
like round, rectangle or square, or elliptical.

16. Block Column

Block types of columns are constructed from AAC block or cement concrete block. The Block
column is structural weight is less compared to a concrete column.

Stone Column

 The types of columns in which are made by using stones and rubble are known as
the stone column. There are most used to increase the aesthetic appearance of
the house.

2. IS Code recommendations for the effective span of the stair slab when landing spans
perpendicular to the flight.
3. The factors affecting bearing capacity of the soil,definition load bearing capacity of the soil.

A1. The bearing capacity of soil is influenced by many factors for instance soil strength, foundation
width and depth, soil weight and surcharge, and spacing between foundations. These factors are
related to the loads exerted on the soil and considerably affect the bearing capacity.

Apart from the above factors, there are number of non-load related factors that influence bearing

capacity and need to be considered during the design of foundation and computing the soil bearing

capacity. For instance, earthquake and dynamic motion, frost action, subsurface void, expansive and

collapsible soil, potential heave, soil erosion and seepage, and soil reinforcement.

Bearing capacity is the ability of soil to safely carry the pressure placed on the soil from any engineered

structure without undergoing a shear failure with accompanying large settlements.

 4. Various steps in the design of a square footings with uniform depth supporting a column with
axial load only.
5. The requirement of shear wall in the building and the design procedure of shear wall as per
codal provisions.
A5. Shear walls are structural members that provide additional lateral stiffness to a building by
resisting shear, moment, and axial forces, which are produced due to gravity and lateral loads.
In some design cases, the entire lateral loads coming to a building assumed to be resisted by
shear walls alone, especially when it is the major stabilising/bracing component of the building.
The design of shear walls involves providing adequate cross-section and reinforcements to resist
bending, shear, axial, and twisting forces due to gravity and lateral loads.

6. Design a Dog-Legged staircase with the following parameters:- (i) Width = 1.20m (ii) Floor to
Floor height = 3.0m (iii) Size of stair hall = 3.0m X6.0m (iv) Thickness of walls on the ends of
landing = 23cm on each side (v) Use M20 concrete and Fe 415 steel(Practice more similar
questions)

DONE

7. Design procedure for Isolated Footing in reference to the provisions of IS 456:2000.

8. The requirement of stairs in any building and the conditions favorable for providing straight
stairs.

A8. Staircase is an important component of a building which helps in commuting between 2

floors. Improperly designed staircases can cause severe injury and even death if the necessary
guidelines and building codes are not followed properly. Hence, the design of stairs as per the set
guidelines is important for the safety purpose.
 Straight stairs tend to be the easiest to go up and down, or, ascend/descend, as we say
in the industry.
 They are typically the easiest to build, however, this depends a lot on the level of detail
in the design.
 Straight stairs only need to be connected at the top and the bottom (no intermediate
supporting structure is required).
 They work well with minimalist designed homes due to their inherent simplicity.
 By selecting thinner treads, open risers, and thin metal stringers, straight stairs can be
made more transparent than other types of stairs, allowing less obstruction to the view
beyond.
 No landing is required if the number of risers is kept under 16 or the overall vertical
height is less than 12 feet.
 It’s relatively easy to build railings and handrails for straight stairs.
 Measuring for railings for straight stairs is simpler than for other stair designs.
 9. Load bearing structures and different load bearing members with their importance for the
building.

A9. A load bearing structure is a building structure where the load is moved vertically
downwards through the walls of the structure. The weight is transferred from the roof to the
walls which transfer to the foundation
Components of load bearing structure
 Load Bearing Wall structure: A load bearing wall structure holds the load of slabs
above the foundation of the construction property.
 Beams: Beams are the most essential thing required for the load bearing of type
support the surface of the building. These beams are made up of wood and metal.
 Columns: Another effective and most important tool to build the strong foundation
of the building
 Brace: Braces are structural elements used in the framework structural system.
Advantages of load bearing structure
 This type of foundation support is less expensive as compared to other machine
base support such as farmed structures.
 If a builder constructing a building up to three floors then using load bearing
structure can be a great idea.
This is all about what is load bearing structure.

10. Design a spiral column subjected to an unfactored load of 1600kN. Effective length of column
is 3.5m. Use M25 concrete, Fe415 steel, and assume moderate environment.
11. Various components of the staircase,viz. risers,treads,width,etc.
12. The basic physical properties of the soil considered while designing the structure.
13. Ground water table detailsand various factors affecting ground water table.

A13. The water table is an underground boundary between the soil surface and the area
where groundwater saturates spaces between sediments and cracks in rock. ... Springs are
 formed where the water table naturally meets the land surface, causing groundwater to flow
from the surface and eventually into a stream, river, or lake.

There are three major issues that affect water table geology. Each contributes to changes in water

table height.

1. Climate

The current climate in a region affects the height of the water table. High levels of rainfall will

raise the table, as will humidity in the summer. This makes it easier to access groundwater, but

also makes it harder for the ground to absorb additional water. Areas with high water tables

become prone to flooding due to oversaturation of the land.

2. The soil

The soil’s composition will also help to determine the level of the water table in a region. For

example, soil that contains a lot of clay will not absorb much water. This results in a low water

table, as water must travel further down to find suitable soil to accumulate. Similarly, rocky areas

and regions with compacted soil usually have low water tables

3. Human activities

How we treat the land can have an effect on water table geology. Usually, human activity leads to

the table lowering. Ground clearing, which is often followed by construction work, changes the

topology of the land. This often leads to soil erosion. Of course, concrete over land also prevents

soil from absorbing water, which causes it to flow to other areas.

14. Pile foundations

A14. A pile foundation is defined as a series of columns constructed or inserted into the
ground to transmit loads to a lower level of subsoil. A pile is a long cylinder made up of a
strong material, such as concrete. ... The piles support the structure by remaining solidly placed
in the soil

15. Longitudinal reinforcement provisions as per IS 456:2000

16. Minimum eccentricity? Give its limiting value for considering a column axially loaded in limit
state method of design
17. Design a rectangular column subjected to ab axial load of 3000kN and under dead and live
loads case. The column is braced against side sway in both the directions and is having an
unsupported length of 3.20m. Use M25 concrete, Fe415 steel and assume missing data, if any.
18. The various types of staircases.

 A18. Straight Stair,

 Dogged-legged Stair,
 Open Newel Stair,
 Geometrical Stair,
 Circular Stair,
 Spiral Stair,
 Quarter-turn Stair,
 Bifurcated Stair.

19. Porosity of the soil

A19. Soil porosity refers to the fraction of the total soil volume that is taken up by the
pore space (Nimmo, 2004). Mainly, pore spaces facilitate the availability and movement of
air or water within the soil environment.
20. Permeability of the soil

A20. Soil permeability is the property of the soil to transmit water and air and is one of
the most important qualities to consider for fish culture. A pond built in impermeable soil will
lose little water through seepage. The more permeable the soil, the greater the seepage.
21. Combined footing and types of combined footings.

A21. When individual footing has to accommodate two or in exceptional case more
than Two columns is known as the combined footing. or. When two or three columns are
located very near to each other, we provide a single substructure for them and the footing is
known as a combined footing.
22. The various types of bricks available in the field of construction. Mention the advantages and
disadvantages of brick laying techniques.

A22.

23. Design a column of height 3m, which is effectively held in position and restrained against
rotation at bottom and effectively restrained against rotation but not held in position at top.
It is subjected to an axial load of 1650kN under dead and live load condition. Use M25
concrete, Fe415 steel and assume moderate environment.