Semiconductor Basics

Chapter-1
1. Electronic Devices by Floyd 7th Edition
2. Fundamental of Microelectronics by Behzad Razavi.
Engr. Muhammad Faraz
Department of Electronics Engineering
University of Engineering & Technology Taxila
Email: Muhammad.faraz@uettaxila.edu.pk
States of Matter
• Matter: has mass, occupies space.
• Mass: has weight, resistance to acceleration.
• Solids: has volume, shape.
• Liquids: has volume, no fixed shape, Flows.
• Gases: No volume, no shape. Takes volume & shape of its container
• Plasma: No volume, no shape. Composed of electrically charged
particles, plasmas are electrically conductive, produce magnetic
fields & electric currents, & respond strongly to electromagnetic
forces.
Solids
• Particles (ions, atoms, molecules) are packed closely together.
• Forces between particles are strong enough so that particles cannot
move freely but can only vibrate.
• As a result, a solid has a stable, definite shape, & definite volume.
• Solids can only change their shape by force, as when broken or cut.
• Solids can be transformed into liquids by melting, & liquids can be
transformed into solids by freezing.
• Solids can also change directly into gases through the process of
sublimation
Solids
• Solids can be classified under criteria based on: atomic
arrangements, electrical properties, thermal properties, chemical
bonds etc.

• Using electrical criterion: Conductors, Insulators, Semiconductors.

• Using atomic arrangements: Crystalline, Amorphous, Polycrystalline.
Types of Solids
• Ionic Crystals or Solids
• Lattice points occupied by cations and anions.
• Held together by electrostatic attraction.
• Hard, brittle, high melting point.
• Poor conductor of heat and electricity.
• Molecular Crystals or Solids
• Lattice points occupied by molecules.
• Held together by intermolecular forces.
• Soft, low melting point.
• Poor conductor of heat and electricity.
Types of Solids
• Network or Covalent Crystals or Solids
• Lattice points occupied by atoms
• Held together by covalent bonds
• Hard, high melting point
• Poor conductor of heat and electricity
• Metallic Crystals or Solids
• Lattice points occupied by metal atoms
• Held together by metallic bond
• Soft to hard, low to high melting point
• Good conductor of heat and electricity
Solids
Solid-State Electronic Materials
• Solid electronic materials based on their conducting properties fall
into three categories:
• Insulators Resistivity (𝜌) > 105 Ω-cm
• Semiconductors 10-3 < 𝜌 < 105 Ω-cm
• Conductors (𝜌) < 10-3 Ω-cm
Solid-State Electronic Devices
• Deals with circuits or devices built entirely from solid materials, in which
electrons, or other charge carriers, are confined entirely within solid
material.
• Deals with circuit or devices involving theory of flow of electrons confined
within solid material. This includes devices like Diodes, Transistors etc.
• Solid-state can include Crystalline, Polycrystalline, Amorphous solids
refers to:
• Electrical conductors, insulators, semiconductors (building material is most
often crystalline semiconductor).
• Common solid-state devices include: Integrated circuit (IC), light-emitting
diode (LED), liquid-crystal display (LCD).
Solid-State Electronic Devices
• In solid-state component, current is confined to solid elements &
compounds engineered specifically to switch & amplify it.
• Current flow can be understood in two forms: as negatively
charged electrons, and as positively charged electron deficiencies
called holes.
Atomic Structure
• All matter is made of atoms, and all atoms consists of electrons, protons and
neutrons.
Atomic Structure
Atomic Structure
• Atomic Number: Number of electrons/protons in a neutral atom.
• All elements are arranged in the periodic table of the elements in order
according to their atomic number.

• Electron shells and Orbits: The electron orbit the nucleus of an atom at a
certain discrete distance from the nucleus.

