ASSIGNMENT NO: 2

DESIGN OF HIGH RISE BUILDINGS

SUBMITTED TO: Astt. Prof. Sahibdeep Singh

SUBMITTED BY: Manpreet Kaur

CLASS: M. Tech (Ist year)
CRN: 194517
URN: 1905886
Que.1: What is sway? What role does it play in the design of high rise buildings?
Ans. SWAY: In general words, a rhythmical movement from side to side is known as sway.
Specifically in structural engineering, word “sway” is used to refer lateral or side-ward movement
of top of a vertical member relative to its bottom. Sway is generally used to refer the lateral
movement in frames.

sway mechanism

ROLE OF SWAY IN HIGH RISE BUILDINGS: As the height increases beyond 10 stories, the
lateral sway starts controlling the design and stiffness rather than strength starts becoming the
dominant factor. It is important to note that, it makes matters worse as lateral sway becomes more
pronounced for a tall building. For very tall buildings that have low natural frequencies, lateral
sways due to wind related to occupant comfort and avoidance of damage to nonstructural
components rather than earthquake forces generally control the design. However, adequate
ductility and energy-dissipation capacity of the building must be ensured for seismic loads by
appropriate detailing of structural components and connections to ensure continuity and
accommodate inelastic behavior at these locations where plastic hinges may form at the ultimate
load level.

Que.2: What is the relation of variation of overturning moment with the height of the building?
Ans. The “Overturning Moment” at any horizontal plane is the moment on the structure as a whole
resulting from the dynamic earthquake forces above the plane, giving due regard to signs of modal
forces. Overturning criteria corresponds to 80 per cent of the story shear multiplied by the height
to the center of gravity of the loads above the story under consideration.

Que.3: What is the relation of variation of lateral deflection with the height of the building?

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Ans. As the height of buildings increases, effect of shear lag also becomes considerable in the
design of high rise buildings. As the building becomes tall, say more than 60 stories, tubular
structure itself becomes inefficient for withstanding lateral loads because of shear lag. It starts
behaving much more like a rigid frame structure. As such, bending deflection in beams and
columns becomes high, consequently increasing the shear lag. To control these deflections and
hence to increase the building’s stiffness.
Relation:
Drift Index = displacement/height
Total Drift Index = Total drift/Building height = Δ/H

Que.4: What are the two ways to satisfy the stability requirements of high rise structures?
Ans. As the height increases, the rigidity and stability requirements become more important, and
they are often the dominate factors in designing.
 Due to P-D effect, in which the eccentricity of gravity load increases to such a magnitude
that it brings about to collapse of the columns as the result of axial loads. Therefore, an
important stability criterion is to assure that the predicted wind loads will be below the load
corresponding to the stability limit.
 The second consideration is to limit the lateral deflection to a level that will ensure that
architectural finishes and partitions are not damaged.

Que.5: What are the benefits of using steel and concrete for high rise buildings?
Ans. STEEL:
 Steel can be easily fabricated and produced massively. Steel sections can be produced off-
site at shop floors and then assembled onsite. This saves time and increases the efficiency
of the overall construction process.
 Structural steel is very flexible. You can mold it into any shape, without changing its
properties.
 It is very durable. Structural steel structures can withstand external pressures such as
earthquakes, thunderstorms, and cyclones. A well-built steel structure can last up to 30
years if maintained well.

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 Building a high rise or any multi-level building demands the use of light-weight yet strong
materials. Steel, by virtue of its high strength to weight ratio enables large spans and light
weight construction. Steel structures can have a variety of structural forms like braced
frames and moment resistant frames suitable to meet the specific requirements of higher
buildings. Taller buildings also face higher wind loads, and hence steel being flexible,
allows the building to move and deflect with the wind forces, rather than making it rigid
like concrete.
 Building tall with steel also allows more floors per total height of the building. This is due
to the fact that the building structure in steel is lighter and more efficient, and has beams
and that are not required to be as deep as those of concrete to support the floors.
 The mechanics of high rise building construction, we see that the introduction of hot rolled
steel sections, using higher grade steel add more strength to the building. Better steel
decking as a construction material brought about a revolution in the steel building space.
Composite steel decking laid on each floor adds ability to transfer lateral loads more
effectively through the structure aiding the structure to be stronger than conventional rigid
materials. This added strength per floor allows the overall core steel structure to be lighter
and even more efficient.
 High-rise frames are constructed of H-columns or box columns, (vertical-support
members) and H-beams (horizontal-support members). Cross bracing or shear walls are
used to provide a structural frame with greater lateral rigidity in order to withstand wind
stresses.
 Use of steel makes it possible to create large, column-free internal spaces; thus, these are
particularly advantageous for open-plan offices and large auditoriums and concert halls.
The steel frame when compared with R.C. frame results in sufficient extra space to
accommodate all service conduits without significant loss in head room.
 Another significant aspect of pre-engineered steel buildings is that they are faster to erect
compared with reinforced concrete frames. The elements of framework are pre-
manufactured in the factory under effective quality control thus enabling a better product.
The connections for each part are built in and pre-punched into the members and hence
pre-engineered design reduces time, on-site activities, materials and labor, causing little
disruption to normal life of the community, unlike wet concrete construction process.

