Combine Productiocvdxn

337: Materials & Manufacturing
Processes
Lecture 6:
Machining Operations
and Machinability
Chapter 22 and 24
This Time
 Parameters
 Material Removal Rate
 Power Requirements
 Surface Finish
 Machinability
2
Turning
Single point cutting tool removes material from

a rotating workpiece to form a cylindrical
shape
3
Turning
 A single point cutting tool removes material from a

rotating workpiece to generate a rotationally symmetric
shape
 Machine tool is called a lathe
 Types of cuts:  Workholding methods:

 Facing  Holding the work between
 Contour turning centers
 Chamfering  Chuck
 Cutoff  Collet
 Threading  Face plate
4
Turning Parameters Illustrated
5
Primary Machining Parameters
 Cutting Speed – (v)

 Primary motion
 Peripheral speed m/s ft/min
 Feed – (f)
 Secondary motion
 Turning: mm/rev in/rev
 Milling: mm/tooth in/tooth
 Depth of Cut – (d)
 Penetration of tool below original work surface
 Single parameter mm in
 Resulting in Material Removal Rate – (MRR)
MRR = v f d mm3/s in3/min
where v = cutting speed; f = feed; d = depth of cut
6
Machining Calculations: Turning
 Spindle Speed - N (rpm)
v
 v = cutting speed N
 Do = outer diameter π Do
 Feed Rate - fr (mm/min -or- in/min)
 f = feed per rev fr  N f
 Depth of Cut - d Do  Df (mm -or- in)
 Do = outer diameter d
 Df = final diameter 2
 Machining Time - Tm L (min)
 L = length of cut Tm 
fr
 Mat’l Removal Rate - MRR (mm3/min -or- in3/min)
MRR  v f d
7
Example
 In a production turning operation, the foreman

has decided that a single pass must be
completed on a cylindrical workpiece in 5.0
min. The piece is 400 mm long and 150 mm in
diameter. Using a feed = 0.30 mm/rev and a
depth of cut = 4.0 mm, what cutting speed
must be used to meet this machining time
requirement?
8
Example: Solution
 Tm = L/fr = L/Nf = pDoL/vf
 v = pDoL/fTm
= p(0.4)(0.15)/(0.30)(10-3)(5.0)
= 0.1257(103) m/min
= 125.7 m/min
9
Power and Energy Relationships
 Power requirements to perform machining can

be computed from:
Pc = Fc v N-m/s (W) ft-lb/min
where: Pc = cutting power;
Fc = cutting force; and
v = cutting speed
 Customary U.S. units for power are Horsepower (= 33000 ft-lb/min)
10
 The Gross machine power (Pg) available is:

Pc = Pg• E
where E = mechanical efficiency of machine tool
 Typical E for machine tools =  80 - 90%
Note: Textbook relationship is same -

Pc HPc
Pg  HPg 
E E
11
Unit Power in Machining
 Useful to convert power into power per unit volume

rate of metal cut
 Called the unit power, Pu or unit horsepower, HPu
Pc HPc
Pu  or
HPu 
MRR MRR
where MRR = material removal rate
 Tool sharpness is taken into account multiply by 1.00 – 1.25

 Feed is taken into account by multiplying by factor in Figure
21.14
12
Specific Energy in Machining
 Unit power(Pu) is also known as the specific energy (U),
or the power required to cut a unit volume of material:
Pc Fc
U  Pu  
MRR t ow
where t0 = un-deformed chip thickness;
w = width of the chip; and
Fc = cutting force
 Units for specific energy are typically N-m/mm3 (J/mm3)
or in-lb/in3
 Table 21-2 (p. 497) in the text approximates specific
energy for several materials based on est. hardness
13
Example
 In a turning operation on
stainless steel with hardness =
200 HB, the cutting speed =
200 m/min, feed = 0.25 mm/rev,
and depth of cut = 7.5 mm. How Pc
much power will the lathe draw Pu 
in performing this operation if its MRR
mechanical efficiency = 90%.
 From Table 21.2, U = 2.8 N-
m/mm3 = 2.8 J/mm3
14
Example: Solution
 MRR = vfd
= (200 m/min)(103 mm/m)(0.25 mm)(7.5 mm)
= 375,000 mm3/min = 6250 mm3/s
 Pc = (6250 mm3/s)(2.8 J/mm3) = 17,500 J/s

= 17,500 W = 17.5 kW
 Accounting for mechanical efficiency, Pg

= 17.5/0.90 = 19.44 kW
15
What if feed changes?
16
Facing
Tool is fed
radially inward
17
Contour Turning
Instead of feeding the

tool parallel to the axis
of rotation, tool follows
a contour that is other
than straight, to create
a contoured form
18
Chamfering
Cutting edge cuts

an angle on the
corner of the
cylinder, forming a
"chamfer"
19
Cutoff
Tool is fed radially

into rotating work
at some location to
cut off end of part
20
Threading
Pointed form tool is

fed linearly across
surface of rotating
workpart parallel to
axis of rotation at a
large feed rate to
create threads
21
Engine Lathe
22
Boring
 Difference between boring and turning:

 Boring is performed on the inside diameter of an
existing hole
 Turning is performed on the outside diameter of an
existing cylinder
 In effect, boring is an internal turning operation
 Boring machines
 Horizontal or vertical - refers to the orientation of the
axis of rotation of machine spindle
23
Drilling
Used to create a round hole, usually by means

of a rotating tool (drill bit) that has two cutting
edges
24
Through Holes vs. Blind Holes
Through-holes - drill exits the opposite side of work

Blind-holes – drill does not exit work on opposite side
Two hole types: (a) through-hole, and (b) blind hole

