Indira Jihan Shafira

2201838746 – LB44

BUILDING TECHNOLOGY – MID EXAM

I. INTRODUCTION

HIGHRISE BUILDING INTRODUCTION

A high-rise building is a tall building, as opposed to a low-rise building and is defined differently
in terms of height depending on the jurisdiction. It is used as a residential, office building, or other
functions including hotel, retail, or with multiple purposes combined. Residential high-rise
buildings are also known as tower blocks and may be referred to as "MDUs", standing for "multi-
dwelling unit".A very tall high-rise building is referred to as a skyscraper.
High-rise buildings became possible with the invention of the elevator (lift) and less expensive,
more abundant building materials. The materials used for the structural system of high-rise
buildings are reinforced concrete and steel. Most North American style skyscrapers have a steel
frame, while residential blocks are usually constructed of concrete. There is no clear difference
between a tower block and a skyscraper, although a building with forty or more stories and taller
than 150 m (490 ft) is generally considered a skyscraper.[2]. Agglomerations with the largest
number of buildings above 35 meters, having more than 20,000 such buildings, are: São Paulo,
Seoul, Shanghai, Beijing, Istanbul, Moscow, Tokyo, Cairo.
High-rise structures pose particular design challenges for structural and geotechnical engineers,
particularly if situated in a seismically active region or if the underlying soils have geotechnical
risk factors such as high compressibility or bay mud. They also pose serious challenges to
firefighters during emergencies in high-rise structures. New and old building design, building
systems like the building standpipe system, HVAC systems (heating, ventilation and air
conditioning), fire sprinkler system and other things like stairwell and elevator evacuations pose
significant problems. Studies are often required to ensure that pedestrian wind comfort and wind
danger concerns are addressed. In order to allow less wind exposure, to transmit more daylight to
the ground and to appear more slender, many high-rises have a design with setbacks.
Apartment buildings have technical and economic advantages in areas of high population density,
and have become a distinctive feature of housing accommodation in virtually all densely populated
urban areas around the world. In contrast with low-rise and single-family houses, apartment blocks
accommodate more inhabitants per unit of area of land and decrease the cost of municipal
infrastructure.

High-rise building, also called high-rise, multistory building tall enough to require the use of a
system of mechanical vertical transportation such as elevators. The skyscraper is a very tall high-
rise building. The first high-rise buildings were constructed in the United States in the 1880s. They
arose in urban areas where increased land prices and great population densities created a demand
for buildings that rose vertically rather than spread horizontally, thus occupying less precious land
area. High-rise buildings were made practicable by the use of steel structural frames and glass
exterior sheathing. By the mid-20th century, such buildings had become a standard feature of the
architectural landscape in most countries in the world.

The foundations of high-rise buildings must sometimes support very heavy gravity loads, and they
usually consist of concrete piers, piles, or caissons that are sunk into the ground. Beds of solid rock
are the most desirable base, but ways have been found to distribute loads evenly even on relatively
soft ground. The most important factor in the design of high-rise buildings, however, is the
building’s need to withstand the lateral forces imposed by winds and potential earthquakes. Most
high-rises have frames made of steel or steel and concrete.

Their frames are constructed of columns (vertical-support members) and beams (horizontal-
support members). Cross-bracing or shear walls may be used to provide a structural frame with
greater lateral rigidity in order to withstand wind stresses. Even more stable frames use closely
spaced columns at the building’s perimeter, or they use the bundled-tube system, in which a
number of framing tubes are bundled together to form exceptionally rigid columns.

High-rise buildings are enclosed by curtain walls; these are non-load-bearing sheets of glass,
masonry, stone, or metal that are affixed to the building’s frame through a series of vertical and
horizontal members called mullions and muntins.The principal means of vertical transport in a
high-rise is the elevator. It is moved by an electric motor that raises or lowers the cab in a vertical
shaft by means of wire ropes. Each elevator cab is also engaged by vertical guide tracks and has a
flexible electric cable connected to it that provides power for lighting, door operation, and signal
transmission.Because of their height and their large occupant populations, high-rises require the
careful provision of life-safety systems. Fire-prevention standards should be strict, and provisions
for adequate means of egress in case of fire, power failure, or other accident should be provided.
Although originally designed for commercial purposes, many high-rises are now planned for
multiple uses. The combination of office, residential, retail, and hotel space is common.

II. STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS

A building needs to be stabilised for horizontal load and to achieve this, several different structural
systems can be chosen. Some of these are shown in Figure 2.5 and described in this section, for
more detailed information see [34]. All of the different systems have evolved from the traditional
rigidly jointed structural frame. The fundamental design for all these structural systems have been
to place as much of the load-carrying material as possible around the buildings external fringe to
maximise its flexural rigidity. For all structural systems, advantage can be taken by locating the
main vertical members and, with the compressive stresses from selfweight, suppress the lateral
load tensile stresses. This to avoid net tension in the vertical members and uplift in the foundations.
For some structural systems it is necessary to have self-weight at the outer vertical members in
order to achieve this
 • Framed tube structure

For framed tube structures the lateral resistance is given by very stiff moment resisting frames that
form a tube around the perimeter of the building. The tube carries all the lateral load and the self-
weight is distributed between the outer tube and the interior columns or walls. For the lateral
loading the perimeter frames aligned in the load direction acts as webs of the tube cantilever and
those perpendicular to the load direction acts as flanges. The tube structure is suitable for both steel
and reinforced concrete buildings and have been used in the range of 40–100 stories. Framed tube
systems have been the most significant modern development in high-rise structural forms and is
easily constructed and usable for great heights. For the aesthetics of the tube structure the
enthusiasm is mixed, some like the logic of the clearly expressed structure while others criticise
the grid-like facade as small windowed and repetitious. A disadvantage with the tube structure is
the efficiency for the flange frames, for lateral loading, which tend to suffer from shear lag with
the result that the mid columns are less stressed than the corner columns and therefore not
contributing as much as they could.

• Bundled tube
The bundled tube structure consists of four parallel rigid frames in each orthogonal direction,
interconnected to form nine bundled tubes, see Figure 2.6. The principle is the same as for the
single tube structure where the frames in the horizontal load direction acts as webs and the
perpendicular frames acts as flanges. By introducing the internal webs the shear lag is drastically
reduced and as a result the stresses in the columns are more evenly distributed and their
contribution to the lateral stiffness is more significant. This allows for the columns to be spaced
further apart and to be less striking.

• Tube in tube

What differentiates the tube in tube concept from other structural systems is that an outer framed
tube (hull), is working together with an internal tube (core), usually elevator shafts and stairs, to
resist both the lateral and vertical loading, see Figure 2.7. This provides increased lateral stiffness
and can be seen as the shear and flexural components of a wall-frame structure.

• Diagonalised- and rigid frame

In braced frames the lateral resistance is given by diagonal members that, together with the girders,
form a web of vertical trusses, where the columns acting as chords, see Figure 2.8. Bracing systems
are highly efficient of resisting lateral loads. This due to the horizontal shear in the building is
resisted by the horizontal components resulting intensile and compressive actions in the web
members. The bracing system is an almost steel exclusive system since the diagonals are inevitably
subjected to tension for one or the other direction of the lateral loading. Braced systems are able
to produce a very stiff lateral structure for a minimum of additional material which makes it
economically efficient for any height. The major disadvantage with diagonal bracing is that it is
limiting the internal planning and the location of windows. Furthermore, the connections to the
diagonals are expensive to fabricate and erect.
In rigid frame structures the columns and girders are joined together by moment resistant
connections. The lateral stiffness of a rigid frame depends on the bending stiffness of the columns,
girders and connections in-plane. This type of structure is ideally suited for reinforced concrete
buildings because of the stiffness from reinforced concrete joints. For steel, these connections can
be made although they are expensive. An advantage with rigid frame structures is the possibility
of planning andfittingofwindowsbecauseoftheopenrectangulararrangement. Adisadvantage
isthattheself-weightisresistedbytheactionfromrigidframes. Negativemoments are induced in
girders adjacent to columns causing the mid-span positive moments to be significantly less than in
a simply supported span. For buildings where selfweights dictate the design, usually below 10
stories, economics in member sizes that arise from this effect tend to be offset by the increased cost
of the rigid joints.

• Outrigger system

The outrigger system is an efficient structural form that consists of a central core withoutriggers,
connectingthecoretotheoutercolumns. Thecentralcorecontains ofeitherbracedframesorshearwalls.
Whenthebuildingisloadedlaterallythevertical plane rotations are resisted by the outriggers through
tension in the windward columns and compression in the leeward columns, see Figure 2.9. This is
augmenting the lateral stiffness of the building and reducing the lateral deflections as well as the
moments in the core. In addition, the outriggers join the columns and makes the building behave
almost as a composite cantilever. Even the perimeter columns, those not directly connected to the
outriggers, can be used to increase the lateral resistance of the building by connecting all the
perimeter columns with a horizontal girder around the building’s facade. Multilevel outrigger
systems can provide up to five times the moment resistance of a single outrigger system. Outrigger
systems have been used for buildings up to 70 stories but the concept should hold for even higher
buildings.
• Hybrid structure

Hybrid structures are often used for non-prismatic structure where two or more of
thebasicstructuresdescribedearlierareusedinthesamebuilding. This concept can be used for
either direct combination of, for example ,at ube and anoutrigger system or by adopting
different systems for different parts of the building, for example a tube system on three
walls and a frame on the fourth wall.

III. STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS

• Foundation Design

The foundations of high-rise buildings support very heavy loads, but the systems developed
for low-rise buildings are used, though enlarged in scale. These include concrete caisson
 columns bearing on rock or building on exposed rock itself. Bearing piles and floating
foundations are also used. High rise buildings are massive structures which exert
tremendous pressure on the ground and are likely to sink. So to avoid sinking, their
foundations are made wide, to decrease the pressure on the ground.