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CONCRETE:
 Reinforced concrete is ‘absolutely the best’ material when it comes to resisting
compression loading.
 It is also relatively cheap material.
 One can argue that as the building gets higher, the compression load increases and so
columns will get bigger and bigger. We can always counter that with using concrete of
higher grade (strength) until we reach a limit.
 Reinforced concrete needs a lot, a lot of labor, when compared to factory built steel
sections which only need to be assembled on site.
 Also you need a bit of space for bigger constructions like high-rise buildings to store and
bend bars / traffic limits on quantity of ready-mix concrete you can bring into the city etc.
This will primarily slow down your construction speed and increase costs.
 There are a lot of limitations on concrete which revolve around its workability. (Minimum
rebar spacing, max rebar size, cover etc. will force us to use columns of a certain minimum
size to avoid bad things like honeycombs. Sometimes that minimum size itself might be
too big). This is one of the reasons why today a lot of high rise buildings use composite
columns at lower stories (A steel profile section encased in concrete / reinforced concrete).
So yes, reinforced concrete is used in the construction of high rise buildings a lot, but there is one
huge limitation as to why it is limited to the lower stories.

Que.6: Why wind is more of a problem in modern skyscrapers than it was in the earlier ones?
Ans. Skyscraper, very tall, multistoried building. The development of skyscrapers came as a result
of the coincidence of several technological and social developments. The term skyscraper
originally applied to buildings of 10 to 20 stories, but by the late 20th century the term was used
to describe high-rise buildings of unusual height, generally greater than 40 or 50 stories. The
earliest skyscrapers rested on extremely thick masonry walls at the ground level, architects soon
turned to the use of a cast-iron and wrought-iron framework to support the weight of the upper
floors, allowing for more floor space on the lower stories.

Que.7: What are two major problems faced by engineers while designing for wind loadings?

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Ans. MAJOR PROBLEMS: This is a summary of the problems and mistakes found by the
authors through the involvement in designing some tall buildings around the world, last 20 years.
It has to be noted that light, flexible buildings are required for resisting seismic forces, while
heavy, stiff building are better for resisting wind.
 Neglecting cross-wind effects- “Cross-wind” actions usually govern in design of
very tall buildings; especially interference effects magnify these effects. Interference
from buildings located in close proximity to the proposed building can cause large
increases in cross-wind responses. The designer should not only consider the existing
conditions but make allowance for future changes in the surrounding area during the
design life of the structure. Obviously this needs responsible subjective engineering
judgment making use of the best available knowledge at the time of design. As a
guideline, interference due to buildings located within a distance at least equal to 10 times
the building width, need to be considered.
 Torsion or twisting can be a major problem. High torsional actions due to wind forces
can be generated not only through the unsymmetrical stiffness distributions in the cross-
section but due to the shape of the building. Codes do not give any guidance to find these
effects. CFD or wind tunnel techniques have to be used to find the torsion due to shape
of the buildings. When a substantial torsional moment is present, the magnitude of the
longitudinal stresses on the core walls due to warping and the header beam forces are
quite significant and those actions are too large to be neglected.
 How to combine wind accelerations when along-wind, cross-wind and rotational
accelerations are present. Evaluation of combined actions is only possible through special
techniques using fundamental principles. Tall buildings alter the wind speeds due to wind-
structure interaction effects. “Down draft” increases the wind loads on cladding, canopies
etc, and also affect the pedestrians. Upward “wind speed-up” could increase the loads on
cladding especially at upper levels. CFD or wind-tunnel tests are the only solutions to
find these additional factors.
 SHAPE: The wind response is largely determined by building shapes Aerodynamic
shaping at the concept stage of the building could significantly reduce the wind loads.
For example cross-wind effects can be reduced through corner recessions or openings or
circular shapes in the cross-section. A 20% reduction in base bending moments was

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 achieved in Taipei101 through corner modifications. The wind can be “disturbed” by
changing the building shape along the height such as tapering or twisting thus reducing
the synchronization and correlation of fluctuating excitations. Burg Khalifa, New
Kingdom Tower, Shanghai Centre are some examples of this type of shaping. Large
openings allowing the wind to flow through, could reduce both wind loads and also help
to satisfy pedestrian comfort and perception of motion requirements.
 DAMPING is a very important factor in wind design. Only few studies are available
covering actual damping level of buildings. Accurate values are required not only to
calculate the wind dynamic effects but to design dampers to reduce these effects.
Codes provide only very approximate values for damping and they can be sometimes
unconservative. Damping also depends on the amplitudes (or deflections due to wind).
VI. Wind directionality is usually ignored by the designers. For example the west wind in
Melbourne is relatively very high compared to east wind. Consideration of these
reductions could lead to changes in core walls and savings in the overall lateral load
resisting system.