25
Machining Calculations: Drilling
 Spindle Speed - N v (rpm)
 D = tool diameter πD
 f = feed per rev fr  N f
 Machining Time - Tm (min)
 Through Hole : t  D tan90 
1 

 t = thickness Tm  2 2
  = tip angle
fr
 Blind Hole : d
Tm 
 d = depth fr
 Mat’l Removal Rate - MRR π D 2 fr (mm3/min -or- in3/min)
MRR 
4
26
Milling
Rotating multiple-cutting-edge tool is moved

slowly relative to work to generate plane or
straight surface
 Two forms: peripheral milling and face milling
27
Milling
 Machining operation in which work is fed past

a rotating tool with multiple cutting edges
 Axis of tool rotation is perpendicular to feed
direction
 Creates a planar surface; other geometries
possible either by cutter path or shape
28
Milling Parameters Illustrated
Two forms of milling:

(a) peripheral milling, and (b) face milling
29
Slab Milling
The basic form

of peripheral
milling in which
the cutter width
extends beyond
the workpiece
on both sides
(tool axis parallel
to machined
surface)
30
Conventional Face Milling
Cutter overhangs work

on both sides
(tool axis perpendicular to
machined surface)
31
Machining Calculations: Milling
 Spindle Speed - N v (rpm)
 D = cutter diameter πD
 f = feed per tooth fr  N nt f
 nt = number of teeth
L  d D  d 
 Machining Time - Tm (min)
 Slab Milling: Tm 
 L = length of cut fr
 d = depth of cut
 Face Milling: LD L  2 w D  w 
 w = width of cut Tm  -or- Tm 
 2nd form is multi-pass
fr fr
 Mat’l Removal Rate - MRR (mm3/min -or- in3/min)
MRR  w d fr
32
Example
 A face milling operation is used to machine 5

mm from the top surface of a rectangular piece
of aluminum 400 mm long by 100 mm wide.
The cutter has four teeth (cemented carbide
inserts) and is 150 mm in diameter. Cutting
conditions are: v = 3 m/s, f = 0.27 mm/tooth,
and d = 5.0 mm. Determine the time to make
one pass across the surface.
33
Example: Solution
LD
Tm 
fr
v
fr  N nt f N
πD
34
Example: Solution
v
N = (3000 mm/s)/150p = 6.37 rev/s N
πD
fr = 6.37(4)(.27) = 6.88 mm/s fr  N nt f
LD
Tm 
fr
Tm = (400 + 150)/6.88 = 80 s = 1.33 min.
35
You should have learned
 Parameters
 Material Removal Rate
 Power Requirements
 Surface Finish
 Machinability
36
Assignment
 HW 2 (Due Tuesday):
 CH 21,22 and 24 Problems
 In Assignments folder
37
Next Time
 Casting
Chapter 10
38
Chapter 21
THEORY OF METAL MACHINING
 Overview of Machining Technology
 Theory of Chip Formation in Metal
Machining
 Force Relationships and the Merchant
Equation
 Power and Energy Relationships in
Machining
 Cutting Temperature
ISE 316 - Manufacturing

Processes Engineering
Material Removal Processes
A family of shaping operations, the common feature
of which is removal of material from a starting
workpart so the remaining part has the desired
shape
 Categories:
◦ Machining – material removal by a sharp cutting tool,
e.g., turning, milling, drilling
◦ Abrasive processes – material removal by hard, abrasive
particles, e.g., grinding
◦ Nontraditional processes - various energy forms other
than sharp cutting tool to remove material
ISE 316 - Manufacturing Processes

Engineering
Machining
Cutting action involves shear deformation of
work material to form a chip
 As chip is removed, a new surface is exposed
Figure 21.2 - (a) A cross-sectional view of the machining process, (b)

tool with negative rake angle; compare with positive rake angle in (a)

Engineering
Why Machining is Important
 Variety of work materials can be
machined
◦ Most frequently applied to metals
 Variety of part shapes and special
geometry features possible, such as:
◦ Screw threads
◦ Accurate round holes
◦ Very straight edges and surfaces
 Good dimensional accuracy and surface
finish
Disadvantages with Machining
 Wasteful of material
◦ Chips generated in machining are wasted
material, at least in the unit operation
 Time consuming
◦ A machining operation generally takes more
time to shape a given part than alternative
shaping processes, such as casting, powder
metallurgy, or forming

Machining in the Manufacturing
Sequence
 Generally performed after other
manufacturing processes, such as casting,
forging, and bar drawing
◦ Other processes create the general shape of
the starting workpart
◦ Machining provides the final shape,
dimensions, finish, and special geometric
details that other processes cannot create

Machining Operations
 Most important machining operations:
◦ Turning
◦ Drilling
◦ Milling
 Other machining operations:
◦ Shaping and planing
◦ Broaching
◦ Sawing

Turning
Single point cutting tool removes material from a
rotating workpiece to form a cylindrical shape
Figure 21.3 (a) turning

Engineering
Drilling
Used to create a round hole, usually by means of a
rotating tool (drill bit) that has two cutting edges
Figure 21.3 - The three most

common types of machining
process: (b) drilling

Milling
Rotating multiple-cutting-edge tool is moved slowly
relative to work to generate plane or straight
surface
 Two forms: peripheral milling and face milling
Figure 21.3 - (c) peripheral milling, and (d) face milling

Cutting Tool Classification
1. Single-Point Tools
◦ One cutting edge
◦ Turning uses single point tools
◦ Point is usually rounded to form a nose
radius
2. Multiple Cutting Edge Tools
◦ More than one cutting edge
◦ Motion relative to work usually achieved by
rotating
◦ Drilling and milling use rotating multiple
cutting edge tools.

