1.Theoretical grammar as a branch of linguistics.

Linguistics is the
scientific study of human languages which is characterized by the systemic
approach to the object of its investigation. Grammar is one of the main linguistic
disciplines which studies the grammatical system of language. The grammatical
system is the whole set of regularities determining the combinations of words in
the formation of utterances. Language is a system of signs (meaningful units)
which are closely interconnected and interdependent.Speech is the manifestation of
the system of the lan-ge in process of intercourse. Language and speech are
inseparable, they form together an organic unity.
E.g. For some reason Dill started crying and couldn’t stop (content).
So, the aim of theoretical grammar of a language is to present a theoretical
description of its grammatical system, i.e. to scientifically analyze and define its
grammatical categories and study the mechanisms of grammatical formation of
utterances out of words in the process of speech making.
2. The subject-matter, object and tasks of theoretical grammar. Task of the
theoretical grammar is to present a systematic, scientific study of the grammatic
structure of English language. The object is grammatical structure of English
language. The subject is the analysis of the grammar system peculiarities in the
light of general principles of linguistics.
3.. The main difference between the grammatical structure of English and
that of the native language. Ukrainian grammar does not use articles in
sentences.• In Ukrainian language there are three tenses: Present, Past, and Future
which indicate the action, which coincides with the moment of speaking, precedes
or follows it. The present day Ukrainian tense category is expressed by three tense
forms for the imperfective verbs and two tense forms for the perfective verbs; there
is no present tense of the perfective verbs.
English Language is based off the the Latin alphabet and consist and has 26
letters. Ukranian language has 33 Cyrillic letters. Ukrainian is a largely phonetic
language.English language also uses articles such as a/ an and the. Ukrainian
grammar does not use articles. When looking at English it is made up of three
tenses also however depending on the sentences there can be up to six: simple
present, present perfect, past simple. Past perfect, future, future perfect. Present
day Ukrainian tense category is present simple, simple past, past perfect, future
simple , expressed by three tense forms for the. imperfective verbs and two tense
forms for the perfective verbs; there is no present tense of the perfective verbs.
English uses auxiliaries such as tense of the perfective verbs. be, can, do, shall,
which help in forming of certain tenses • Ukrainian language does not have
auxiliaries, and omit them.
4. Practical (normative) and theoretical (scientific grammar). Theoretical
grammar treats the existing points of views on the content of use of word, word
forms, syntactic structures and makes attempts to establish new ones. Practical
grammar is the system of the rules, explaining the meaning of words. Syntactic
structures in a way as understood by it’s authors.
5. Connections of theoretical grammar with other branches of linguistics.
 6. Morphology and syntax. Their interrelationship and boundary lines
between them.
Thus, grammar consists of 2 parts: morphology and syntax. They are very
closely connected with each other, but each of them has an object of its own.
Morphology is the part of grammar which deals with the form of the words,
classification of words and their combinability. The structure, Classification and
combinability of words is the object of morphology.Syntax deals with the structure
classification and combinability of sentences. It’s difficult to draw a clear-cut line
between 2 parts of grammar. Morphology is more abstract than syntax as it
doesn’t study connection between words actually used together in sentences, but
connections between forms actually found in different sentences and extracted
from their natural surroundings
7. Basic grammatical notions.
Basic notions of the grammatical description: grammatical form, grammatical
meaning, paradigm, grammatical category.The word as a grammatical unit has
its form (grammatical form) and meaning (lexical and grammatical). Grammatical
forms of words are typically constructed by morphemes,
added synthetically, or structurals, added analytically:
Number: book – books, family – families, leaf – leaves.
Case: my sister’s children, the title of the book, the students’ papers.
Aspect: was drawing – drew, repaired – have repaired – have been repairing.
Degrees of comparison: cold – colder – the coldest, difficult – more difficult
– the most difficult, less interesting – the least interesting.
8. Grammatical form and grammatical meaning
Every word has a lexical meaning and grammatical meaning. Grammatical
meaning of a word is the meaning of a very general character which is common to
a group of words.The grammatical meaning may also reflect in a very general way
the relations between the given thing and other objects, existing in reality (‘Mary’s
cat is sitting in front of her’). The grammatical meaning of tense shows the relation
of the action to the moment of speaking (‘spoke, speak, will speak’). The
grammatical meaning of action is to show the character of the development of the
action (“He speaks German well” and ‘He is speaking German now’). The
grammatical meaning of the category of voice is to express the relations between
an action and its subject or object (‘I gave him a pen’ and ‘I was given a pen’).
Grammatical form- is a morphological variant of a word which expresses cirtain
gram/ meaning and can be combined with the other word forms.