Que.8: Which two important discoveries led to rapid development of high rise buildings?
Ans. TWO IMPORTANT DISCOVERIES:

 Elevators
 Rise of curtain wall skyscrapers

ELEVATORS: In 1852, Elisha Otis invented the world’s first “safety elevator” with a catch
mechanism that could protect passengers if a cable broke. The top floors used to be for the poor,
but the elevator flipped everything around. The upper floors quickly became the most attractive as
they boasted better natural light, cleaner air and less traffic noise. Dario trabucco "The invention
of the elevator is what started ‘Tall’. Everything that came after that was affected."

RISE OF CURTAIN WALL SKYSCRAPERS: In 1952, the Lever House was built with a fully
glazed curtain wall. It wasn’t the first example of this technique, but its style inspired innumerable

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buildings in New York and around the world. Trabucco explained, “Floor-to-ceiling glass, coupled
with better lighting and ventilation, meant individual floors could be much bulkier.”
This architectural style of rectangular towers of glass became the standard of International Style
skyscrapers. The non-load bearing, glass curtain walls maximized usable floor space by improving
external light penetration.

Que.9: What are the reasons for such a rapid rise in the number of high-rise buildings?

Ans. THE REASONS FOR SUCH A RAPID RISE IN THE NUMBER OF HIGH-RISE
BUILDINGS:

 LACK OF SPACE: The key economic driver for the growth of tall buildings is the lack
of space in densely urbanised parts of the world, and this is particularly true for residential
developments. The rising population in cities has also meant that mixed-use buildings are
gaining greater importance.
 BRANDING VIA BUILDINGS: The competition for constructing the tallest building has
also created another driver for the growth of tall buildings worldwide – over the past 20
years there has been a move towards creating iconic constructions that become major
landmarks within the city.
 URBANISATION: With the rise in urbanisation, tall buildings provide a variety of
options for housing and offices, allowing a city to grow without expanding its boundaries
or infringing green space or farmland.Tall buildings are increasingly designed as mixed-
use structures incorporating housing, offices, fitness and lifestyle amenities, cultural
spaces, apartments, hotel rooms, and retail and event spaces.
 SMARTER BUILDING MANAGEMENT: he building world is changing to an ever-
greater degree, and new, innovative technologies, particularly around digitalisation, offer
increasingly clearer insights into how workplaces are used.

Que.10: What is the basic philosophy of the limit state design?

Ans. Aim of a design is to see that the structure built is safe and it serves the purpose for which it
is built. A structure may become unfit for use not only when it collapses but also when it violates
the serviceability requirements of deflections, vibrations, cracks due to fatigue, corrosion and fire.

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In this method of design various limiting conditions are fixed to consider a structure as fit. At any
stage of its designed life (120 years for permanent structures), the structure should not exceed these
limiting conditions. The design is based on probable load and probable strength of materials. These
are to be selected on probabilistic approach. The safety factor for each limiting condition may vary
depending upon the risk involved.

It is not necessary to design every structure to withstand exceptional events like blast and
earthquake. In limit state design risk based evaluation criteria is included. Thus the philosophy of
limit state design method is to see that the structure remains fit for use throughout its designed life
by remaining within the acceptable limit of safety and serviceability requirements based on the
risks involved.

Que.11: What are two fundamental types of limit states?

Ans. TWO FUNDAMENTAL TYPES OF LIMIT STATES ARE:

 Limit state of collapse

 Limit state of serviceability

LIMIT STATE OF COLLAPSE is also called as strength limit state as it corresponds to the
maximum load carrying capacity i.e., the safety requirements of the structure. The limit state of
collapse is assessed from collapse of the whole or part of the structure. As per this limit state, the
resistance to bending, shear, torsion and axial loads at every section shall not be less than that
produced by the most unfavorable combination of loads on that structure. The following limit
states of collapse are considered in design:

 Limit state of collapse in flexure (bending)

 Limit state of collapse in compression
 Limit state of collapse in shear
 Limit state of collapse in torsion.

LIMIT STATE OF SERVICEABILITY: A structure is of no use if it is not serviceable. Thus,

this limit state is introduced to prevent excessive deflection and cracking. It ensure the satisfactory
performance of the structure at working loads. It is estimated on the basis of elastic theory or

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working stress method because deformation is of significance under working load and not at
collapse. Limit state of serviceability of following limit states:

 Limit state of deflection

 Limit state of cracking
 Limit state of vibration
The structure should be designed which considering all the appropriate limit state of safety and
serviceability and on the basis of most critical limit state and then checked for all other limit states.

Que.12: Enlist different ways could be used for reducing drift in a structure.

Ans. DIFFERENT WAYS TO REDUCE DRIFT IN STRUCTURES:

 It was proposed the optimal drift design model to reduce the inter-story drifts of steel
moment frame subjected to seismic load using the resizing method. The method efficiently
redesigns the elements of the structure based on the displacement participant factor of the
corresponding element calculated by the unit load method without the iterative structural
analysis and the change of the structural weight.
 The simplest way to minimize lateral stability problems is to limit the expected lateral
displacement or drift of the structure. In fact several studies have shown that by increasing
lateral stiffness, the critical load of the building will increase and the chances of stability
problems are reduced. Drift limitations are imposed by seismic design codes primarily to
serve this purpose.
 You will need to increase lateral stiffness of the relevant story in the direction of drift. This
may be done by increasing column dimension in that particular direction, providing shear
walls or the both.
 Total lateral deflection of a rigid frame is the combination of following:
1. Axial deformation of columns (15-20%)
2. Shear racking due to bending of beams (50-60%)
3. Bending of columns (15-20%)

So the most economical and effective way to reduce drift is to increase beam depths (and
slab thicknesses as well)

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Que.13: Which building would have a lower value of drift index. A 60 storey apartment building
or a 30 storey office building. Give reasons for your answer.