Figure 21.4 - (a) A single-point tool showing rake face, flank, and tool
point; and (b) a helical milling cutter, representative of tools with
multiple cutting edges

Cutting Conditions in Machining
 The three dimensions of a machining process:
◦ Cutting speed v – primary motion
◦ Feed f – secondary motion
◦ Depth of cut d – penetration of tool below original
work surface
 For certain operations, material removal rate
can be found as
MRR = v f d
where v = cutting speed; f = feed; d = depth of cut

Cutting Conditions for Turning
Figure 21.5 - Cutting speed, feed, and depth of cut for a turning
operation

Roughing vs. Finishing in Machining
In production, several roughing cuts are usually
taken on the part, followed by one or two
finishing cuts
 Roughing - removes large amounts of
material from the starting workpart
◦ Creates shape close to desired geometry, but
leaves some material for finish cutting
◦ High feeds and depths, low speeds
 Finishing - completes part geometry
◦ Achieves final dimensions, tolerances, and finish
◦ Low feeds and depths, high cutting speeds
Machine Tools
A power-driven machine that performs a
machining operation, including grinding
 Functions in machining:
◦ Holds workpart
◦ Positions tool relative to work
◦ Provides power at speed, feed, and depth that
have been set
 The term is also applied to machines that
perform metal forming operations
Orthogonal Cutting Model
A simplified 2-D model of machining that describes
the mechanics of machining fairly accurately
Figure 21.6 - Orthogonal cutting: (a) as a three-dimensional process

Chip Thickness Ratio
to
r 
tc
where r = chip thickness ratio; to = thickness of the chip
prior to chip formation; and tc = chip thickness
after separation
 Chip thickness after cut is always greater than
before, so chip ratio is always less than 1.0

Determining Shear Plane Angle
 Based on the geometric parameters of the

orthogonal model, the shear plane angle  can
be determined as:
r cos 
tan  
1  r sin
where r = chip ratio, and  = rake angle

Figure 21.7 - Shear strain during chip formation: (a) chip formation depicted
as a series of parallel plates sliding relative to each other, (b) one of the
plates isolated to show shear strain, and (c) shear strain triangle used to
derive strain equation

Engineering
Shear Strain
Shear strain in machining can be computed
from the following equation, based on the
preceding parallel plate model:
 = tan( - ) + cot 
where  = shear strain,  = shear plane angle,
and  = rake angle of cutting tool

Engineering
Figure 21.8 - More realistic view of chip formation, showing shear
zone rather than shear plane. Also shown is the secondary shear
zone resulting from tool-chip friction
Four Basic Types of Chip in
Machining
1. Discontinuous chip
2. Continuous chip
3. Continuous chip with Built-up Edge
(BUE)
4. Serrated chip

Segmented Chip
 Brittle work materials
(e.g., cast irons)
 Low cutting speeds
 Large feed and depth
of cut
 High tool-chip
friction
Figure 21.9 - Four types of chip

formation in metal cutting:
(a) segmented

Continuous Chip
 Ductile work materials
(e.g., low carbon steel)
 High cutting speeds
 Small feeds and depths
 Sharp cutting edge on
the tool
 Low tool-chip friction
Figure 21.9 - Four types of chip formation

in metal cutting:
(b) continuous

Continuous with BUE
 Ductile materials
 Low-to-medium cutting
speeds
 Tool-chip friction causes
portions of chip to adhere
to rake face
 BUE formation is cyclical;
it forms, then breaks off

formation in metal cutting: (c)
continuous with built-up edge

Serrated Chip
 Semicontinuous - saw-
tooth appearance
 Cyclical chip formation
of alternating high shear
strain then low shear
strain
 Most closely associated
with difficult-to-
machine metals at high
cutting speeds

formation in metal cutting: (d)
serrated

Forces Acting on Chip
 Friction force F and Normal force to friction N
 Shear force Fs and Normal force to shear Fn
Figure 21.10 -
Forces in metal
cutting: (a) forces
acting on the chip
in orthogonal
cutting

Resultant Forces
 Vector addition of F and N = resultant R
 Vector addition of Fs and Fn = resultant R'
 Forces acting on the chip must be in
balance:
◦ R' must be equal in magnitude to R
◦ R’ must be opposite in direction to R
◦ R’ must be collinear with R

Coefficient of Friction
Coefficient of friction between tool and chip:

F

N
Friction angle related to coefficient of friction as follows:
  tan 

Shear Stress
Shear stress acting along the shear plane:

Fs
S
As
where As = area of the shear plane
t ow
As 
sin 
Shear stress = shear strength of work material during cutting

Cutting Force and Thrust Force
 Forces F, N, Fs, and Fn cannot be directly measured
 Forces acting on the tool that can be measured:
◦ Cutting force Fc and Thrust force Ft
Figure 21.10 - Forces

in metal cutting: (b)
forces acting on the
tool that can be
measured

Forces in Metal Cutting
 Equations can be derived to relate the
forces that cannot be measured to the
forces that can be measured:
F = Fc sin + Ft cos
N = Fc cos - Ft sin
Fs = Fc cos - Ft sin
Fn = Fc sin + Ft cos
 Based on these calculated force, shear
stress and coefficient of friction can be
determined
The Merchant Equation
 Of all the possible angles at which shear

deformation could occur, the work material will
select a shear plane angle  which minimizes energy,
given by
 
  45  
2 2
 Derived by Eugene Merchant
 Based on orthogonal cutting, but validity extends to
3-D machining

What the Merchant Equation Tells
Us
 
  45  
2 2
 To increase shear plane angle

◦ Increase the rake angle
◦ Reduce the friction angle (or coefficient of
friction)

