Name: Tayyaba Khalid

Roll #: CB657472
Course Code: 8611
Course Name: Management Strategies In
Educational Institutions
B.Ed : 1.5 years
Semester: 2nd

Assignment no 2:
Question no 1:
How Behavioral change communication help in the positive
educational outcomes? Give examples.
Abstract:
Education is ubiquitous with clinical care. However, not all education
supports behavioral change. Education is a broad term that encompasses
the process of obtaining general knowledge, personal awareness, and
skills training. Although not sufficient, education is a necessary
component for behavior change. This article outlines the role of
education in behavior change and offers practical suggestions for how
clinicians can provide education to their patients to help them change
behavior.
Knowledge is not enough to change behavior. If it was, no one would
smoke or overeat to the point of becoming obese, and everyone would
wear seatbelts and exercise. However, knowledge is important. It is
critical to explain to patients why behavioral changes need to be made.
For example, understanding the health risks associated with smoking is
essential in order to make a decision about quitting. In this issue,
McDonald and colleagues recommend that clinicians follow the “three
Es of injury prevention”—education, engineering, and
enforcement.1 Their recommendation highlights the importance of
education, suggesting that through education patients’ knowledge can be
increased. The recommendation also illustrates how education alone is
insufficient to support behavioral change. This point is exemplified by
the familiar occurrence of health care providers giving their patients
multiple educational handouts to offer additional information about and
suggestions for how to improve their health condition. These types of
educational “interventions” rarely have the desired impact on patients’
actions.2-4
At the core of this issue is how education is being defined and applied in
regard to behavioral change. The terms education and knowledge are
often thought of interchangeably. However, education is a
comprehensive term that can be defined as “the process of receiving or
giving systematic instruction” or as “an enlightening experience,”
whereas knowledge is defined as “facts, information, and skills acquired
by a person through experience or education.”5 Knowledge is the desired
outcome of education. As the definition suggests, there are multiple
types of knowledge: general knowledge or information, knowledge that
increases personal awareness, and knowledge that increases skills.
In regard to health behavior change, education to increase general
knowledge is rarely needed. For example, most people know that it is
important to adhere to medication recommendations. Despite this, some
individuals make a determination about the importance of continuing to
take the medication. They might feel better and no longer deem it
important to keep adhering. Other individuals do not currently possess
the skills to adhere to the regimen long term. For example, they may
forget to take their medication on a regular basis. For these individuals,
education is required to increase awareness of why it is important and to
provide training on how to do it successfully. Once symptoms subside,
general knowledge that they should continue taking their medicine as
recommended is insufficient. A higher level of awareness of why
adhering to a medicine prescription is personally important for
individuals to continue. Those who repeatedly forget to take their
medicine may need to be trained on how to develop a system to help
them remember to take their medicine. Patients need to both fully
understand why a change needs to be made and how to make that
change.

Education to Increase Awareness

For education to increase awareness, it must provide an individual with a
better understanding of the personal relevance of the information.
Providing general knowledge will not do that. Educating individuals on
the definition and consequences of obesity is not likely to lead to
behavior change. Behavior change is more likely if education increases
individuals’ awareness that they suffer from obesity and are personally
experiencing consequences of obesity. Tailored education is necessary to
increase awareness because tailoring ensures that the information is
relevant to the individual. Tailored education is also more likely to
include explanation on why the information is pertinent specifically to
the individual.
A randomized control trial6 comparing safety behavior change following
injury prevention education provided by either a kiosk or an injury
prevention specialist provides a good example. All families completed
an injury screener. Families identified to be at risk were then provided
tailored education by an injury prevention specialist or given a kiosk
printout with targeted recommendations based on the family’s areas of
risk. Only 1% of families provided education by the kiosk improved
their safety behaviors. The injury prevention specialist elicited
significantly more improvements in safety behaviors than the kiosk.
Although both groups received advice more specific to them than
generic recommendations, those who received prevention advice from
the professional received dynamic, tailored communication, whereas
those in the kiosk group received targeted communication.7 Clinicians
have a greater ability to tailor education to be relevant to patients than a
kiosk. Patients also report preferring to hear information from a health
care provider rather than read it.4 Besides the ability to tailor health
communication, education delivered by a professional includes
additional factors that may be important to behavior change such as
credibility and the development of patient rapport. This further
complicates the role of education in behavior change by pointing to the
importance of how education is delivered.