Ans. A 60 storey apartment will have a lower value of drift index. Because Height is inversely
proportional to drift index. More the height less the drift index.

Total Drift Index = Total drift/Building height = Δ/H

Another point of consideration is the bay of building, which is not given in the question. So, on
the basis of given data, 60 storey apartment building will have less drift index.

Que.14: Enlist the general principles of earthquake-resistant design of buildings.

Ans. Principles of Earthquake resistant design of Structures: According to building codes,

earthquake-resistant structures are intended to withstand the largest earthquake of a certain
probability that is likely to occur at their location. This means the loss of life should be minimized
by preventing collapse of the buildings for rare earthquakes while the loss of functionality should
be limited for more frequent ones. Two principles of earthquake resistant design are:

• BASE ISOLATION

• STRUCTURAL VIBRATION CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES

1. BASE ISOLATION: • Base isolation is one of the most powerful tools of earthquake
engineering pertaining to the passive structural vibration control technologies. • It is meant to
enable a building or non-building structure to survive a potentially devastating from seismic
impact. Its advantages:

• The isolators work in a similar way to car suspension, which allows a car to travel over rough
ground without the occupants of the car getting thrown around.

• A fixed-base building (built directly on the ground) will move with an earthquake’s motion and
can sustain extensive damage as a result.

• Base isolation technology can make medium-rise masonry (stone or brick) or reinforced concrete
structures capable of withstanding earthquakes, protecting them and their occupants from major
damage or injury.

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2. STRUCTURAL VIBRATION CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES : In earthquake engineering,
vibration control is a set of technical means aimed to mitigate seismic impacts in building and non-
building structure.

• Passive seismic control.

• Active seismic control.

• Hybrid seismic control.

Passive seismic control: Passive seismic control system in which they do not require any additional
energy source to operate and are activated by earthquake input motion only.

Active seismic control: This system provides seismic protection by imposing forces on a structure
that counterbalance the earthquake forces. This system is active in that it requires an energy source
and computer – controlled to operate dampers throughout the building. Active seismic control is
comparatively newest invention in the field of seismic control systems that applies a 3 dimensional
network. This technology is highly sophisticated and expensive one and may not be feasible one
for small projects even in far future.

Hybrid seismic control: This system combines features of both passive and active seismic control
systems. In general, it has reduced power demands, and reduced cost when compared to fully
active systems. Hence it utilizes the advantages of both passive and active seismic control systems.

Que.15: Enlist the factors influencing the selection of the structural form for a high-rise building.

Ans. THE FACTORS INFLUENCING THE SELECTION OF THE STRUCTURAL FORM

FOR A HIGH-RISE BUILDING:

 Internal Planning
 Material and method of construction
 Architectural treatment
 Services system
 Nature and magnitude of horizontal loading
 Height and proportions

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Que.16: How efficiency of similar high-rise buildings is compared? What is the relation of the
height of the building and weight of the columns?

Ans. According to new research by UCA, Office and residential buildings use more energy per
square metre, the taller they are. Energy Institute have found that electricity use, per square metre
of floor area, is nearly two and a half times greater in high-rise office buildings of 20 or more
storeys than in low-rise buildings of 6 storeys or less. Gas use also increases with height, by around
40%. As a result, total carbon emissions from gas and electricity from high-rise buildings are twice
as high as in low-rise. The relation of the height of the building and weight of the columns is that
With the increase in height of the building, there is a increase in column size following to the lower
portion of the building. ... Thus the column in the lower most floor is designed to take up the loads
of the beam, slab not only from the floor that is present, but also from the floors above.

Que.17: Up to how many stories can a building be designed only for gravity loading without
increasing member sizes? Give reasons.

Ans. Buildings up to 10 storeys, designed for gravity loads, can resist lateral loads without any
increase in the size of members, because of the increase in the permissible stresses allowed for
combined loading. Beyond 10 storeys, the additional material required to resist the lateral load
increases non-linearly. As the height of building increases, the additional stiffness required to
control the deflection, rather than strength of the members.

Que.18: Draw a plan for a typical office block in a high-rise building (tube-type).

Ans. In structural engineering, the tube is a system where, to resist lateral loads (wind, seismic,
impact), a building is designed to act like a hollow cylinder, cantilevered perpendicular to the
ground.

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Plan and elevation of an office building

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Que.19: Make a plan for a typical residential block in a high-rise building.

Ans.

Que.20: Enlist different structural systems for steel construction.