 Higher shear plane angle means smaller shear plane
which means lower shear force
 Result: lower cutting forces, power, temperature, all
of which mean easier machining
Figure 21.12 - Effect of shear plane angle : (a) higher  with a

resulting lower shear plane area; (b) smaller  with a corresponding
larger shear plane area. Note that the rake angle is larger in (a), which
tends to increase shear angle according to the Merchant equation

A machining operation requires power
The power to perform machining can be
computed from:
Pc = Fc v
where Pc = cutting power; Fc = cutting
force; and v = cutting speed

In U.S. customary units, power is traditional expressed as

horsepower (dividing ft-lb/min by 33,000)
Fcv
HPc 
33,000
where HPc = cutting horsepower, hp

Gross power to operate the machine tool Pg or

HPg is given by
Pc HPc
Pg  or HPg 
E E
where E = mechanical efficiency of machine tool
• Typical E for machine tools =  90%

Unit Power in Machining
 Useful to convert power into power per unit

volume rate of metal cut
 Called the unit power, Pu or unit horsepower, HPu
Pc HPc
Pu  or HPu 
MRR MRR
where MRR = material removal rate

Specific Energy in Machining
Unit power is also known as the specific energy U
Pc Fcv Fc
U  Pu   
MRR vt ow t ow
Units for specific energy are typically N-m/mm3 or J/mm3 (in-lb/in3)

Cutting Temperature
 Approximately 98% of the energy in
machining is converted into heat
 This can cause temperatures to be very
high at the tool-chip
 The remaining energy (about 2%) is
retained as elastic energy in the chip

Cutting Temperature
 Several analytical methods to calculate cutting
temperature
 Method by N. Cook derived from dimensional
analysis using experimental data for various work
materials
0.333
0.4U  vt o 
T   
C  K 
where T = temperature rise at tool-chip interface; U = specific energy; v
= cutting speed; to = chip thickness before cut; C = volumetric specific
heat of work material; K = thermal diffusivity of the work material

Cutting Temperature
 Experimental methods can be used to
measure temperatures in machining
 Most frequently used technique is the
tool-chip thermocouple
 Using this method, K. Trigger determined
the speed-temperature relationship to be
of the form:
T = K vm
where T = measured tool-chip interface
temperature
Metal Cutting theory
 Plastically deform a material using a hard
tool in order to obtain desired physical
shape and properties
 Very complex phenomena
 Essential for high precision; high
performance products
CHAPTER SIX :Milling Operation
MILLING OPERATION
Milling operation
• Milling is a machining operation in which a workpiece is feed past a rotating cylindrical
tool with multiple cutting edges.
• This cutting tool in milling is known as milling cutter and the machine tool that
traditionally performs the operation is called milling machine.
• Milling is an interrupted cutting operation, the teeth of milling cutter enter and exit the
work during each revolution.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9_iOGGC70mQ
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=v4pWjZbT0RI
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2y_OJv-K0E8
Milling operation
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CqePrbeAQoM
Milling operation
Types of milling operations
There are two basic types of milling operations peripheral or slab milling (horizontal
milling) and face milling (vertical milling).
Peripheral or slab milling

In this milling operation the axis of tool is parallel to the surface being machined. In this operation
there are two opposite directions of rotation that the cutter can have with respect to the work.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2y_OJv-K0E8
(a) Peripheral milling operation, (b) face milling
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

Peripheral or slab milling operations
Peripheral milling: (a) slab milling, (b) slotting, (c) side milling,
(d) straddle milling, and (e) form milling.

Types of peripheral or slab milling
Up milling: In up milling the direction of motion of the cutter teeth is opposite to the feed
direction. In this type of milling operation, the chip formed by each cutter tooth starts out
very thin and increases in thickness during the sweep of the cutter. The chip length is
longer than in down milling.
Down milling: In down milling, the direction of motion of the cutter teeth is same as the
feed direction. In this operation each chip starts out thick and reduces in thickness
throughout the cut.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ss475wvN1Qg
Types of peripheral or slab milling
Two forms of peripheral milling operation with a 20-teeth

cutter: (a) up milling, and (b) down milling.

Face milling
In face milling the axis of the cutter is perpendicular to the surface being milled, as shown in
the figure 6.5.
Face milling
Face milling operations
Face milling: (a) conventional facemilling,(b)partialface milling, (c)

end milling, (d) proﬁle milling, (e) pocket milling, and (f) surface
contouring.
Cutting conditions in milling
fr

Psmax
Psmean
Ps
Conventional face milling with cutting force diagram for Fc, showing the interrupted nature of process.
The cutting speed is determined at the outside diameter of a milling cutter. This can be
converted to spindle rotation speed.
V
N=
πD

The milling operation is characterized by the changing of chip thickness as the cutting
proceeds. Therefore the maximum and mean values of chip thickness are to be calculated.
Symbols key
d tc = maximum chip thickness

e tcm = mean chip thickness
w
f = feed rate in mm/tooth
f
w = width of the cut
d D = diameter of the cutter
d = depth of the cut
φe= engagement angle

f f
tcm tc
Chip thickness (tc) detail in milling operation.