1. Raft/mat foundations ,are relatively large in size; hence the foundation vertical bearing
capacity is generally not the controlling factor in the design. The effects of lateral and
moment loading should be incorporated into the assessment of ultimate bearing pressure.
Soil stiffness is important in the raft/mat design to understand load distribution in the mat
and for evaluating bending moments and shears in the raft. It is often good practice to look
at an upper and lower bound set of soil stiffness values to evaluate raft performance

2. Compensated raft foundations , Tall buildings very frequently have one or more basements
to cater for car parking and/or commercial and retail space. In such cases, the construction
of the raft involves excavation of the soil prior to construction of the foundation and the
superstructure. Because of the stress reduction in the underlying ground caused by
excavation, the net increase in ground stress due to the structure will be decreased, and
hence it may be expected that the settlement and differential settlement of the foundation
will also be decreased.

3. Piled foundations ,Often the ground conditions at a site are not suitable for a shallow
raft/mat foundation system, especially for high-rise buildings where the vertical and lateral
loadings imposed on the foundation are significant. In these circumstances, it is necessary
to support the building loads on piles, either single piles or pile groups, generally located
beneath columns and load bearing walls.A piled foundation for high-rise structures often
comprises a large numbers of piles and, therefore, the challenge in the design is capturing
the effects of the group interaction. It is well recognised that the settlement of a pile group
 can differ significantly from that of a single pile at the same average load level due to group
effects

4. Piled raft foundations ,A piled raft foundation is a composite system in which both the piles
and the raft share the applied structural loadings. Within a conventional piled foundation,
it may be possible for the number of piles to be reduced significantly by considering the
contribution of the raft to the overall foundation capacity. In such cases, the piles provide
the majority of the foundation stiffness while the raft provides a reserve of load capacity

5. Compensated piled raft foundations ,As the total piled-raft stiffness is directly related to
the pile stiffness, the overall behaviour of a “compensated piled raft” will be affected by
the excavation sequence. If the raft weight is lower than the effective excavation weight,
the soil will still behave as an over-consolidated soil during the first stage of raising the
building structure.For compensated pile rafts, the excavation and pile installation process
must be selected to suit each case. In some buildings, with shallow excavations, the piles
can be executed before the excavation, from the ground level.

• Edge
 Retaining wall is a structure that retain (holds back) any material (usually earth) and
prevents it from sliding or eroding away. It is designed so that to resist the material
pressure of the material that it is holding back.

Types of retaining wall:

1. Gravity Wall, Gravity walls depend on their mass (stone, concrete or other heavy
material) to resist pressure from behind and may have a 'batter' setback to improve
stability by leaning back toward the retained soil

2.Cantileverd Wall , Cantilevered retaining walls are made from an internal stem of steel-
reinforced, cast-in-place concrete or mortared masonry (often in the shape of an inverted
T)

3.Sheet Pilling , Sheet pile retaining walls are usually used in soft soil and tight spaces.
Sheet pile walls are driven into the ground and are composed of a variety of material
including steel, vinyl, aluminum, fiberglass or wood planks.

4.Anchored Wall , An anchored retaining wall can be constructed in any of the

aforementioned styles but also includes additional strength using cables or other stays
anchored in the rock or soil behind it.

• Floor Loadings
The structure must be designed to resist the gravitational and lateral forces, both
permanent and transient. That it will be called on to sustain during its construction and
subsequent service life. These forces will depend on the size and shape of the building.

1.Static/dead load , The dead load includes loads that are relatively constant over time,
including the weight of the structure itself, and immovable fixtures such as walls,
plasterboard or carpet.

2.Dynamic/Imposed/Live/transient load Live loads, or imposed loads, are temporary, of

short duration, or a moving load. These dynamic loads may involve considerations such
as impact, momentum, vibration, slosh dynamics of fluids and material fatigue.Live
loads, sometimes also referred to as probabilistic loads, include all the forces that are
variable within the object's normal operation cycle not including construction or
environmental loads

• Environmental Loads
Environmental loads are loads caused by wind, waves, current, and other external forces.
Wind, waves, and current loads can also induce platform movements.
1. Wind load Wind
load is also known as air load. The air load gets applied from air movement. Intensity of
wind load depends upon velocity of air, density of the air, shape and size of the structure,
and area of the contact surface.
2. Snow load
Snow loads come on the structure from the snow and ice. The snow load acts in the
downward direction on the roof of the structure. According to the design consideration,
building is designed for the snow loading, if the intensity of loading from ice fall is
higher than the weight of buildings
3. Earthquake load
Earthquake load is also known as seismic load. Earthquake load comes over a structure in
the form of seismic wave. The intensity of the seismic wave decreases as the distance
from the epicenter increases.
4. Thermal load
All materials expand or contract with temperature change and this can exert significant
loads on a structure. Expansion joints can be provided at points on long sections of
structures such as walls and floors so that elements of the structure are physically
separated and can expand without causing structural damage.