Ans. DIFFERENT TYPES OF STRUCTURAL STEEL FRAMING SYSTEMS ARE AS

FOLLOW:

 Skeleton steel framing

 Wall bearing steel framing
 Long span steel framing

SKELETON STEEL FRAMING SYSTEM: Skeleton steel frame is composed of steel beams
and columns which are connected using proper connection. Steel beams around perimeter of the
structure is termed as spandrel beams on which masonry walls are placed.

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 Plan View of Skeleton Framing
There are different types and configurations of steel connections which are used to connect steel
beams to columns in skeleton frame structure, for example, bolt connection and welded
connections. There are no restrictions that limit the area of the floor and roof of the building. Multi
storey structures are possible to construct using skeleton framing.

WALL BEARING STEEL FRAMING SYSTEM:

In a wall bearing steel framing structure, building wall whether it is interior or exterior is used to
carry the end of structural members that support floor or roof loads. Wall bearing should be
adequately strong to not only be able to carry vertical reactions but also to resist any imposed
horizontal loads. Wall bearing framing is suitable for the construction of low rise structure. This
is because the size of the bearing wall must be increased significantly to withstand considerably
loads exerted in the case of multistory buildings. A further application of wall bearing system
application is the utilization of steel beams known as lintels over wall openings like doors and
windows.

LONG SPAN STEEL FRAMING:

Long span steel framing is considered when large clearance is required and such long spanning
cannot be realized using steel beams and columns. Long span steel framing options can be
categorized into different types, for instance, girders, trusses, rigid frames, arches and cantilever
suspension spans.
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Fig.10: Different types of trusses used in steel structure construction

Que.21: Draw elevation and plan for field bolted shear connection.

Ans.

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Que.22: Illustrate column-to-beam bolted end plate connection.

Ans.

The end plate, which may be partial depth or full depth, is welded to the supported beam in the
workshop. The beam is then bolted to the supporting beam or column on site.

This type of connection is relatively inexpensive but has the disadvantage that there is little
opportunity for site adjustment. Overall beam lengths need to be fabricated within tight limits,
although packs can be used to compensate for fabrication tolerances and erection tolerances.

End plates are probably the most popular of the simple beam connections. They can be used with
skewed beams and can tolerate moderate offsets in beam to column joints.

Que.23: Briefly write about the factors influencing the choice of floor system in high-rise
buildings.

Ans. IMPORTANT FACTORS FOR CONSIDERATION FOR SELECTION OF

FLOORING:

Each type of floor has its own merits and demerits. There is no single flooring material which can
be suitable for all circumstances and for different purposes in different buildings such as

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residential, institutional, industrial, and go-downs. However, the selection of flooring should be
made by considering the following factors:

1. Initial Cost
2. Appearance
3. Cleanliness
4. Durability
5. Damp-resistance
6. Sound Insulation
7. Thermal Insulation
8. Smoothness
9. Hardness
10. Comfort
11. Fire-resistance
12. Maintenance
13. Light reflection
14. Floor design
 Initial Cost: The cost of laying and maintenance is very important. It widely varies for
different types of flooring materials. The marble, granite and rubber tiles are considered
to be the most expensive whereas the floorings, viz., Terrazzo, mosaic, vinyl,
ceramic tile are moderately expensive. The floors, made of concrete and brick, are the
cheapest type of flooring.
 Appearance: Flooring should 'produce a desired beautiful effect in conformity with the
building. Generally, floorings of tile marble and granite provide a good appearance
while concrete; brick flooring gives an ordinary appearance. However, it should reflect
personalized aesthetic expression and satisfaction.
 Cleanliness: Flooring should be non-absorbent and capable of being easily and
effectively cleaned. All joints in flooring should offer a water-tight surface. Greasy and
oily substances should' neither spoil the appearance nor should have a destroying effect
on the flooring materials.

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 Durability: The flooring material should offer sufficient resistance to wear and tear,
temperature, chemical action, so as to provide long life. The flooring should be strong
enough to withstand the effects of anticipated foot, material and furniture load traffic
without undue deterioration. It should withstand severer load abrasion, weight of
furniture and equipment.
 Damp-Resistance: Ground floor, should offer sufficient resistance against dampness in
the building to ensure healthy environment. Normally the floors ceramic tiles, concrete,
bricks are preferred floors against dampness. The use of flooring material, like wood,
Rubber, linoleum, cork. should be avoided for floors in damp situation.
 Sound Insulation: According to modern building concepts, a floor should neither create
noise when used nor should transmit noise, particularly in a vertical direction. In case of
ground or basement floors, the sound vibrations are less because of the contact with the
mass of the earth. Hence, it is more important factor for upper floors, where they are
supposed to act as horizontal barriers for the passage of sound in vertical direction.
However, the flooring material should be such that it either produces no noise or less
noise when travelled over, specially for buildings such as Libraries. Hospitals,
Educational buildings, Theatres. Rubber flooring provides excellent sound insulation.
 Thermal Insulation: It should be possible for a building to maintain constant
temperature or heat inside the building irrespective of change in the external
temperature. The flooring should reduce the demand for internal heating during winter
and cooling in summer. The floors of wood, rubber, cork, are best suited for this purpose.
 Smoothness: The floor should be of superior type so as to exhibit a smooth and even
surface. But at the same time, it should not be slippery, which will otherwise endanger
the safe movements over it.
 Hardness: It is desirable to use good quality floor materials which do not give rise to
any form of impact mark imprints, when used for supporting the loads or moving the
loads over them. Normally the hard surfaces such as concrete, marble, granite, and
ceramic tile do not show any impressions whereas, rubber, and cork; do form the marks
on the surfaces.