Since the chip thickness is an important factor for calculating the cutter forces and power,
therefore the maximum and mean values of chip thickness will be calculated.
fr
tc = f sin ϕ e = * sin ϕ e
N *z
tcm = 1 / 2tc
Where
f = feed of workpiece mm/tooth = fr/(N*z)
φe = angle of rotation of milling cutter during which each tooth remains
engaged in workpiece material
fr = feed of workpiece in mm/min
n = rotational speed of cutter in rpm
z = number of teeth on cutter
( D / 2) 2 − ( D / 2 − d ) 2
since φe is small such that sin φe = φe sin ϕ e = =2 d/D
D/2
Substituting the values of sin ϕ e
2 fr
tc = d/D
N×z
fr
tcm = d/D
N×z
Cutting forces and power in milling
The resultant force R acting on a single tooth in peripheral milling operation can be resolved
into tangential and radial components (Ps, Pr) or horizontal and vertical components (Ph, Pv).
Therefore
2 2
R = Ps + Pr
2 2
R = Ph + PV
fr
Cutting force components in milling operation

The main cutting force “Ps” in peripheral milling
Ps = K s × w × t
t = momentary chip thickness changing from zero to “tc” in up milling or from “tc”
to zero in down milling (use tc for maximum cutting force calculation and tcm for
mean for calculation)
b
Cutting forces and power in milling CHAPTER SIX :Milling Operation
Ps max = K s × w × tc
2 fr
Ps max = Ks × w × d/D
N *z
fr
Ps mean = Ks × w × d/D
N *z
The total mean tangential force is:
fr
Ps mean ( total ) = Ze × Ks × w × d/D
N *z
Where
Ze = number of cutting teeth engaged in the same moment
φe
Ze = z ×
2π
After substituting the value of Ze in total mean cutting force equation
fr × d × w
Ps ( total ) mean = × Ks
π × D× N
The mean machining power can be calculated as follows: Psmax this is the maximum force
that motor has to overcome during
machining and that is why it is used
Power = Ps ( total ) mean × V for motor power calculation
Psmean this is the mean force

used for mean cutting power
fr × d × w that accounts for the total
Power = × Ks ×π × D × N cost of the machining
Ps
π × D× N
Power = f r × d × w × K s
1
Powermotor = Ps max × V ×
η mech
The feed power is given by:
Powerfeed = Pf × f r
Machining time in peripheral milling
From figure, it can be noted,

A = d (D − d ) A = The approach distance to
reach full cutter depth
L+ A Tm = machining time
Tm =
fr
From Mikel P Groover, Fundamentals of modern manufacturing, 4th Ed
Machining time in face milling
L+ A
Tm =
fr
Face milling showing approach and over-travel distances for two cases: (a) when cutter is
centered over the workpiece, and (b) when cutter is offset to one side over the work.
From Mikel P Groover, Fundamentals of modern manufacturing, 4th Ed

Material removal rate
Material removal rate can be calculated as following:
L×d × w
MRR =
Tm
Where
L = length of the cut
d = depth of the cut
Tm = machining time
Chapter 4
CUTTING TOOLS:
Material and Geometry
Prof. Dr. S. Engin KILIÇ
MFGE 307THEORY OF MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY II 1

Cutting Tools
Tools must be so selected that they can cut properly and efficiently
under the selected cutting conditions which may lead to a harsh
cutting environment due to high cutting temperatures and high
cutting pressures.
In selection two principal aspects must be considered:
a) tool geometry b) tool material.
The geometry  the optimum performance for the given
tool material and the operation.
The tool material  highest possible strength, resistance and durability
against forces, temperatures and wearing action
during machining

Cutting Tools - Geometry
The cutting tool geometry is of prime importance because it directly affects:
1. Chip control: The tool geometry defines the direction of chip flow. This direction
is important to control chip breakage and evacuation.
2. Productivity of machining: The cutting feed per revolution is considered the
major resource in increasing productivity. This feed can be significantly increased
by adjusting the tool cutting edge angle. For example, the most common use of this
feature is found in milling, where increasing the lead angle to 45° allows the feed
rate to be increased 1.4-fold. As such, a wiper insert is introduced to reduce the feed
marks left on the machined surface due to the increased feed.
3. Tool life: The geometry of the cutting tool directly affects tool life as this
geometry defines the magnitude and direction of the cutting force and its
components, the sliding velocity at the tool–chip interface, the distribution of the
thermal energy released in machining, the temperature distribution in the cutting
wedge etc.

4. The direction and magnitude of the cutting force and thus its components:
Four components of the cutting tool geometry, namely, the rake angle, the tool
cutting edge angle, the tool minor cutting edge angle and the inclination angle,
define the magnitudes of the orthogonal components of the cutting force.
5. Quality (surface integrity and machining residual stress) of machining:
The correlation between tool geometry and the theoretical topography of
the machined surface is common knowledge. The influence of the cutting
geometry on the machining residual stress is easily realized if one recalls
that this geometry defines to a great extent the state of stress in the deformation
zone, i.e., around the tool.

(a) Schematic illustration of a right-hand cutting tool for turning. Although these tools have traditionally been
produced from solid tool-steel bars, they are now replaced by inserts of carbide or other tool materials of various
shapes and sizes, as shown in (b).
Kalpakjian-Schimid, 2008


Side Rake Angle (gs):
 great influence on chip formation
less deformation of removed layer of w.p.

 as increased  less resistance to chip formation
lower cutting forces
lower power consumption
less heat transfer area on rake

 substantial increase  weakening of cutting edge
catastrophic tool failure

Cutting Tool Geometry
Effect of Side Rake Angle on Tool Performance
H1>H2>H3
g1<g2<g3
Tool life
Tool life
H3
H2
H1
Increased w.p
hardness
- + - + g1 g2 g3
0 0
Side rake angle Side rake angle Side rake angle

Side Clearance Angle
less rubbing between flank and w.p.