• Expansion Joints
These are provided along the transverse direction to allow the expansion and contraction
of a concrete slab due to temperature and subgrade moisture variation. They are intended
to prevent potentially damaging forces accumulating within the slab itself or
surrounding structures. Maximum spacing of expansion joints range from 25-27 m in
jointed reinforced concrete slabs, and from 40 m (for slabs <230 mm thick) to 60 m
(for slabs >230 mm thick) in unreinforced concrete.

• Major Opening In Structure

A building envelope is a boundary between inside and out; it has protective and regulatory
functions and allows for the exchange of energy (solar radiation, heat), light and air. This
occurs mainly through openings as they regulate other interface functions such as access.
Building openings, windows and doors, let people inside see out and people outside see in,
 thereby becoming “backdrops” for human coexistence where inside and outside intersect.
In this sense, they are of great social significance. They both separate and connect the
private and the public. Building openings define the transition from introverted to exposed,
from warm to cold, from artificial to natural, from dark to light, from enclosed to open
space. Having a direct connection with the outdoors is important to a building’s users.
Numerous studies have shown that users’ satisfaction with buildings is closely connected
with the possibility of opening a window for fresh air.

• Wind Bracing

"Bracing is a highly efficient and economical method of resisting horizontal forces in a

frame structure. A braced bent consists of the usual columns and girders, whose primary
purpose is to support the gravity loading, and diagonal bracing members that are connected
so that the total set of members form a critical cantilever truss, while the columns act as
the chords. Bracing is efficient because the diagonals work in axial stress and therefore call
for minimum member sizes in providing stiffness and strength against horizontal
shear.One- or two-story-high bracing, as used generally in the earlier high-rise steel
structures, is and effective and still widely used arrangement. Recently, however, a much
larger scale form of bracing, traversing many story’s and bays, has also been used to
considerable structural and architectural advantage in medium- and high-rise buildings,
thereby extending significantly the repertoire of bracing concepts.
• Beam elements

A beam element is a line element with six degrees of freedom in each node
representingrotationandtranslationineachaxis[3], seeFigure3.4. Theyaresuitableto use
when modelling a beam in bending, a truss element and a torsion bar. Should not be used
for structures with complex geometry, holes and points of stress concentrations. The cross
section of a beam element is uniformed and it represents a slender structure .

• Plate elements

A plate element has no internal normal forces or in-plane deformations. It can be based on
Kirchhoff’s plate theory and consist of bending moment Mx and My, twisting moment
Mxy and shear forces Vx and Vy, see Figure 3.5. The plate element has three degrees of
freedom in each node, see Figure 3.6. A common use are for slabs, since the general
assumptions for a slab is that:
• it is thin (depthlength)
• the stresses: σz = τxy = τyz =0
• the depth is constant
• there are small vertical displacements in first order theory
• there are no strains at the middle plane (no normal or membrane forces)
• stresses in normal direction are negligible
• Bernoulli-Euler’s theory about that plane sections remain plane before and after loading
is valid. If normal forces are of interest in a slab a shell element is a better choice

IV. VERTICAL TRANSPORTATION

Circulation, as usually applied in architecture, is the movement of people and goods

between interior spaces in buildings and to entrances and exits. Safe, convenient, rapid
circulation is essential for all buildings under both normal and emergency conditions.

1. Stair :

▪ Medium of travel which connects two consecutive horizontal surfaces .

▪ A complete arrangement of steps, stringers, newel posts, hand rails, balusters, etc-
Easy and quick access to different floors with comfort and safety.

2. Elevator

An elevator is a hoisting and lowering mechanism equipped with a car or platform that
moves along guides in a shaft, or hoist way, in a substantially vertical direction and
that transports passengers or goods, or both, between two or more floors of a building.
 ▪ Considered as a requirement in all building over three storeys
▪ Minimum standards of service – one lift for every four storeys with a maximum
distance of 45m to the lift lobby.
▪ Floor space estimates and car capacity can be based on an area of 0.2 SQM

3. Escalators

Escalators, or powered stairs, are used when it is necessary to move large numbers of
people from floor. They provide continuous movement of persons and can thus remedy
traffic conditions that are not readily addressed by elevators. Escalators should be viewed
as preferred transportation systems whenever heavy traffic volumes are expected between
relatively few floors. Escalators are used to connect airport terminals, parking.

4. Ramp

slope or inclined plane for joining two different levels, as at the entrance or between
floors of a building.