Education to Develop or Improve Skills

A common assumption inaccurately made in behavior change is that
general knowledge and information drive behavior.8 Examples of this
abound in the health behavior change literature. Educational curriculum–
based reproductive health programs are rarely effective at decreasing
sexually transmitted disease or pregnancy rates among
adolescents.9 Knowledge is also insufficient in facilitating acute stroke
treatment. Prompt 911 calls when patients are suffering from a stroke are
critical to the delivery and success of acute stroke treatments. Many
interventions have focused on increasing the general public’s knowledge
of stroke warning signs in the hope that people will call 911 earlier if
they are able to recognize that someone is having a stroke. However,
those with such knowledge are not more likely to call 911 than people
without this knowledge.10,11
A final example of when general knowledge is insufficient for behavior
change includes the consumption of vegetables to improve health.
Despite most people reporting awareness that eating vegetables has
health benefits, few meet recommendations for vegetable
consumption.12 Educating patients on the nutrient content of vegetables
is not likely to increase participants’ awareness of why vegetables
should be consumed and is unlikely to result in increased intake. In
contrast, a lack of skills in vegetable preparation is sometimes cited as a
barrier to eating vegetables.13 For this population, interventions that both
reinforce the importance of vegetable consumption and include training
on how to clean, chop, and cook vegetables are likely to increase
participants’ skills and may encourage a higher vegetable consumption.14
Education on Why and How a Change Needs to Be Made
Social learning theory includes the construct of self-efficacy as an
important component of behavior change.15 Self-efficacy is a function of
the perception that outcomes will result from engaging in a behavior and
perceiving one’s own ability to successfully execute those
behaviors.16 Education plays a role in both components of self-efficacy.
The first step is to increase patients’ awareness of why they need to
make the change. This often includes explaining how the behavior
change will result in a desirable health outcome. For example, almost all
interventions aimed at increasing child car seat use include an
educational component explaining the importance of this behavior in
preventing child injury.17,18 In some instances, outcomes from the
behavior change that are not directly related to an individual’s health
may be more relevant or immediate to the patient. For example,
awareness of fines for violating child car seat laws has been shown to
predict the use of car seats.19
The second component of self-efficacy comes from patients’ perceptions
that they are able to make the change. Education incorporating skills
training is required for patients to understand how to make a change.
Discrepancies between reported awareness and practice have been
documented regarding the importance of child car seats and sitting in the
back seat.20 Awareness that car seat use can decrease a child’s risk for
injury is important, but knowing how to install the car seat is necessary
before parents will have their child ride in a car seat. A review of
educational programs on proper usage of child car seats revealed that,
overall, such programs resulted in an associated reduction in injuries
and/or increased car seat use.21 Ultimately, both raised awareness and
skills are necessary components of education that can be facilitated by
health care providers.
How to Deliver Effective Education for Behavior Change
1. Ask questions and listen. In order to increase awareness or skills,
the health care provider should first assess what the patient knows
and what the patient considers the most important issue.
Information that increases knowledge but does not increase
personal awareness or skills will not be productive in inciting
behavioral change.
2. Do not send patients home with packets of handouts in hope that
some of it will increase a patient’s personal awareness. This
overwhelming amount of education is likely to go unread by most
patients, increasing neither personal awareness nor skills. Instead,
health care practitioners should prioritize patients’ gaps in
knowledge and training most inhibiting behavior change. Handouts
should only address the most pressing knowledge and training gaps
and should supplement discussion.
3. Be patient. Just because a patient knows why and how to make a
behavior change does not mean that the change is going to be easy.
There are many potential barriers patients face when attempting to
make a behavioral change that influences their real or perceived
ability to make the change being asked of them. Slowly work
through barriers with patients. It is likely that multiple smaller
behavior changes will have to be accomplished to help patients
overcome barriers before they are able to make the suggested
behavioral change for their health.