9. The notion of opposition in grammar. Grammatical categories.

A grammatical category is the unity of a grammatical meaning and a
corresponding grammatical form. The grammatical categories may be more or less
abstract. They may be general and particular. A general category should always
consist of at least 2 particular categories. In the system of the English noun we
distinguish the following categories – the category of number (singular and plural)
and the category of case (common and possessive). In the system of the modern
English adjective we distinguish the category of degrees of comparison (positive,
comparative and superlative). In the system of the English verb there are following
categories: the category of tense (which consists of 3 particular categories – Past,
Present and Future), of aspect (common and continuous), of person (the 1st, 2nd
and 3rd), of number (singular and plural), of voice (active and passive), of mood
(imperative, indicative, subjunctive), of time relation (perfect and non-perfect).
The opposition is a pair of grammatical forms, opposed to each other both in
meaning and in form. For example – cat- cats, dog– dogs; see – saw, look –
looked; fast – faster, weak – weaker. The first member of the opposition is called
unmarked and the 2nd is called marked member.
10.The problem of parts of speech.
Part of speech- is a lexico grammatical part of words having similar gram/
meaning. Morphological form and syntactic function. The representatives of
traditional grammar distinguish 7 or 8 parts of speech. They didn’t distinguish
between notional and structural parts of speech. The majority of Soviet linguists
point out 13 parts of speech. Majority of them distinguish 3 classes of words: 1)
Notional or significant words – they have independent meaning and perform a
certain function in the sentence. They are 6: noun, pronoun, adjective, numeral,
verb and adverb. 2) Form words, which are subdivided into 2 groups – connective
form words (prepositions and conjunctions) and determinatives ( articles and
particles). 3) It includes independent elements which do not enter into the structure
of the sentence as its parts. They are 3 in number – interjections, yes/no words,
parenthetical words.
11.Principles of parts-of-speech classification.
In modern linguistics, parts of speech are discriminated on the basis of the
three criteria: semantic, formal, and functional. The semantic criterion is based
on evaluation of the generalized meaning, categorial meaning of the part of speech
(noun-things). Words are corelated with classes of reality. The formal criterion is
based on the specific word-building features (-ness, -tion – nouns) and
paradigmatic sets (-s, ‘s – nouns). The functional criterion concerns the syntactic
role of words in the sentence typical of a part of speech or methods of combining
with other words in the phrase. For example, verb combines with a noun (write a
letter), with an adverb (write quickly) and in the sentence functions as a predicate.
The said three factors of categorial characterization of words are referred to as,
respectively, meaning, form, and function.The difficulty in defining clear
categories of words arises from having to apply the three criteria, which are often
in conflict.  A satisfactory definition can’t be based on such a thing as meaning.
Some grammarians used different criteria for defining different parts of speech.
Inconsistency might result in overlapping categories or in uncovered gaps. So, the
right approach is the pole method – in every PS there is central part of words,
which belongs to this class by all the criteria, and there is field of words, that can
be attributed to the class only gradually.
12.Different classifications оf parts of speech.
 The classification of parts of speech is the controversial problem in general
linguistics. There exist different classifications.
George Curme distinguished nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs,
prepositions, conjunctions and interjections. The drawback of his classification is
that he didn’t include numerals and particles.
As for Henry Sweet, he distinguishes declinable classes of words (nouns,
adjectives, numerals, verbs) and indeclinable, which are called particles (adverbs,
prepositions, conjunctions and interjections). His classification is based on
diclinability of words.
Otto Jesperson names substantives (to which he refers: adjectives, verbs,
nouns, pronouns, numerals and some adverbs) and particles, which include
adverbs, conjunctions, prepositions and interjections. His classification is based on
form, because he singles out particles. Thus, we see that all English classical
grammarians stick to the traditional number of parts of speech, but trying to give a
more detailed description of the language, the had to subdivide classes into
subclasses.
13.The noun as a part of speech.