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  Comfort: The flooring material should be such that it gives comfort to the occupants
under relaxing and working conditions. Comfort is a matter of personal preference such
as warm cold, cushioning, smoothness, noise control and light reflection.
 Fire Resistance: Relatively this is an important factor in the selection of upper flooring
material. However, the flooring material should offer sufficient resistance to fire, in
order to safeguard the life and goods within a building. The floor material should be
made of fire-resisting or non-combustible materials. The floorings of combustible
materials like. cork, linoleum, should be laid on fire-resistant base only.
 Maintenance: It is always desired that the maintenance cost should be as low as
possible. Generally ceramic tiles. Marble and concrete, require less maintenance as
compared to the wood floor. Maintenance is less when floor material resists stain bleach
and absorption of liquids. Maintenance cost includes repair, polishing, and waxing.
 Light reflection: The floor should reflect more light. Color of the floor is important for
light reflection. White ceramic tile reflects more light than concrete floor. Light color
reflects more light than dark color flooring.

Que.24: Write the assumptions of portal method of approximate analysis.

Ans. ASSUMPTIONS IN PORTAL METHOD:

 The points of inflection are located at the mid-height of each column above the first floor.
If the base of the column is fixed, the point of inflection is assumed at mid height of the
ground floor columns as well; otherwise it is assumed at the hinged column base.
 Points of inflection occur at mid span of beams.
 Total horizontal shear at any floor is distributed among the columns of that floor such that
the exterior columns carry half the force carried by the inner columns.
The basis for this third assumption is the frame is composed of individual portals having one
bay only.

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Que.25: Write the situations in which the portal and cantilever method could be used.

Ans. 1. PORTAL METHOD

The portal method is an approximate analysis used for analysing building frames subjected to
lateral loads such as Wind loads/ seismic forces. Since shear deformations are dominant in low
rise structures, the method makes simplifying assumptions regarding horizontal shear in columns.
Each bay of a structure is treated as a portal frame, and horizontal force is distributed equally
among them.
2. CANTILEVER METHOD
This method is applicable to high rise structures. This is based on the simplifying assumptions
regarding the Axial Force in columns. The only difference between cantilever and portal method
is, instead of finding the shears in the columns first using an assumption, we will find the axial
force. This method is quite versatile and can be used to analyse frames of any number or storeys
or floors.
ASSUMPTIONS IN CANTILEVER METHOD:
1. The points of inflection are located at the mid-height of each column above the first floor. If the
base of the column is fixed, the point of inflection is assumed at mid height of the ground floor
columns as well; otherwise it is assumed at the hinged column base.
2. Points of inflection occur at mid span of beams.
3. The basic assumption of the method can be stated as “the axial force in the column at any floor
is linearly proportional to its distance from the centroid of all the columns at that level.

Que.26: What are different types of seismic waves?

Ans: DIFFERENT TYPES OF SEISMIC WAVES:

 P-WAVE: The first kind of body wave is the P wave or primary wave. This is the fastest
kind of seismic wave, and, consequently, the first to 'arrive' at a seismic station. The P wave
can move through solid rock and fluids, like water or the liquid layers of the earth. It pushes
and pulls the rock it moves through just like sound waves push and pull the air.
P waves are also known as compressional waves, because of the pushing and pulling they
do. Subjected to a P wave, particles move in the same direction that the the wave is moving

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 in, which is the direction that the energy is traveling in, and is sometimes called the
'direction of wave propagation'.
 S -WAVE: The second type of body wave is the S wave or secondary wave, which is the
second wave you feel in an earthquake. An S wave is slower than a P wave and can only
move through solid rock, not through any liquid medium. It is this property of S waves that
led seismologists to conclude that the Earth's outer core is a liquid. S waves move rock
particles up and down, or side-to-side--perpendicular to the direction that the wave is
traveling in (the direction of wave propagation).
 SURFACE WAVES: Travelling only through the crust, surface waves are of a lower
frequency than body waves, and are easily distinguished on a seismogram as a result.
Though they arrive after body waves, it is surface waves that are almost enitrely responsible
for the damage and destruction associated with earthquakes. This damage and the strength
of the surface waves are reduced in deeper earthquakes. Surface waves are of two types:
Rayleigh wave and love wave.
1. RAYLEIGH WAVE: A Rayleigh wave rolls along the ground just like a wave
rolls across a lake or an ocean. Because it rolls, it moves the ground up and down,
and side-to-side in the same direction that the wave is moving. Most of the shaking
felt from an earthquake is due to the Rayleigh wave, which can be much larger than
the other waves.
2. LOVE WAVE: Its motion is essentially as S waves that have no vertical
displacement. It moves the ground from side to side in a horizontal plane but at
right angles to the direction of propagation. The horizontal shaking of Love waves
is particularly damaging to the foundations of structures.