Conclusion
Despite its importance in behavior change, education is a broad term that
is often misinterpreted. Health care providers can be better advocates for
patient behavior change by increasing personal awareness of why the
change needs to be made and training on how to make the change.
Tailored education will be most effective at increasing personal
awareness and skills. Health care providers are cautioned against
providing education that does not increase a patients’ personal
awareness or skill level as this will likely not result in desired behavioral
change.

Question no 2:
Define the quality indicators with its principles for maintaining
a quality system?

University quality management system is set out by the International

Standard for Organisations (ISO), which has been developing guiding
principles to protect businesses from fatal errors since its foundation in
1947. ISO 9001 is the catchy name for its Quality Management System
(QMS) Standards model, which was introduced in 1994.
The most current version, which came into force in 2015, was adopted to
address new regulatory requirements and improve on the previous
model. 

The QMS standards apply worldwide, and their application is

overseen by the ISO’s Technical Committee, 176. All these numbers are
starting to make sense now, right? The committee also decides when to
update the standards and writes new guidelines roughly every three
years. 
The principles set out by the ISO 9001 were invented in the 1990s by a
small group of experts, who created them using the philosophical
teachings and business knowhow of the previous century. Let’s take a
look at each of them in detail.

Principle 1: Customer focus

The first, and arguably most important principle, argues that a business
wouldn’t exist without its customers. Therefore, organisations should
strive to understand their current and future customers, in order to better
meet their requirements and expectations. 
Key benefits of cultivating good customer relationships include an
increased market share and boost to revenue, as well as improved
customer loyalty. If you are seen as understanding and reacting
appropriately to consumer demand, the success of your business is pretty
much guaranteed, so it’s worth paying close attention to this principle. 

Principle 2: Leadership
This principle extols the virtues of strong, purposeful and unifying
leadership. Leaders are responsible for creating a productive and
progressive business environment. They also are in charge of ensuring
that future hires maintain that atmosphere. 
Implementing this principle in your workplace relies upon having an
established vision for the business, as well as the right leaders in place to
promote that vision to the rest of the team. Spending some time getting
this right from the get-go will save you time and stress in the future. 

Principle 3: People involvement

Just as your business would be nowhere without a customer base, it also
wouldn’t get very far without a balanced, multi-skilled team either.
Employees at every level of the organisation are crucial to its success,
and this principle is all about recognising that. 
As an employer it's vital to ensure that your team are motivated and
engaged, not just in their day-to-day responsibilities, but also in the
company as a whole. For this to happen, staff need to understand the
importance of their role and how it fits into wider company objectives,
as well as take responsibility for any problems that might impede them
from doing their job to the best of their abilities. 
 
Principle 4: Process approach
A process-driven approach can help companies to avoid logistical
problems that often stem from confusion over the right way to go about
things. It also future-proofs your business, as having set processes
ensures that there’s no moment of flat panic when a key team member
moves on, leaving everyone in the dark about key elements of their job.
Developing processes for every area of your business, from sales to
marketing, finance to HR, will ensure that resources are used most
effectively, resulting in cost-effective and consistent results. It also
allows you to dedicate time and attention to bigger and more exciting
tasks!

Principle 5: Systematic approach to management

This principle is linked to the previous one, and argues that identifying,
understanding and managing processes using a clear system will help to
streamline your business. By ensuring that team members are dedicating
the right amount of attention to key tasks, you’ll eliminate wasted time
and make your business more efficient. 
A systematic approach also allows everyone to have access to every
stage of certain processes and stay up to date with progress. Plus, it
looks great for prospective new clients when your business is organised.
Win-win.