V. MEP

MEP is an acronym that stands for mechanical, electrical and plumbing engineering. These three
technical disciplines encompass the systems that make building interiors suitable for human
occupancy. MEP installations are addressed together due to the high degree of interaction between
them, and also to avoid conflicts in equipment locations - a common problem when electrical,
mechanical and plumbing systems are designed in isolation Working with qualified MEP
engineering companies brings many advantages: installation costs are reduced by optimizing
material requirements, while achieving high performance and code compliance. This is very
valuable in New York City, where building ownership costs are very high and construction codes
are very demanding.In addition to the NYC Building Code, there is a dedicated code for each of
the three MEP fields:

• NYC Mechanical Code

• NYC Electrical Code
• NYC Plumbing Code

Keep in mind that additional codes apply. For example, the NYC Energy Conservation Code has
requirements that affect all MEP systems, and any building system with combustion appliances
must adhere to the NYC Fuel Gas Code.Given the complexity of MEP systems, modern
engineering consulting firms use software to speed up the design process. Simple and repetitive
tasks are automated by a computer, while MEP design engineers can focus on taking the best
decisions.Before proceeding with any project that involves MEP installations in NYC, keep in
mind that there are licensing requirements for both design professionals and installation
contractors. Only a Registered Design Professional (RDP) can get MEP designs approved with the
NYC Department of Buildings, and only licensed contractors can get work permits.

• Mechanical Engineering
Various types of mechanical systems are used in residential, commercial and industrial buildings.
However, three types account for most of the mechanical design work in multifamily and
commercial constructions:

• Space heating
• Air conditioning
• Mechanical ventilation

These systems interact to keep temperature and humidity within a range that provides comfort and
health. Mechanical ventilation also ensures that enough fresh air is supplied to keep pollutant
concentrations at low and safe levels.Mechanical installations operate at their best when equipment
capacity is adequate; contrary to popular belief, over engineering brings many negative
consequences. For example, oversized chillers and boilers tend to cycle rapidly, creating room
temperature fluctuations and wearing down equipment at an accelerated pace. Another
consequence of over engineering in mechanical systems is poor control of indoor humidity.
ASHRAE recommends keeping relative humidity between 30% and 60% to make indoor spaces
optimal for human occupancy, and there are negative consequences when humidity falls outside
this range for extended periods. For example, low humidity can irritate the skin and airways, while
high humidity stimulates the growth of mold and bacteria.Other than sizing HVAC equipment
correctly, mechanical design involves laying out optimal routes for heat distribution systems: air
ducts, hydronic piping or steam piping, whichever applies for the project. If combustion appliances
are used, which is the case for most space heating systems in NYC buildings, these must be
properly vented to ensure that harmful combustion products are removed.

• Electrical Engineering
In high-rise constructions such as those commonly found in NYC, one of the main challenges in
electrical design is defining the optimal routes for conduit and wiring. However, there tends to be
more flexibility than in mechanical systems, since electrical circuits require much less space and
can be routed around obstacles more easily. With the aid of MEP design software, conduit and
wiring can be laid out while minimizing total circuit lengths, and avoiding location conflicts with
mechanical and plumbing installations.Lighting installations are the electrical system with the
highest energy consumption in most NYC buildings, and engineering consulting firms often
suggest LED lighting for this reason. Many MEP design software packages are capable of
simulating lighting, in order to determine the optimal number of fixtures and their locations.HVAC
is an area that requires close collaboration between mechanical and electrical engineers during the
MEP design process. Mechanical engineers calculate heating and cooling loads to determine
equipment capacities, while electrical engineers design the electrical circuits and protection
measures that allow this equipment to operate continuously and safely. In NYC, only furnaces and
boilers use mostly fossil fuels as an energy source; air conditioners, chillers, air-handling systems
and hydronic pumps all work with electricity in the vast majority of cases.

• Plumbing Engineering
Plumbing installations in NYC are also subject to various technical requirements. Just like
mechanical and electrical installations, plumbing requires laying out complex piping routes, and
MEP design software widely used by engineering firms to simplify the process.
Plumbing installations interact with both mechanical and electrical systems at many points,
which emphasizes the importance of collaboration among design teams:

• High-rise buildings typically need water booster pumps, which run with electricity.
• Domestic hot water systems typically get their heat through one of the following configurations: a
dedicated boiler, a heat exchanger connected to a space heating boiler, or an electric heater (a
conventional resistance heater or a heat pump).

Fire protection design can be challenging, since NYC codes are especially demanding in that
technical field. In addition to the applicable codes from the NYC Department of Buildings and
the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA), Local Law 26 of 2004 makes automatic fire
sprinklers are mandatory for all business occupancies taller than 100 feet. The law applies
retroactively even for existing constructions, where the deadline to complete the building
upgrade is July 1, 2019.

VI. HVAC

In the context of mechanical building services, the internal environment refers to the
strategy employed to heat, cool and distribute air around a building. Although Heating
Ventilating and Air Conditioning equipment (HVAC) is the common terminology, Indoor
Environmental Control Systems (IECS) is likely more accurate and more inclusive of all
of the functions of air conditioning.

COMFORT AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEM

The term comfort air conditioning encompasses all the conditioning processes applied to
ambient air to obtain an indoor environment that is comfortable in terms of temperature,
relative humidity, indoor air quality and air distribution.