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Que.27: Enlist different methods of seismic analysis.
Ans: Different Methods of seismic analysis are:
 Equivalent static analysis.
 Response spectrum analysis.
 Linear dynamic analysis.
 Nonlinear static analysis.
 Nonlinear dynamic analysis.

Equivalent static analysis

This approach defines a series of forces acting on a building to represent the effect of earthquake
ground motion, typically defined by a seismic design response spectrum. It assumes that the
building responds in its fundamental mode. For this to be true, the building must be low-rise and
must not twist significantly when the ground moves. The response is read from a design response
spectrum, given the natural frequency of the building (either calculated or defined by the building
code). The applicability of this method is extended in many building codes by applying factors to
account for higher buildings with some higher modes, and for low levels of twisting. To account

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for effects due to "yielding" of the structure, many codes apply modification factors that reduce
the design forces (e.g. force reduction factors).

Response spectrum analysis: This approach permits the multiple modes of response of a building
to be taken into account (in the frequency domain). This is required in many building codes for all
except very simple or very complex structures. The response of a structure can be defined as a
combination of many special shapes (modes) that in a vibrating string correspond to the
"harmonics". Computer analysis can be used to determine these modes for a structure. For each
mode, a response is read from the design spectrum, based on the modal frequency and the modal
mass, and they are then combined to provide an estimate of the total response of the structure. In
this we have to calculate the magnitude of forces in all directions i.e. X, Y & Z and then see the
effects on the building. Combination methods include the following:

 absolute – peak values are added together

 square root of the sum of the squares (SRSS)
 complete quadratic combination (CQC) – a method that is an improvement on SRSS for
closely spaced modes

The result of a response spectrum analysis using the response spectrum from a ground motion is
typically different from that which would be calculated directly from a linear dynamic analysis
using that ground motion directly, since phase information is lost in the process of generating the
response spectrum.

In cases where structures are either too irregular, too tall or of significance to a community in
disaster response, the response spectrum approach is no longer appropriate, and more complex
analysis is often required, such as non-linear static analysis or dynamic analysis.

Linear dynamic analysis:

Static procedures are appropriate when higher mode effects are not significant. This is generally
true for short, regular buildings. Therefore, for tall buildings, buildings with torsional irregularities,
or non-orthogonal systems, a dynamic procedure is required. In the linear dynamic procedure, the
building is modelled as a multi-degree-of-freedom (MDOF) system with a linear elastic stiffness
matrix and an equivalent viscous damping matrix.The seismic input is modelled using either modal

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spectral analysis or time history analysis but in both cases, the corresponding internal forces and
displacements are determined using linear elastic analysis. The advantage of these linear dynamic
procedures with respect to linear static procedures is that higher modes can be considered.
However, they are based on linear elastic response and hence the applicability decreases with
increasing nonlinear behaviour, which is approximated by global force reduction factors. In linear
dynamic analysis, the response of the structure to ground motion is calculated in the time domain,
and all phase information is therefore maintained. Only linear properties are assumed. The
analytical method can use modal decomposition as a means of reducing the degrees of freedom in
the analysis.

Nonlinear static analysisIn general: linear procedures are applicable when the structure is
expected to remain nearly elastic for the level of ground motion or when the design results in
nearly uniform distribution of nonlinear response throughout the structure. As the performance
objective of the structure implies greater inelastic demands, the uncertainty with linear procedures
increases to a point that requires a high level of conservatism in demand assumptions and
acceptability criteria to avoid unintended performance. Therefore, procedures incorporating
inelastic analysis can reduce the uncertainty and conservatism. This approach is also known as
"pushover" analysis. A pattern of forces is applied to a structural model that includes non-linear
properties (such as steel yield), and the total force is plotted against a reference displacement to
define a capacity curve. This can then be combined with a demand curve (typically in the form of
an acceleration-displacement response spectrum (ADRS)). This essentially reduces the problem to
a single degree of freedom (SDOF) system. Nonlinear static procedures use equivalent SDOF
structural models and represent seismic ground motion with response spectra. Story drifts and
component actions are related subsequently to the global demand parameter by the pushover or
capacity curves that are the basis of the non-linear static procedures.

Nonlinear dynamic analysis

Nonlinear dynamic analysis utilizes the combination of ground motion records with a detailed
structural model, therefore is capable of producing results with relatively low uncertainty. In
nonlinear dynamic analyses, the detailed structural model subjected to a ground-motion record
produces estimates of component deformations for each degree of freedom in the model and the

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modal responses are combined using schemes such as the square-root-sum-of-squares.In non-
linear dynamic analysis, the non-linear properties of the structure are considered as part of a time
domain analysis. This approach is the most rigorous, and is required by some building codes for
buildings of unusual configuration or of special importance. However, the calculated response can
be very sensitive to the characteristics of the individual ground motion used as seismic input;
therefore, several analyses are required using different ground motion records to achieve a reliable
estimation of the probabilistic distribution of structural response. Since the properties of the
seismic response depend on the intensity, or severity, of the seismic shaking, a comprehensive
assessment calls for numerous nonlinear dynamic analyses at various levels of intensity to
represent different possible earthquake scenarios. This has led to the emergence of methods like
the incremental dynamic analysis.