Principle 6: Continual improvement

As the old adage goes, if you’re not going forwards, you’re going
backwards. A business should always be pushing for improvements,
because if you’re not, you can bet that your competitors will be. 
Continual progress is a permanent goal of any successful organisation.
Take a look at the world’s top 10 most prosperous organisations and you
can guarantee that they have entire teams dedicated to ensuring that they
are always onto the next thing. Commitment to improvement also allows
you to be the market leader, as you’ll be the ones setting the agenda,
rather than playing catch-up to your competitors. 

Principle 7: Factual Approach to Decision Making

This principle states that effective decisions are made based on rational
analysis of data. Whilst a gut feeling can be useful in some situations, it
 won’t really stand up when you’re explaining to your board of investors
why your profits are down by 10% this year.
Before making any business decisions, big or small, ensure that you
have all the facts. That way, if you’re ever questioned about why you
made a certain decision, or asked to prove how that decision benefits
your business, you’ll have all the data at your fingertips to fall back on.
This principle also relies upon having access to reliable and accurate
data, another vital aspect for a modern-day business.

Principle 8: Mutually Beneficial Supplier Relations

Okay, so you’ve got a fantastic management system, excellent customer
relationships and a comprehensive business plan. There’s one thing
missing – what are you delivering to your customers?
Whether your business provides goods or services to customers, it’s
likely you’ll rely on some sort of supplier. This principle dictates that
relationships between your company and any suppliers must be mutually
beneficial in order to add value to both parties. It allows both of you to
react more quickly and flexibly to customer demands if things are
smooth and harmonious between you, as well as making it easier to
negotiate on costs. 
These principles are designed to be the basis for a host of other
subsidiary standards including the Good Manufacturing Practices
(GMP), Good Clinical Practices (GCP) and Good Laboratory Practices
(GLP). The ISO really does love its acronyms, doesn’t it?
Joking aside, the QMS principles don’t just underpin quality systems
across the globe – they’re also the foundation of good business practice,
regardless of industry or sector. By following them, you can ensure that
your business is well-organised and efficient – the very definition of
total quality management. 
 
In Summary
The 8 universal principles of quality management are: 
1. Customer focus
2. Leadership
3. People involvement
4. Process approach
5. Systematic approach to management
6. Continual improvement 
7. Factual approach to decision making
8. Mutually beneficial supplier relations 

Question no 3:
What do you mean by ‘Resistance Management’ and
‘Corrective Actions’ that can be suggested during the change
process?

RESISTANCE MANAGEMENT
It is usually repeated, in both academic and business world, that many of
the change initiatives one way or another have produced poor results.
The rate of fail in organizational formation has been fifty to seventy per
cent (Hammer & Champy, 1993). Although this high percentage, which
indicates the large number of organizations that are unable to realize
their change plans, has attracted the attention of those who are interested
in the topic i.e. researchers, consultants, academicians, managers,
complex nature of the activity of transforming an organization makes it
difficult to construct a perfect solution or a plan that can be valid in
different contexts for achieving intended outcomes. One may list various
causes for the failures experienced in implementation processes but
resistance to change is more likely to be described as one of the most
widespread ones. Even though the concept of resistance to change is not
a new one, no consensus about its content and the ways it is experienced
has existed among the researchers who have studied it. In the following
section, we will review the concept of resistance to change
from the perspectives of some influential researchers in this field.
Although resistance has been usually conceived as an impediment to
change, significant number of arguments which emphasize the positive
role of resistance have been existed in literature. There have been a lot
of books and scientific papers in the literature, and many of them have
approached the issue from different perspectives. Therefore, to prevent
repetition, we find it appropriate to review authors who have contributed
to literature by representing each of these different perspectives in terms
of resistance to change.