14.The category of number, its definitions.

The singular number shows that one object is meant and the plural shows that
more than one object is meant. But the category of number gives rise to several
problems which claim special attention. In such cases as ‘waters’ and ‘snows’ we
drift away from the original meaning of the plural number. No numeral could be
used with nouns of this kind. We can’t say ‘three waters’ or ‘2 snows’, moreover
we can’t say how many waters or snows we mean. The plural form of these words
serves to denote a vast stretch of water (for example – waters of the ocean) or of
snow (snows of the Canada). Pluralia tantum include nouns of 2 types:
1) Nouns which denote material objects, consisting of 2 parts – pajamas,
trousers, scissors. 2) Nouns which denote a more or less indefinite plurality –
environs (which means areas surrounding some place on all sides); dregs (which
means various small things, remaining at the bottom of a vessel after the liquid has
been poured out of it.)
Singularia tantum include;1) Nouns, denoting material substance (milk, butter,
ink, silver)2) Names of abstract notions, such as peace, usefulness, friendship.
With singularia tantum nouns the predicate verb is always singular.
15.Some problems of the category of number
The singular number shows that one object is meant and the plural shows that more
than one object is meant. But the category of number gives rise to several problems
which claim special attention. In such cases as ‘waters’ and ‘snows’ we drift away
from the original meaning of the plural number. No numeral could be used with
nouns of this kind. We can’t say ‘three waters’ or ‘2 snows’, moreover we can’t
say how many waters or snows we mean. The plural form of these words serves to
denote a vast stretch of water (for example – waters of the ocean) or of snow
(snows of the Canada). Plural form can sometimes develop a completely new
meaning which the singular hasn’t got at all. For example – people (люди) –
peoples (народы); custom (обычай) – customs (таможня); color (цвет) – colors
(знамя); attention (внимание) – attentions (ухаживания). Certain nouns, denoting
groups of human beings (family, government, party, army) and also of animals
(cattle, poultry) can be used in 2 different ways:
1)Either they denote the group as a whole than they are treated as singular and
are called collective nouns
2) Either they denote the group as consisting of a certain number of individual
human beings. Then they are called nouns of multitude.
For example, ‘My family is small’ – it’s a collective noun; ‘My family are
good speakers’ – the noun of multitude.
‘The cattle were grazing in the field’ – the noun of multitude ; ‘My cattle is in
the shed’ – collective noun.
16. Mutual relations between the category of number and lexical meaning
of nouns.
The problem of case is one of the most debatable problems in English
grammar. The usual view is that the English nouns have 2 cases – a common and
possessive (or genitive), for example – mother – mother’s. But there are other
views which are contradictory to each other.
The 1st is that the number of cases is more that 2. The 2 nd is that there are no
cases at all on the sphere of English nouns.
Case is the category of a noun, expressing relations between the thing
denoting by a noun and other things or properties or actions and manifested by
some formal sign in the noun itself. This sign is almost always an inflection and it
may be a zero sign: the absence of any sign may be significant in distinguishing
one particular case from another. The minimum number of cases in a give
language system must be 2 because the existence of 2 correlated elements is
needed to establish a category.German linguists proposed that the case may be
expressed by different prepositions, by word order they distinguish 4 cases –
nominative, genitive, dative (by preposition ‘to’ and word order) and accusative.
This point of view isn’t right, because if we admit that the phrase ‘of the pan’ is
genitive case, ‘to the pan’ is dative, then there would be no reason to deny that
‘with the pan’ is an instrumental case, ‘in the pan’ is the locative case. Thus, the
number of cases would become indefinitely large, because there are a lot of
prepositions in English.
It seems obvious that the number of cases can’t be more than 2 - common and
possessive.
The possibility of forming possessive case is limited to a class of nouns,
denoting living beings (my brother’s wife) and those, denoting units of time (this
year’s election) and also substantivized adverbs (today’s newspaper).
17.,19 The definition of the case category. The number of cases in
different languages.
Case is a morphological category which has a distinct syntactic significance, as it
denotes relations, of nouns towards other words in the sentence. Languages of
synthetic structure have a developed case-system. Languages of analytical
structure lack these morphological variants.This category is expressed in English
by the opposition of the form in -'s [-z, -s, -iz], usually called the "possessive"
case, or more traditionally, the "genitive" case, to the unfeatured form of the noun,
usually called the "common" case. The apostrophised -s serves to distinguish in
writing the singular noun in the genitive case from the plural noun in the common
case. E.g.: the man's duty, the President's decision, Max's letter; the boy's ball.
Genetive case
More precise. It has a wide variety of meanings:
1. Possessive genitive, e.g.:
Mrs. Johnson s passport —* Mrs- Johnson has a passport (R. Quirk etal.).
2. Subjective genitive, indicating the doer of the action, e.g.: the people's
choice —» The people chose (S. Greenbaum).
3. Genitive of source, denoting such relationships as authorship and origin.
Cf.:
the general's letter —> The general wrote a letter (R. Quirk et al.).
Australia's exports —» the exports that come from Australia (S. Greenbaum).
4. Objective genitive, indicating the object of the action, e.g.: Kennedy's
assassination —> Somebody assassinated Kennedy
(S. Greenbaum).
5. Temporal genitive, denoting a period of time, e.g.:
ten days' absence —> The absence lasted ten days (R. Quirk et al.).
6. Equational genitive, establishing the identity of the referent,
e.g.:
a mile's distance ~+ The distance is a mile (L.S. Barkhudarov).
7. Genitive of destination, e.g.:
a women s college —»• a college for women (R. Quirk et al.).