• as increased  reduced heat generation at tertiary def. zone
reduced flank wear
• excessive clearance  reduction in strength of wedge
• larger for soft and ductile w.p., smaller for hard and brittle w.p.
f1> f2>f3
Tool life
a1<a2<a3
f3
f2
f1
a1 a2 a3 Side clearance angle

Side Cutting Edge Angle
• Determines thickness and width of uncut chip layer:

ac= f cos k
aw= ap/cos k
Hence, for the given feed and depth of cut, an increase in k causes
a decrease in chip thickness and an increase in chip width.
• As increased: i) interface temp.  decreases since   ac
ii) distribution of heat generated over a longer cutting
edge, hence longer tool life and higher permissible
feed

Side Cutting Edge Angle (Cont’d)
iii) increase in radial force component  high lateral
deflections, poor dim. accuracy, severe vibration
and chatter especially in long and slender w.p.
iv) better surface finish since Rmax= f/(tank+cotke)
where Rmax= max. surf. rough., f = feed rate
k = side cut. edge angle, ke= end cut. edge angle
Cemented
Cutting speed for

carbide
a fixed tool life

Amplitude
of chatter
HSS
k 300 k
End Cutting Edge Angle
• as increased: i) less cutting at the end cutting edge, hence less
friction between end flank and finished w.p.
surface and higher tool life
ii) lower surface quality
• substantial increase  decrease in tool included angle
 poorer heat transfer from the nose
 shorter tool life
Cutting speed for
a fixed tool life
50-100 ke
Back Rake Angle
Back Rake Angle basically affects chip flow.
gb=(+) gb=0 gb=(-)

Back Rake Angle (Cont’d)
It also affects specific cutting energy and chip-tool interface temperature.
Note that for machining hard materials with cemented carbides , gb  -200

Cutting Tool Materials
Requirements: Classification:
 Hot hardness  Carbon Tool Steels

 Wear resistance  Medium Alloy Steels
 Toughness  High Speed Steels
 Low friction  Cast Cobalt Based Alloys
 Favorable cost  Cemented Carbides
 Ceramics and Ultra-hard Materials

Cutting Tool Materials with Their Approximate Dates of Initial Use and Allowable Cutting Speeds
______________________________________________________________________________________
Year of Allowable Cutting Speed
Tool Material Initial Use ft/min (m/min)a
______________________________________________________________________________________
Plain carbon tool steel 1800s
Non steel cutting Below 30 (10)
Steel cutting Below 15 ( 5)
High-speed steel 1900
Nonsteel cutting 75-200 (25-65)
Steel cutting 50-100 (17-33)
Cast cobalt alloys 1915
Steel cutting 100-300 (33-100)
Cemented carbides (WC)
Nonsteel cutting 1930 1000-2000 (330-650)
Steel cutting 1940 300-900 (100-300)

Cutting Tool Materials with Their Approximate Dates of Initial Use and Allowable Cutting Speeds (cont’d)
______________________________________________________________________________________
Year of Allowable Cutting Speed
Tool Material Initial Use ft/min (m/min)a
______________________________________________________________________________________
Cermets (TiC) 1950s
Steel cutting 500-1200 (165-400)
Ceramics (Al2O3 ) 1955
Steel cutting b 1000-2000 (330-650)
Synhetic diamonds 1954, 1973
Cubic boron nitride 1969

Steel cutting 1500-2500 (500-800)
Coated carbides
Steel cuttingc 1970 500-1200 (165-400)
____________________________________________________________________________________________
aAllowable cutting speeds are expressed as a range of values because of the variety of work materials and applications
machined with these tools. The values are intended to represent typical and comparative speeds, not absolute limits.
bCeramic tools are normally used at lower feeds and depths because of their brittleness.
cCoated carbides are normally used as substitutes for steel cutting grades of cemented carbides.

Carbon Tool Steels
 Martensite based / tempered & hardened.

 Operate at low cutting speeds.
 Poor hot hardness (max. temp. 200oC)
 Typical composition:
 0.8 - 4.3 % C
 0.1 - 0.4 % Si
 0.1 - 0.4 % Mn
 Hardness and wear resistance at room temperature increase
with increased C% up to 0.8 - 1%.
 Generally used for cutting wood and plastics.

Medium Alloy Steels
 Improved hardenability due to small additions

of Cr & Mo.
 Addition of up to 4% of W improves wear
resistance.
 Poor hot hardness is NOT satisfactory for high
speed turning or milling.

High Speed Steels (HSS)
 First introduced in 1900 by Taylor and White.
 Superior hot hardness and wear resistance (max. temp 600oC).
 Typical compositions of various High Speed Tool Steels:
Designation Type W Cr V Mo C Fe
T-1 W 18 4 1 - 0.7 Bal.
M-1 Mo 1.5 4 1 8.5 0.8 Bal.
M-2 W-Mo 6 4 2 5 0.8 Bal.
 American Institute for Steel Industry (AISI) classifies them based

on composition:
 Tungsten based: T1 – T9, T15
 Molybdenum based: M1 – M10
 Molybdenum + Cobalt based: M30 – M46

HSS (Cont’d)
 Tungsten and Molybdenum behave in the same

general way, however Mo is twice as effective as W
to improve hot hardness.
 They tend to increase hot hardness by forming strong
complex carbides.
 Addition of Co to the structure in 4, 8 or 12% further
improves the hot hardness. E.g. T-4 has the same
composition as T-1 but 4% Co is added.
 It increases hot hardness by going into the solution in
ferrite matrix increasing the recrystallisation temperature.

HSS (Cont’d)
 Tungsten and Molybdenum behave in the same

general way, however Mo is twice as effective as W
to improve hot hardness.
 They tend to increase hot hardness by forming strong
complex carbides.
 Addition of Co to the structure in 4, 8 or 12% further
improves the hot hardness. E.g. T-4 has the same
composition as T-1 but 4% Co is added.
 It increases hot hardness by going into the solution in ferrite
matrix increasing the recrystallisation temperature.