• Temperature: The temperature conditions accepted as comfortable are 68°F to 75°F

with 75±2°F as design goal.
• Humidity: The humidity conditions accepted as comfortable are 20 % to 60 % relative
humidity with 55 ± 5 % as design goal
. • Indoor Air Quality: Outside fresh air requirement is about 15 to 20 cubic feet per
minute (Cfm) per person.
• Air Movement and Distribution: HVAC system must move air to every nook and
corner of the building to provide uniform environmental conditions, prevent
objectionable drafts and limit noise decibel levels to 30 to 40 NC.

MECHANICAL COOLING SYSTEMS

The most common active cooling approach is the use of “vapor compression refrigeration
cycle”, which involves phase transformation of a fluid (called refrigerant) from a liquid to
a gas. Compressing the fluid at a high-pressure releases heat, and when it is at a low
pressure, it absorbs heat. Cooling “load,” usually expressed in refrigerant tons (RT) or tons.
A ton is a measure of refrigeration capacity. One ton of air conditioning capacity is
equivalent to the heat extraction rate of 3.5 kW or 12,000 Btu’s (British thermal units) per
hour. A Btu/h, or British thermal unit per hour, is a unit used to measure the heat output of
a heating system. One kWh of heat = 3414 Btu/h.

REFRIGERANTS
Mechanical refrigeration equipment accomplishes cooling with Refrigerants.
In the past, chlorofluorocarbons (CFC) and hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFC) were used
as refrigerants, but CFCs were phased out of production in the 1990s and HCFCs will be
phased out of production by 2030 because of their ozone depletion potential.
The common environmentally friendly refrigerants used today in commercial air
conditioning systems are the hydro-fluorocarbon (HFC) refrigerants include R-410A, R-
407C and R-134a.

COOLING SYSTEM OPTIONS

The climate systems used to actively cool buildings can generally be divided up into three
types.
• Systems with air based cooling
• Systems with water based cooling
• Combined systems (cooling is supply using both air and water)

Air based cooling (DX Systems) , DX stands for “direct expansion” and is term that use
refrigerant as the cooling medium. With DX cooling, refrigerant flows through the cooling
coil tubes and air is blown over the tubes covered with fins. The air does not come in
contact with the refrigerant, but only to the cold metal surface of the coil. Since the air is
cooled directly by the refrigerant, the cooling efficiency is higher. However, it is not always
feasible to carry the refrigerant piping to the large distances hence, the DX type is usually
used for cooling the small and medium sized buildings.
Water based cooling systems
Three (3) types of HVAC systems utilize water in the cooling process:

➢ Water-cooled system
The first type is water-cooled systems. These systems reject heat from the refrigerant to
water in a water-cooled condenser. Typically, water enters the condensers at 80°F and
leaves the condensers at 90°F. The water then goes to a cooling tower where a portion of
the water is evaporated and the balance water with a mix of makeup water is circulated
back to the condensers once again. Where water is scarce, dry coolers are used instead of
cooling tower to prevent water loss due to evaporation.
➢ Chilled water system
The second type of system is a chilled water system. In this type of system, water is cooled
to 40 - 45°F by chillers in a central plant. This water is circulated throughout a building
and runs through water coils in air handling units, leaving the coils at an approximate
temperature of 55°F. Room air is drawn into the air handlers and is blown over the chilled
water coils where it exits at a temperature of approximately 52°F. Like DX type cooling
coil, the air does not contact the chilled water, but only the cold metal surface of the coil.
Since, the chillers are located remotely at a distance from the controlled space; it reduces
noise, simplifies refrigerant handling, eases maintenance and improves reliability. These
systems are truly centralized systems and found largely in high-rise or campus buildings.
➢ Evaporative cooling system
The third type of system is known as an evaporative cooler or a swamp cooler sometimes
called “nature’s air conditioner.” Just as a breeze across wet skin provides cooling as the
moisture evaporates, an evaporative cooling does the same. The dry air is passed through
some porous media that is wetted with water. As the air contacts the water spread over the
media, much of the water evaporates. It is normally only found in very hot and dry climates.
Air is drawn into the cooler by a blower and passes over an absorbent pad. The pad is
continuously soaked with water. As the hot dry air passes over the wet absorbent pad, some
of the water is evaporated. This cools the wet pad the same way moisture evaporating from
your skin cools your body. The air leaves the cooler at a reduced temperature. This
temperature is dependent on the relative humidity of the air being drawn into the cooler.

Combined systems
Some of the factors that must be taken into account when deciding the most appropriate
HVAC configuration include:
• Space – HVAC equipment and the air/water distribution runs take up a lot of space in the
building’s floor plan. Maintaining building façade and aesthetics is an important concern
to the architects.
• Cost – HVAC is usually the largest major budget item in construction of buildings. Air
systems tend to be comparable to water systems in terms of initial cost.
 • Comfort - Building success depends on how comfortable people are inside, and how
affordable it is for them to be that way. Control of noise and vibrations is an important
parameter.
• Efficiency - Water systems and air systems are comparable in terms of efficiency, water
is a little better, but costlier.
• Maintainability – The equipment must be accessible for maintenance and replacement
purposes.