18.The problem of case in English theoretical grammar. The frequency of

usage of the genitive case form.
 20. The verb as a part of speech.

21.The category of aspect. Different approaches to the English aspect.

The category of aspect shows the character of the development of the action.
For almost all English words there exist 2 sets of aspectual forms, for example –
‘Now I am doing my homework” – continuous aspect, ‘Usually he does his
homework alone’ – common aspect. Both forms belong to the same verb, but
there’s some grammatical difference between them. The 1st form ‘am doing’
denotes an action going on continuously at the moment of speaking, thus having
certain time limits. The second form ‘does’ expresses a habitual action, occurring
repeatedly, thus not limited. The English common aspect usually corresponds to
the Russian perfective aspect and the English continuous aspect to imperfective
aspect. But we observe some difference between them. the English common aspect
is less concrete and much broader than the Russian perfective aspect. The Russian
perfective aspect represents an action in its entirety. It implies some meaning. The
English common aspect only registers the fact. It states that the action took place in
the past or present or future, but it doesn’t imply the idea of any meaning. ‘She
wrote a book’ – in Russian it’s translated ‘написал’ and it’s perfective. But the
sentence ‘She wrote from morning till night’ is translated ‘она писала с утра до
ночи’, it’s imperfective in Russian. The English common aspect correspond to
both perfective and imperfective aspect in Russian. the difference is determined by
the context only. Therefore, professor Ivanova calls common aspect the zero
aspect. The continuous aspect in English in general is narrower and more concrete
than the Russian imperfective aspect. The English aspect is limited by the given
moment at which the action is developing.
22.The category of perfect. Different approaches of the category of
perfect.
 There is no unity of opinions concerning the essence of the perfect forms.
there exist 4 different lines of approach to perfect forms: 1) Some linguists (Sweet,
Jesperson, Gantshina) regard perfect forms as tense forms. some other scholars
consider them to be aspect forms. Professor Ilyish calls perfect forms ‘forms of the
resultative aspect’. Deutschbein, West and Vorontsova call perfect forms
transmissive aspect. professor Ivanova refers perfect forms to tense-aspect system.
The 3 named points of view seemed to be erroneous. The 4 th line of approach is
represented by Professor Smirnitsky who arrived at the conclusion that this
category is neither one of tense nor that of aspect. He proves his point of view into
following way: He takes the form ‘has spoken’ and says if the perfect forms were a
tense category, than the present perfect would be a union of 2 different tenses – the
present and perfect. This is clearly impossible, because if a form already belongs to
a tense category (Present for example), it cannot simultaneously belong to another
tense category. Otherwise, 2 particular tense categories in 1 form would collide.
Thus, it follows that the category of perfect forms can’t be a tense category.
23.The definition of the category of voice. The voice opposition. Different
approaches to the category of voice.