High Speed Steels (Cont’d)
 Vanadium inhibits grain growth at high

temperatures required in heat treatment and
increases the wear resistance.
– Vanadium steels are very difficult to grind and used
machining highly abrasive stock.
 Co & Mo have a tendency to promote
decarburization. Such steels should be ground
to a greater depth in finishing to remove
decarburized layer.

Alloying Elements in High-Speed Steel and Their Effects on Properties and Processing
_______________________________________________________________________________________
Alloying Element Functions in High Speed Steel
_______________________________________________________________________________________
Tungsten Increases hot hardness
Improves abrasion resistance through formation of hard carbides in HSS
Molybdenum Increases hot hardnesss
Chromium Depth hardenability during heat treatment
Corrosion resistance (minor effect)
Vanadium Combines with carbon for wear resistance
Retards grain growth for better thoughness
Cobalt Increases hot hardness
Carbon Principal hardening element in steel
Provides available carbon to form carbides with other alloying elements for
wear resistance.
_______________________________________________________________________________________

 HSS tools are manufactured in wide range of sizes

and shapes but mostly in the form of solid tools. Solid
tools are then ground to required geometry.
 There is tendency of clamping, brazing or welding
HSS tool to a cheaper low alloy or carbon steel body.
 Recent developments are
– Powder metal HSS
– Coated HSS

Powder Metal HSS
 Powder Metal HSS has the following
advantages:
– Superior structure.
– Free from segregation.
– Ensure good and nearly uniform properties in
all directions.
– Lower incidence of premature failure.
– Ability to produce steels with higher alloy
content.

Coated HSS
 Coated HSS has the following features:

 Tools can be coated with thin layers of refractory metal carbide
or nitride using physical or chemical vapor deposition
techniques (less than 10m thickness).
 Titanium nitrate (TiN) coating has a distinguishing gold color
whereas titanium carbide (TiC) has a black color.
 Life may be as high as 300% or 400% of the life of uncoated
tools
 Built-up edge formation is nearly eliminated.
 Regrinding must be followed by a careful polishing and
recoating.

Cobalt Based Alloys
 Known as stellites, composed of a number of nonferrous alloys high in
cobalt.
 Representative composition:
 Co: 40-50%
 Cr: 27-32%
 W: 14-29%
 C: 2-4%
 Cannot be heat treated and are used as cast.
 Ground to its final shape (single-edge tools or saw blades)
 If compared to HSS, stellites can retain hardness at a much higher
temperature.
 They can be used at higher cutting speeds than HSS tools (25% ... 200%)

Cobalt Based Alloys (Cont’d)
 Not as hard as carbon tool steels at room temperature

but retain hardness to much higher temperatures.
 Used when tools are required to be used for a wide
range of cutting speeds, i.e. facing very large diameter
parts at constant rotational speed.
 Not widely used.
 Expensive due to shortages on strategic materials (Co, W, Cr,
etc.)
 Brittle, hence need proper support.

Cemented Carbides
 Became popular during WWII. Increased cutting speed
by four- or fivefolds (if compared to HSS!).
 Produced by Powder Metallurgy
 Mixtures of transition metal carbides and metals in which the
metal, usually the cobalt, binds carbides together.
 Contains carbides of tungsten, titanium and tantalum at least
80% by volume.
 Strongly metalic in character
 Good electrical and thermal conductivities
 Metalic appearance

Cemented Carbides (Cont’d)
 Characteristics of Cemented Carbide Tools:
 High hardness over a wide range of temperatures.
 Maintain hardness up to 1200oC.
 Very stiff (Young's modulus three times that of steel).
 Very brittle
 No plastic flow even at very high stresses (up to 3.5
GPa).
 Low thermal expansion.
 Relatively high thermal conductivity (especially K-Grade).
 Strong tendency to form pressure welds at low cutting
speeds.
Cemented Carbides (Cont’d)
 Carbide grades are classified according to codes
developed by various organizations:
 C1 – C2 grades (AISI) or K grade (ISO): used for machining cast
iron (CI)
 C4 – C8 grades or P grade (ISO): used for machining steel.
 M-grade: general purpose
 C1-C3 grades contain only tungsten carbide and cobalt.
 Effective in machining CI and certain abrasive nonferrous alloys.
 Not suitable for steels due to their high affinity towards that alloy
 Addition of titanium carbide and/or tantalum carbide lowers that
affinity, hence making steel cutting possible (steel P-grades).

Carbide Inserts

TiC Based Tools
 Commonly used in Automotive Industry
 Employed as throw-away tool tips.
 Difficult to braze.
 Bonding metal is Ni instead of Co (in 10-20%).
 Resistant to diffusion wear in steel cutting.
 Cutting speed is 2 ... 5 times that of HSS.
 Can be used at higher cutting speeds than the
conventional WC based tools.
 Low toughness.
 Lack reliability and consistency of performance

Coated Tools
 About 10 m thick coatings of TiC,
Al203, TiN can be coated on the
surface of a tough WC substrate
using physical or chemical vapour
deposition technique.
 First layer: TiC (Strength and wear
resistance)
 Second layer: Al203 (Chemical
stability at high temp and resistance
to abrasive wear)
 Final layer: TiN (Low coefficient of
friction)
 Reduce tool wear.
 Increase in cutting speed is possible.

Ceramics
 Basic material is Alumina (Al203) and may contain Mg0, TiO

and other additions to promote densification and grain size
stability.
 Major advantages are
 Retention of hardness and compressive strength to
higher temperatures than with carbides.
 Practically inert to steel up to melting point.
 Lower toughness and tensile strength than that of carbides.
 Non-metallic in character, hence electrical insulator with
poor thermal conductivity.