VII. VERTICAL ZONING

Vertical zoning is an emerging topic in marine protected area (MPA) design and
management, and requires a much better understanding of benthic-pelagic linkages
than is currently available. Vertical zoning is the allocation of certain human uses, such
as surface trolling for tunas and salmon, within specific depth zones in the water
column that are consistent with the goals of the MPA. In order to apply vertical zoning
appropriately, it is crucial to understand when and where interactions occur among
benthic and pelagic communities."

VIII. FIRE PROTECTION

"Fire engineering makes use of engineering principles to safeguard individuals, property

and the environment from the destructive damage that can be caused by fire. This is
achieved through the application of established rules together with an in-depth knowledge
of the phenomena and effects of fire and the reaction and behavior of people to fire.The
 Regulatory Reform (Fire Safety) Order 2005 provides the minimum fire safety standards
for non-domestic premises. The Order designates a person, usually the employer or the
owner as the 'Responsible Person'.

➢ Fire and rescue service

In certain buildings, it can be difficult for the fire and rescue service to safely
reach and work close to fires. Under such circumstances additional facilities are
required to ensure that there is no delay and to provide a secure operating base.
This might include: Firefighting routes ,Firefighting lifts ,Firefighting stairs ,
Firefighting shafts.
➢ Fire detection and alarm system
Most fire detection and alarm systems operate on the same basic principles. If a
fire is detected, then an alarm is triggered. This warns building managers and
occupants that there may be a fire and that evacuation may be necessary. Some
systems include remote signaling equipment which can alert the fire brigade or a
remote monitoring center
➢ Fire compartements
The spread of fire can be restricted by sub-dividing buildings into a number of
discrete compartments. These fire compartments are separated from one another
by compartment walls and compartment floors made of a fire-resisting
construction which hinders the spread of fire
➢ Means of escape
An escape route as ‘that part of the means of escape from any point in a building
to a final exit’ where a final exit is ‘the termination of an escape route from a
building giving direct access to a street, passageway, walkway or open space and
sited to ensure the rapid dispersal of persons from the vicinity of a building so that
they are no longer in danger from fire and/or smoke.

IX. HIGH RISE BUILDING PRECEDENTS

MORPHEUS HOTEL
Asia’s most popular entertainment destination, Macau welcomed more than 32 million tourists in
2017, with visitor numbers increasing every year. Located in Cotai, Macau, City of Dreams is a
leading integrated resort including casino, two theatres, shopping district, 20 restaurants and four
hotels

○ Location : Cotai , Macao

○ Architects : Zaha Hadid
○ Project Year : 2013 - 2018
○ Typology : Residential (Hotel/Casino)

the project’s distinctive appearance is informed by the fluid forms found within china’s rich jade
carving traditions. conceived as a vertical extrusion of its rectangular footprint, a series of voids is
carved through the building’s center. this creates what the architects describe as an ‘urban
window’, a void designed to connect the hotel’s interior communal spaces with the city.the
monolithic block was then ‘carved’ with voids that lend the scheme its dramatic appearance. these
spaces also shape the hotel’s internal public spaces, creating corner suites with views of both the
atrium and the city. this arrangement maximizes the number of hotel rooms with external views,
and guarantees an equal room distribution on either side of the building. meanwhile, 12 glass
elevators provide guests with sightlines of the hotel as they travel vertically.

• FLOOR PLAN

➢ Building Mass Configuration : I

➢ Typical Floor Area : 475000
➢ Number of Typical Floor : 6
➢ Typical Floor Function : Residential & Retail
➢ Number of Units On The Typical Floor : 24
➢ Unit/Typical Floor Area Ratio : 19792

• SECTION

➢ column dimensions (a*b or area in mm) : 1200*1400

➢ beams dimension (b*h in mm) : 1150*700
➢ floor thickness (in mm) : 500

• FRAME SYSTEM

The architect supplied a wire-frame model of the exoskeleton and a reference surface
defining the outer boundary of the glazed envelope. Using these parameters, the team
defined a topological mesh that describes the outside surface of the façade envelope.
 Within these geometrical constraints, BuroHappold’s façade designers then established
which system could be used, and where, to support the building’s glazed skin. ‘We took
the envelope and broke it down into its different geometries. By understanding the
technical limitations of how far we could push each system and, rationalising the
geometry within these, we established the areas of unitised, semi-unitised, stick system
and faceted glazing. This was followed by rationalising the use of flat, single-curved and
double-curved glass,’ explains Cameron.