Voice is the form of the verb which serves to show whether the subject of the
sentence is the agent or the object of the action expressed by the predicate verb.
There are 2 voices in English – the Active and the Passive voice. The active voice
shows that the person or thing denoted by the subject of the sentence is the doer of
the action expressed by the predicate verb, that it acts. For example, ‘I don’t agree
with her’. The passive voice serves to show that the person or thing denoted by the
subject of the sentence is not the doer of the action expressed by the predicative
verb but the object of the action. The subject of a passive verb doesn’t act but is
acted upon, it undergoes an action. For example, ‘I was given a present by him’.
Relationship of voice and transitivity and intransitivity of verbs. Let’s consider
some examples, ‘He will shave and wash’ ‘I haven’t dressed up yet.’ The verbs in
these sentences are objective, transitive and used absolutively in the form of the
active voice. But the real voice meaning is not active, because the actions
expressed are not passed from the subject to any outer object, on the contrary these
actions are confined to no other participant of the situation than the subject, the
latter constituting its own object of the action performance. This kind of verbal
meaning of the action performed by the subject upon itself is called as ‘reflexive’
24.Peculiarities of the passive voice in English.

25.The category of mood. The definition. The indicative mood. The

Imperative mood. The subjunctive mood.
 26.The secondary parts of the sentence.
Secondary parts of the sentence. The theory of the secondary parts (SP) is one
of the last developed sections of linguistics. The object is a SP of the sentence,
referring to a part of the sentence expressed by a verb, a noun, a substantival
pronoun, an adj., a numeral, or an adv., and denoting a thing to which the action
passes on, which is a result of the action, in reference to which an action is
committed or a property is manifested, or denoting an action as object of another
action. An object can refer to any part of speech capable of being a part of the
sentence. Attribute is a SP of the sentence modifying a part of the sentence
expressed by a noun, a substantival pronoun, a cardinal numeral, and any
substantivized word, and characterizing the thing named by these words as to its
quality or property. The attribute, as distinct from the object, cannot modify a verb,
an adj, an adv, the attribute expresses a property while the object expresses a thing,
but they both can modify a noun, a pronoun, a numeral. Adv. modifier is a SP of
the sentence modifying a part of the sentence expressed by a verb, a verbal noun,
an adj, an adv, and serving to characterize an action or a property as to its quality
or intensity, or to indicate the way an action is done, the time, the place, cause,
purpose, condition, with which the action or the manifestation of the quality is
connected.
A secondary may he joined to a primary in two ways: junction and nexus. These
terms are used to differentiate between attributive and predicative relations
(relations between the subject and the predicate), or the relations of subordination
and interdependence.
27.Syntactic means of English: word order, word forms, functional words,
intonation.
 28,29.Types of syntactic bond: the subordinate bond, the coordinate bond,
the predicative bond.
Predication
Predication is such a type of syntactic bond in which the syntactic function of
the whole group differs from the syntactic function of its IC.
E.g. complex object
His joke made me laugh.
Subordination is such a type of syntactic bond when the syntactic function of
the whole group coincide with the syntactic function of one the IC but differs from
the other.
E.g. Subject
His joke made me laugh.
Coordination is such a type of syntactic bond when the syntactic function of
the whole group coincides with the syntactic function of each of its IC.
E.g. predicative
He was tired and hungry.
predicative predicative
 Means of expression of syntactic bonds
They are subdivided into synthetic (unproductive) and analytical
(productive).
The first synthetic means is agreement or control, the second is government.
Agreement is a combination of subordinating and subordinated words by
means of the morphological categories they both share.
E.g. He writes plays.
This lesson. These lessons.
Government means the use of a certain form of the subordinated words
required by its headword but not coinciding in form with the head word.
E.g. Give me this book.
Peter’s book.