Que.28: What do you understand by a floating column? How is it important in design of a building?

Ans. Generally columns rest on the foundation to transfer load from slabs and beams. Floating
column rest on the beam, means the beam which support the column is act as a foundation. That
beam is called as transfer beam. This is widely used in high storied buildings which is used for
both commercial and residential purpose. This helps to alter the plan of the top floors to our
convenience. The transfer beam that support floating column will be designed with more
reinforcement.

It is a vertical member which rest on a beam but doesn’t transfer the load directly to the foundation.
The floating column acts as a point load on the beam and this beam transfers the load to the
columns below it. The column may start off on the first or second or any other intermediate floor
while resting on a beam.

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Floating Column in Buildings
Now a days multi-storey buildings constructed for the purpose of residential, commercial,
industrial etc., with an open ground storey has become a common feature. For the sake of parking,
the ground storey is kept free without any constructions, except for the columns which transfer the
building weight to the ground. For a hotel or commercial building, where the lower floors contain
banquet halls, conference rooms, lobbies, show rooms or parking areas, large interrupted space is
required for the movement of people or vehicles. The columns which are closely spaced in the
upper floors are not advisable in the lower floors. So to avoid this problem,
floating column concept has come into existence.
In urban areas, multi storey buildings are constructed by providing floating columns at the ground
floor for the various purposes which are stated above. These floating column buildings are
considered safe under gravity loads and hence are designed only for those loads. But these
buildings are not designed for earthquake loads and therefore, these buildings may be unsafe in
seismic prone areas. When the floating columns are employed in buildings in seismic prone areas,
the entire earthquake of the system is shared by the column or the shear walls without considering
any contribution from the floating columns.

Que.29: Write briefly on the soft storey phenomenon in buildings.Ans. The term “soft-story” refers
to one level of a building that is significantly more flexible or weak in lateral load resistance than
the stories above it and the floors or the foundation below it. This condition can occur in any of
the conventional construction types and is typically associated with large openings in the walls or
an exceptionally tall story height in comparison to the adjacent stories. These soft stories can
present a very serious risk in the event of an earthquake, both in human safety and financial
liability.

The common sources of soft story vulnerability include:

 Ground floor tuck-under parking beneath wood-framed residential apartment buildings.

 Tall first floor story heights, typical in older mid-rise and high-rise commercial office
buildings where the first floor is generally twice the height of a normal floor above.
 Retail buildings with the store front constructed mostly of glass.

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  Multi-use buildings in urban environments (e.g. San Francisco Bay Area and the Seattle
Metropolitan Area) with commercial retail tenants on the ground floor with large glass
store fronts and apartment residences above

Que.30: How infills are modeled for seismic analysis? Draw diagram.
Ans. It is widely recognized for long that URM infills interact with and modify the seismic
behavior of frame buildings, in general design practice, URM infills are treated as non-structural
elements and their stiffness, strength, and interaction with frames are often ignored. The
misleading assumption that infills will only provide additional strength and stiffness which will
result in improved performance. Ignoring infill-frame interaction does not affect the gravity load
resisting system, in which all the gravity loads are resisted only by the frame. However, from the
performance of infilled frames in past earthquakes, it is evident that the behavior of the structure
gets totally changed and mostly leads to undesired structural performance in the event of an
earthquake. The devastating consequences of the poor performance of infilled frame buildings,
even in moderate earthquakes have highlighted the importance of understanding inelastic behavior
of infilled frames in context of local construction practices and account for the same in their
seismic design. The available models can be broadly classified into two categories:

 Micro models
 Macro models.

MICRO MODELS are based on finite element representation of each infill panel and thus are
able to account for the local infill-frame interaction and to capture the behavior in a much detailed
manner. However, the very high degree of non-homogeneity and widely varied non-linear brittle

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behavior of masonry units and mortar, resulting in time intensive complex computational Finite
Element problem, deter its applicability to the practical problems of real structure.
MACRO MODELS: The need of simplified models of infills, requiring lesser computational
effort with sufficient accuracy has lead to formulation of macro-models. Most of the available
models consider infills to be constructed simultaneously with the frame and in full contact with
adjacent frame members. However, usually the infills are constructed after completion of the frame
and this construction sequence does not allow a full contact between infill and soffit of the beam
above. The gap between infills and beams can have significant effect on the estimated seismic
behavior of infilled frames.

Masonry modeling strategies: a) masonry sample; b) detailed micro modeling; c) simplified micro
modeling; d) macro modeling.
In simplified micro modeling, expanded units are represented by continuous elements and mortar
joints and the interface by discontinuous elements. With this model, mortar joints are ignored and
replaced by interface elements, whose characteristics are based on interface behavior. In macro
modeling, bricks, mortar joints, and interface are globally represented by a single element.

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