ANDAZ CAPITAL GATE ABUDHABI

➢ typology : office & hotel

➢ building mass configuration : curved triangular
➢ podium floor functions : retail & office
➢ number of podium floor : 4
➢ podium floor area : 1214.04 sqm
➢ podium core area : 261.19 sqm
➢ room functions in core area : service , hvac , mep , elevator
➢ number of lift : 11
➢ core area precentage podium floor : 464.8110571 %
➢ total number of floors : 36
➢ number of zone : 3
➢ average number of floor in every zone : 12
➢ hvac system : (fcu) systems,ahus,etc.
➢ mep room function : mechanical,eletrical,plumbing
➢ mep room area (aprox in sqm) : 20.45 sqm
 ZONE 1

➢ typical floor function : office

➢ number of typical floor : 4
➢ typical floor area : 1214.04 sqm
➢ core area : 261.19 sqm
➢ room functions in core area : service , hvac , mep , elevator
➢ number of lift : 11
➢ typical floor nett area : 952.85 sqm
➢ core area percentage typical floor area : 21.51411815 %
➢ mep room : yes
➢ mep floor area (approximation in sqm) : 20.45

ZONE 2

➢ typical floor function : hotel

➢ number of typical floor : 5
➢ typical floor area : 1300.67 sqm
➢ core area : 261.19 sqm
➢ room functions in core area : service , hvac , mep , elevator
➢ number of lift : 5
➢ typical floor nett area : 1039.48 sqm
➢ core area percentage typical floor area : 20.08118893 %
➢ mep room : yes
➢ mep floor area (approximation in sqm) : 20.45

ZONE 3

➢ typical floor function : residential

➢ number of typical floor : 2
➢ typical floor area : 1407.11 sqm
➢ core area : 261.19 sqm
➢ room functions in core area : service , hvac , mep , elevator
➢ number of lift : 5
➢ typical floor nett area : 1145.92 sqm
➢ core area percentage typical floor area : 18.56215932 %
➢ mep room : yes
➢ mep floor area (approximation in sqm) : 20.45
 ZONE 4

➢ typical floor function : basement floor plan

➢ floor area : 2214.3 sqm
➢ core area : 261.19 sqm
➢ room functions in core area : service , hvac , mep , parking
➢ number of lift : 11
➢ typical floor nett area : 1953.11 sqm
➢ mep room : yes
➢ mep floor area (approximation in sqm) : 20.45

ZONE 5

➢ top floor function : helipad floor plan

➢ floor area : 1555.1 sqm
➢ core area : 261.19 sqm
➢ room functions in core area : helipad floor plan
➢ number of lift : 0
➢ typical floor nett area : 1555.1 sqm
➢ mep room : no
➢ mep floor area (approximation in sqm) : 0

EMERGENCY STAIRS & ELEVATOR

➢ number of emergency stairs at podium floor : 2

➢ number of emergency stairs at typical floor : 2
➢ elevator/podium floor area ratio (1 elevator/n sqm) : 110.3672727
➢ elevator/typpical floor area ratio (1 elevator/n sqm) : 110.3672727
➢ emergency stair/podium floor area ratio (1 elevator/n sqm) : 607.02
➢ emergency stair/typpical floor area ratio (1 elevator/n sqm) : 607.02

X. REFERENCES :

High-rise Building The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica -

https://www.britannica.com/technology/high-rise-building

High-rise Building
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-rise_building

What Does Mep Mean in Construction?

Michael Tobias - https://www.ny-engineers.com/blog/what-does-mep-mean-in-
construction
Types Of High-rise Buildings Structural Systems
Types of High-Rise Buildings Structural Systems - https://theconstructor.org/structural-
engg/high-rise-buildings-structural-systems/23076/

Zaha Hadid Architects Opens Morpheus Hotel in

Macauhttps://www.designboom.com/architecture/zaha-hadid-morpheus-hotel-city-dreams-
resort-macau-china-06-14-2018/

Morpheus Hotel / Zaha Hadid ArchitectsMaría González -

https://www.archdaily.com/896433/morpheus-hotel-zaha-hadid-architects?ad_medium=gallery

Engineering Façades At Zaha Hadid's Morpheus Hotelhttps://www.cibsejournal.com/case-

studies/engineering-facades-at-zaha-hadids-morpheus-hotel/

Capital Gate / Rmjm

Cristobal Rojas - https://www.archdaily.com/889854/capital-gate-rmjm

High-rise Buildings
Alfred Swenson-Pao-Chi Chang - https://www.britannica.com/technology/construction/High-
rise-buildings

Road Joints
https://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Road_joints

Vertical Circulation and Services Of Highrise

Hajee Mohammad Danesh Science & Technology University -
https://www.slideshare.net/kuashaknight/vertical-circulation-and-services-of-highrise

Fire Protection Engineering

https://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Fire_protection_engineering

https://nmsmarineprotectedareas.blob.core.windows.net/marineprotectedareas-
prod/media/archive/pdf/helpful-resources/factsheets/vert-zoning-n-bpl0306.pdf

http://www.byggmek.lth.se/fileadmin/byggnadsmekanik/publications/tvsm5000/web5213.pdf

https://www.cedengineering.com/userfiles/The%20MEP%20Design%20of%20Building%20Sevi
ces.pdf