Analytical means:word order, functional words and detachment.
Word order is the leading means, because in English there are few inflections.
It helps to establish correct syntactic bonds within a sentence. In word order we
find joining and enclosure.
Joining exists between an adverb and its head word. An adverb has no such
grammatical categories which would allow it to agree with another word or to be
governed by it.
E.g. It happened unexpectedly.
Enclosure takes place when some element of the phrase is enclosed between 2
parts of another element.
E.g. On the sport investigation.
Prepositions and conjunctions belong to functional words.
As for the detachment, some grammarians look upon it as loosening of
syntactic bonds.
E.g. She said silent. – predicate.
She said, silent. – detachment.
 30.The definition of the word group.
Word group is
the simplest nonpredicative (as contrasted to the sentence) unit of speech. The wor
d group is formed on a syntactic pattern and based on a subordinating grammatical 
relationship between two or more content words. This relationship may be one of a
greement, government, or subordination. The grammatically predominant word is t
he main element of the word group, and the grammatically subordinated word the 
dependent element.
A word group denotes a fragment of extralinguistic reality. The word group co
mbines formally syntactic and semantically syntactic features. Such features reveal 
the compatibility of grammatical and lexical meanings with the structure of the obj
ect-logical relations that these meanings reflect.
Word groups may be free or phraseological. Free word groups are formed in a
ccordance with regular and productive combinative principles; their meanings may 
be deduced from those of the component words.
31.The phrase and sentence as syntactic units: common features and
differences.
the phrase can be defined as a syntactically organized group of words of any
morphological composition based on any type of syntactic connection. The
difference between the phrase and the sentence is fundamental: the phrase is a
nominative unit which fulfils the function of polynomination denoting a complex
referent (phenomenon of reality) analyzable into its component elements together
with various relations between them; the sentence is a unit of predication which,
naming a certain situational event, shows the relation of the denoted event towards
reality
32. The correlation of the meaning of the word group and the meanings of
its components.
 33.The subject and the means of its manifestation.
The subject is one of the two main parts of the sentence. It denotes the thing
whose action or characteristic is expressed by the predicate. It may be expressed by
different parts of speech, the most frequent ones being: a noun in the common
case, a personal pronoun in the nominative case, a demonstrative pronoun, a
substantivised adjective, a numeral, an infinitive, and a gerund. It may also be
expressed by a phrase. The subject performs two main functions: categorial and
relative. The categorial function of the subject consists in naming the possessor of
the predicative feature expressed by the predicate. The relative function of the
subject consists in its being the original element in the syntagmatic development of
the sentence, thus constituting the predicate’s left environment as opposed to its
right environment. As it has already been mentioned, the subject always goes with
the predicate, therefore, one-member nominal sentences do not have a subject.
34.The predicate and its types.
The predicate denotes the action or property of the thing expressed by the
subject. It can be expressed by numerous ways. The predicate expresses the
predicative feature which characterized the object expressed by the subject, thus it
realizes the categorial function. Being a link between the subject and the right
environment of the verb, it performs the relative function. According to
morphological characteristics, four types of predicates can be singled out: - verbal;
- nominal; - phraseological; - contaminated. The predicate can be subject to the
syntactic process of complication, thus, according to their structural characteristics,
predicates can be simple and complicated. Therefore, eight types of predicates can
be identified. Simple verbal I took an apple. Simple nominal The coincidence was
extraordinary. Simple phraseological He gave me a smile. Simple contaminated
He sat motionless. Complicated verbal The girl began to cry. Complicated
nominal He turned out to be a thief. Complicated phraseological You should