• Electrons near the nucleus have less energy than those in more distant
orbits.
• Each discrete distance (orbit) from the nucleus corresponds to a certain
energy level.
Atomic Structure
• Valence Electrons: Electrons that are in orbits farther from
the nucleus have higher energy and are less tightly bound to
the atom than those closer to the nucleus.
• This is because the force of attraction between the positively
charged nucleus and the negatively charged electron
decreases with the increasing distance from the nucleus.
Electrons with the highest energy exists in the outer most
shell of an atom and are relatively loosely bound to the
atom.
• This outermost shell is known as the valence shell and
electron in this shell is called the valence electron.
• These valence electrons contribute to the chemical reactions
and bonding within the structure of a material and
determine its electrical properties.
Atomic Structure
• Ionization: The process of losing/gaining valence electron(s) is called
ionization.
• A positive ion is formed when an atom lose an electron while a negative
ion is formed when an atom gain an electron.
• Number of electrons (Ne) in each shell (n):
n = principal quantum number

:- for 1st shell

:- for 2nd shell and so on

Conductor, Insulators and Semiconductors
• A conductor is a material that easily conducts electrical current.

• The best conductors are single element materials, such as copper, silver,
gold and aluminium.

• These elements have loosely bound valence electrons that can easily
break away from their atoms and become free electrons.

• Therefore a conductive material has many free electrons that, when

moving in the same direction make up the current.
Conductor, Insulators and Semiconductors
• An insulator is a material that does not conduct electrical current under
normal conditions.
• Valence electrons are bound to the atoms, therefore they are very few
free electrons in an insulator.
Conductor, Insulators and Semiconductors
• A semiconductor is a material that is between conductors and insulators
in its ability to conduct electrical current.
• A semiconductor in its pure (intrinsic) state is neither a good conductor
nor a good insulator.
• The most common single element semiconductor are silicon,
germanium and carbon.
• Compound semiconductor such as gallium arsenide are also commonly
used.
• The single element semiconductors are characterized by atoms with
four valence electrons.
Conductor, Insulators and Semiconductors
• Energy bands: The valence shell of an atom represents a band of energy
levels and that the valence electrons are confined to that band.

• When an electron acquires enough additional energy, it can leave the

valence shell, become a free electron, and exist in what is known as the
conduction band.

• The difference in energy between the valence band and the conduction
band is called an energy gap.
Conductor, Insulators and Semiconductors
Conductor, Insulators and Semiconductors
• Comparison of a semiconductor atom to a conductor atom:

Valence Shell
= 4th

Valence Shell = 3rd

Conductor, Insulators and Semiconductors
• Comparison of Silicon and Germanium:

Silicon is most
widely used
semiconductor.

Germanium is
unstable at high
temperature.
Significance of Semiconductors
• Computers, laptops: Silicon (Si) MOSFETs, ICs, CMOS
• Cell phones, pagers: Si ICs, GaAs FETs, BJTs
• CD players: AlGaAs, InGaP laser diodes, Si photodiodes
• TV remotes, mobile terminals: Light emitting diodes
• Satellite dishes: InGaAs MMICs
• Fiber networks: InGaAsP laser diodes, pin photodiodes
• Traffic signals, car: GaN LEDs (green, blue)
• Taillights: InGaAsP LEDs (red, amber)
 Why Silicon dominates?
• Abundant, cheap, wider band gap, wide
operation temperature
• SiO2 is very stable, strong dielectric & it
is easy to grow on thermal process
• Atomic number: 14, Atomic
mass/weight: 28.0855
• Silicon group: IV elements (C, Ge)
• Crystal structure: diamond cubic
• Band gap energy: 300 K 1.12eV
• Density of solid: 2.33 gm/cm3
• Magnetic ordering: diamagnetic
• Electric resistivity : (20 °C) 10 Ωm
• Thermal conductivity: (300 K) 149 W·m−1 ·K−1
• Thermal expansion: (25 °C) 2.6 μm·m−1 ·K−1
• Speed of sound: (thin rod) (20 °C) 8433 m/s
• Young’s modulous: 185 Gpa
• Shear moduluos: 52 Gpa
• Bulk modulous: 100 GPa
• Melting point: 1414ºC, Boiling point: 2900ºC
• Molar Volume: 12.06 cm3