Ceramics (Cont’d)
 Can be used to cut steels at much higher speeds than
possible with carbides (a cutting speed of 600-750 m/min at
a feed of 0.25 mm without excessive wear when cutting CI
and steels).
 Negative rake throw-away tools are used.
 Main usage in cutting grey CI with very good surface finish
to eliminate subsequent grinding operation (e.g. clutch
facings and brakes).
 Alumina containing up to 30% TiC is suitable for turning and
milling operations on CI and continuous machining of steel.
 Not suitable for machining Al-alloys.

Ceramics (Cont’d)
Edge Chamfer, commonly used on ceramic

and carbide inserts: C~0.08-0.5mm; ~10-300

Sialons
 Si-Al-0-N's are silicon nitrade-based materials with aluminum and
oxygen additions.
 Tougher than alumina.
 In interrupted cutting, higher feeds and speeds without fracture are
possible than those attainable with alumina ceramics.
 In machining aerospace alloys, Ni-based gas turbine discs are faced
with sialon tips at 180-300 m/min at a feed of 0.2 mm/rev, whereas
carbide tools can be used at only 60 m/min.
 Higher thermal conductivity.
 Lower coefficient of expansion.
 Increased resistance to shock and thermal fatigue compared to
alumina.

Cubic Boron Nitrade
 Next hardest substance to diamonds.
 Two commercially available products: BZN (GEC) and
Amborite (DeBeers) different in character.
 BZN-laminated tool tip, consolidated CBN (0.5 mm thick)
on cemented WC-Co substrate.
 Amborite-entirely of consolidated CBN.
 20-23 times as costly as cemented carbide tools.
 Advantage over diamonds, its stability at high
temperatures (over 1000oC) in air or in contact with iron
and other metals.

Cubic Boron Nitrade (Cont’d)
 CBN can be most economically used in machining hardened
steel (60-68 Rc) and chilled CI at speeds (45-60 m/min) and
feeds of 0.2-0.4 mm/rev.
 Long tool life so that rolls may be machined to a dimensional
tolerance and surface finish which eliminate grinding
operation.
 High hot hardness value.
 Excellent abrasive resistance and resistance to react with
ferrous materials.
 Good toughness when used with negative rake and chamfers
can be used for interrupted cutting of hardened steel.

Diamonds
 Hardest of all materials.
 Used in operations where other tools cannot perform effectively.
 Have much lower wear rate and longer tool life than carbides and
ceramics where abrasion is dominant wear mechanism.
 Single crystal natural diamonds are used to produce surfaces of
extremely high accuracy and finish. (e.g. optical instruments and gold
jewellery).
 Deficient in toughness, easy chipping of cutting edges.
 Polycrystalline diamond tools are made with a layer of consolidated
synthetic diamonds (0.5 - 1 mm thick) bonded on cemented carbide
substrates (2 - 2.5 mm thick).

Diamonds (Cont’d)
 Cost 20-30 times the equivalent carbide tool.
 Edges less sensitive to accidental damage.
 Maintain exceptional wear resistance.
 Recommended for machining aluminium alloys (speeds can be over
500 m/min with long life).
 Also used in machining copper and copper alloys and cemented
carbides in pre-sintered condition.
 Not used for high speed machining of steel and nickel because of
excessive wear.
 Diamond does not revert to graphitic form in the absence of air at
temperatures below 1500oC.
 In contact with iron, graphitization begins just over 730oC.

Hardness of Tool Materials

Hardness of Tool Materials
Viktor P. Astakhov and J. Paulo Davim

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337: Materials & Manufacturing

Single point cutting tool removes material from

 A single point cutting tool removes material from a

 Machine tool is called a lathe

 Types of cuts:  Workholding methods:

 Cutting Speed – (v)

 In a production turning operation, the foreman

 Tm = L/fr = L/Nf = pDoL/vf

 Power requirements to perform machining can

 The Gross machine power (Pg) available is:

 Typical E for machine tools =  80 - 90%

Note: Textbook relationship is same -

 Useful to convert power into power per unit volume

 Tool sharpness is taken into account multiply by 1.00 – 1.25

 Pc = (6250 mm3/s)(2.8 J/mm3) = 17,500 J/s

 Accounting for mechanical efficiency, Pg

Instead of feeding the

Cutting edge cuts

Tool is fed radially

Pointed form tool is

 Difference between boring and turning:

Used to create a round hole, usually by means

Through-holes - drill exits the opposite side of work

Two hole types: (a) through-hole, and (b) blind hole

Rotating multiple-cutting-edge tool is moved

 Machining operation in which work is fed past

Two forms of milling:

The basic form

Cutter overhangs work

 A face milling operation is used to machine 5

fr = 6.37(4)(.27) = 6.88 mm/s fr  N nt f

ISE 316 - Manufacturing

ISE 316 - Manufacturing Processes

Figure 21.2 - (a) A cross-sectional view of the machining process, (b)

ISE 316 - Manufacturing Processes

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ISE 316 - Manufacturing

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Figure 21.3 (a) turning

ISE 316 - Manufacturing Processes

Figure 21.3 - The three most

ISE 316 - Manufacturing

Figure 21.3 - (c) peripheral milling, and (d) face milling

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ISE 316 - Manufacturing

ISE 316 - Manufacturing

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Figure 21.6 - Orthogonal cutting: (a) as a three-dimensional process

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ISE 316 - Manufacturing

 Based on the geometric parameters of the

where r = chip ratio, and  = rake angle

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ISE 316 - Manufacturing Processes

ISE 316 - Manufacturing Processes

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Figure 21.9 - Four types of chip

ISE 316 - Manufacturing

Figure 21.9 - Four types of chip formation

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Figure 21.9 - Four types of chip

ISE 316 - Manufacturing