have taken a look at the map. Complicated contaminated He seemed to be lying
asleep.
35.The sentence as the main syntactic unit.
The sentence is a central syntactic construction. It is a minimal unit of speech
communication. The difference between the phrase and the sentence is
fundamental: the phrase is a nominative unit which fulfils the function of
polynomination denoting a complex referent (phenomenon of reality) analyzable
into its component elements together with various relations between them; the
sentence is a unit of predication which, naming a certain situational event, shows
the relation of the denoted event towards reality. An important structural feature of
the sentence is its entirety, that is, no word of the given sentence can be the head or
a dependent element relative to words that stand outside this sentence. So, the
sentence can be defined as an immediate integral unit used in speech
communication, built up of words according to a definite syntactic pattern and
characterized by predication
36.The problem of definition of the sentence.
The notion of sentence has not so far received a satisfactory definition which
would enable us by upplying it in every particular case to find out whether a
certain linguistic unit was a sentence or not.1)The sentence is immediate integral
unit of speech built up of words according to a define syntactic –pattern and
distinguished by a contextually relevant communicative purpose. 2) The sentence
is a communication unit made up o Dwell on the problem of the definition of the
phrase.
f words in-conformity with their combinability and structurally united by
intonation and predicativity. There is a considerable divergence of opinion among
grammarians concerning the analysis of “one member” and “imperative” sentence.
Some scholars do not treat them as sentences , others do treat them as a sentences,
as unlike the word such sentences do not exist in the system of language as a ready
–made unit , they are created by speakers in the course of communication , they are
intonationally delimited and are characterized by predication . this discrepancy
brings to the necessity to distinguish a sentence , which is not always structurally
correct but is still a communicative unit of speech , that is when a sentence used in
speech then it becomes an utterance.
 37.Specific signs of the sentence.
The sentence is the central object of study in syntax. It can be defined as the
immediate integral unit of speech built up by words according to a definite
syntactic pattern and distinguished by a contextually relevant communicative
purpose. The correlation of the word and the sentence shows some important
differences and similarities between these two main level-forming lingual units.
Both of them are nominative units, but the word just names objects and phenomena
of reality. It is a purely nominative component of the word-stock, while the
sentence is at the same time a nominative and predicative lingual unit: it names
dynamic situations, and at the same time reflects the connection between the
nominal denotation of the event and objective reality, showing the time of the
event. A sentence can consist of only one word, as any lingual unit of the upper
level can consist of only one unit of the lower level: Why? Thanks. But a word,
making up a sentence, is turned into an utterance-unit expressing various
connections between the situation described and actual reality. Another difference
between the word and the sentence is as follows: the word exists in the system of
language as a ready-made unit, which is reproduced in speech; the sentence is
produced in speech, except for a limited number of idiomatic utterances. Being a
unit of speech, the sentence is distinguished by a relevant intonation: each sentence
possesses certain intonation contours, including pauses, pitch movements and
stresses, which separate one sentence from another in the flow of speech
38.General classification of sentences.The primary classification of
sentences is based on the communicative principle, traditionally defined as “the
purpose of communication”. According to the purpose of communication,
sentences are subdivided into declarative, interrogative and imperative. Declarative
sentences are traditionally defined as those expressing statements, either
affirmative or negative: He (didn’t) shut the window. Imperative sentences express
inducements of various kinds (orders or requests); they may also be either
affirmative or negative: (Don’t) Shut the window, please. Interrogative sentences
express questions, or requests for information: Did he shut the window?

39..Structural types of sentences.

There are four types of sentences: simple, compound, complex, and
compound-complex. Each sentence is defined by the use of independent and
dependent clauses, conjunctions, and subordinators.
 Simple sentences: A simple sentence is an independent clause with no
conjunction or dependent clause.
 Compound sentences: A compound sentence is two independent clauses
joined by a conjunction (e.g., and, but, or, for, nor, yet, so).
 Complex sentences: A complex sentence contains one independent clause
and at least one dependent clause. The clauses in a complex sentence are combined
with conjunctions and subordinators, terms that help the dependent clauses relate
to the independent clause. Subordinators can refer to the subject (who, which), the
sequence/time (since, while), or the causal elements (because, if) of the
independent clause.
 Compound-complex sentences: A compound-complex sentence contains
multiple independent clauses and at least one dependent clause. These sentences
will contain both conjunctions and subordinators.

40. Parts of sentence analysis

 41.Immediate constituents (IC) analysis.
In linguistics, immediate constituent analysis or IC analysis is a method of
sentence analysis that was first mentioned by Leonard Bloomfield, and developed
further by Rulon Wells.
Given a phrase structure grammar (= constituency grammar), IC-analysis
divides up a sentence into major parts or immediate constituents, and these
constituents are in turn divided into further immediate constituents. The process
continues until irreducible constituents are reached, i.e., until each constituent
consists of only a word or a meaningful part of a word. The end result of IC-
analysis is often presented in a visual diagrammatic form that reveals the
hierarchical immediate constituent structure of the sentence at hand. For example:
In the sentence “The old man ran away,” the first division into immediate
constituents would be between “the old man” and “ran away.” The immediate
constituents of “the old man” are “the” and “old man.” At the next level “old man”
is divided into “old” and “man.” 
42.The kernel sentences and their transforms
kernel sentence is a simple declarative construction with only one verb. A kernel
sentence is always active and affirmative. Also known as a basic sentence or
a kernel. A kernel sentence does not contain any optional expression and is simple
in the sense that it is unmarked in mood, therefore, it is indicative. It is also
unmarked in voice, therefore, it is active rather than passive. And, finally, it is
unmarked in polarity, therefore, it is a positive rather than a negative sentence. An
example of a kernel sentence is The dog barked, the dog barked loudly, the dog
barked a minute ago, the dog barked outside, I heard the dog barking.
43.The problem of predication as a type of syntactic bond.

44.The object and the means of its expression.

45.Adverbial modifier, its types

46.Attribute and means of its expression.
47.Simple sentences: the definition and classification.
the sentence can be defined as an immediate integral unit used in speech
communication, built up of words according to a definite syntactic pattern and
characterized by predication. It possesses the following properties: 1. The sentence
as a linguistic expression of extralinguistic reality must be actualized.
Actualization of the sentence content makes predicativity an inseparable property
of every sentence. 82 2. The sentence, just like any other meaningful language unit,
has a form. Every sentence has an intonation pattern.
One traditional scheme for classifying English sentences is by the number and
types of finite clauses: sentences are divided into simple and composite, the latter
consisting of two more clauses.Simple sentences are usually classified into one-
member and two-member. This distinction is based on a difference in the main
parts of a sentence. One member sentences do not contain two such separate
parts; in these sentences there is only one main part (e.g. Silence! Come here!)
Such sentences contain neither the subject nor the predicate. Instead there is only
one main part. It is a disputed point whether the main part of such a sentence
should, or should not, be termed subject in some cases, and predicate, in others. As
it was pointed out by academician V. Vinogradov, grammatical subject and
grammatical predicate are correlative notions and the terms are meaningless
outside their relation to each other. He suggested that for one-member sentences,
the term "main part" should be used, without giving it any more specific name.
Prof. Blokh, however, does not accept this approach because, in his view, it is
based on an inadequate presupposition that in the system of language there is a 83
strictly defined, "absolute" demarcation line between the two types of
constructions. Instead he suggests that all simple sentences of English be divided
into two-axis constructions and one-axis constructions. In a two-axis sentence, the
subject axis and the predicate axis are directly and explicitly expressed in the outer
structure. In a one-axis sentence only one axis or its part is explicitly expressed, the
other one being non-presented in the outer structure of the sentence.
48.Composite sentences: the definition and classification

49.Coordination and its kinds. Coordinative conjunctions.

Essentially, they help us string our thoughts together in a way that is complex
and meaningful, and without them writing would be very short and choppy.
You can remember the coordinating conjunctions by memorizing the word:
FANBOYS = for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so
Coordinating conjunctions are used between independent clauses, and paired
with a comma. For example, the following sentences can be combined with a
coordinating conjunction:
This place has the worst food I have ever tasted. I will never eat here again.
Combined with a comma and coordinating conjunction:
This place has the worst food I have ever tasted, so I will never eat here
again.
Some other examples:
 I love you, but I can not marry you.
 I want to go to the store, and I want to go to her birthday party.
 He had not known her long, yet he felt very close to her.
Coordinating conjunctions are some of the most commonly used words and
very easily misused by leaving out a comma or putting it in the wrong place. Be
mindful that the parts you join are complete sentences that can stand alone.

50. The main parts of the sentence.

The main sentence parts: the subject and the predicate, their types The subject and
the predicate have a unique standing in the system of sentence parts. They form the
backbone of the sentence. They are interdependent and independent of any other
sentence member while all other members can be 87 dependent either on the
subject or on the predicate. The subject and the predicate can form a sentence on
their own. e.g. She smiles. He is running.