According to Zander (1950), there are six main reasons for resistance to
occur in change
initiatives;
 Ambiguity in the mind of those who will be affected by change about
the nature
of change.
 Existence of diverse interpretations about the change and its impact
 Existence of strong forces preventing individuals from changing
 Strong top down imposition on individuals who will be influenced by
change,
lack of participation
 Existence of personal interests directing change
 Ignorance of pre established institutions in the group

CORRECTIVE ACTIONS
Organizational development, as the term implies, is the process by
which an organization
survives and thrives through the years of its existence. Thus,
organizational development
change management is the process by which decision makers attempt to
manage the
changes that are inherent with any effort at organizational development.
To properly carry out organizational development change management,
decision makers
need to first create a well-structured plan for organizational
development. Many change
management efforts fail because decision makers (or those designing the
organizational
development program) didn’t structure the program properly. A half-
baked effort is
worse than no effort at all because it may result in changes detrimental
to the organization. Next, organizational development change
management must be communicated to all affected levels of the
organization. Granted, not all members will be affected by the changes,
but those who will should be informed beforehand so that they prepare.
Everyone knows that ill-prepared employees have the odds stacked
against them when it comes to properly and adequately handling
change(s) related to organizational development. Sometimes, for
organizational development change management to be successful, the
concepts and principles used should be as simple as possible. The same
goes for the execution of the program – sometimes, the simpler the
process being installed, the better it will be for the organization and all
affected audiences, in the end. It’s perfectly obvious that the more
complex the program, the harder it will be for people to integrate it into
their daily responsibilities.

Skills & Strategies

Managing the kinds of changes encountered by and instituted within
organizations requires an unusually broad and finely honed set of skills,
chief among which are the following.

a. Political Skills
Organizations are first and foremost social systems. Without people
there can be no organization. Lose sight of this fact and any would-be
change agent will likely lose his or her head. Organizations are hotly and
intensely political. And, as one wag pointed out, the lower the stakes, the
more intense the politics. Change agents dare not join in this game but
they had better understand it. This is one area where you must make
your own judgments and keep your own counsel; no one can do it for
you.

b. Analytical Skills
Make no mistake about it, those who would be change agents had better
be very good at something, and that something better be analysis.
Guessing won’t do. Insight is nice, even useful, and sometimes shines
with brilliance, but it is darned 156 difficult to sell and almost
impossible to defend. A lucid, rational, well-argued analysis can be
ignored and even suppressed, but not successfully contested and, in most
cases, will carry the day. If not, then the political issues haven’t been
adequately addressed. Two particular sets of skills are very important
here: (1) workflow operations or systems analysis, and (2) financial
analysis. Change agents must learn to take apart and reassemble
operations and systems in novel ways, and then determine the financial
and political impacts of what they have done. Conversely, they must
be able to start with some financial measure or indicator or goal, and
make their way quickly to those operations and systems that, if
reconfigured a certain way, would have the desired financial impact.
Those who master these two techniques have learned a trade that will be
in demand for the foreseeable future.

c. People Skills
People are characterized by all manner of sizes, shapes, colors,
intelligence and ability levels, gender, sexual preferences, national
origins, first and second languages, religious beliefs, attitudes toward
life and work, personalities, and priorities — and these are just a few of
the dimensions along which people vary. We have to deal with them all.
The skills most needed in this area are those that typically fall under the
heading of communication or interpersonal skills. To be effective, we
must be able to listen and listen actively, to restate, to reflect, to clarify
without interrogating, to draw out the speaker, to lead or channel a
discussion, to plant ideas, and to develop them. All these and more are
needed. Not all of us will have to learn Russian, French, or Spanish, but
most of us will have to learn to speak Systems, Marketing,
Manufacturing, Finance, Personnel, Legal, and a host of other
organizational dialects. More important, we have to learn to see things
through the eyes of these other inhabitants of the organizational world.
A situation viewed from a marketing frame of reference is an entirely
different situation when seen through the eyes of a systems person. Part
of the job of a change agent is to reconcile and resolve the conflict
between and among disparate (and sometimes desperate) points of view.
Charm is great if you have it. Courtesy is even better. A well-paid
compliment can buy gratitude. A sincere “Thank you”
can earn respect.

d. System Skills
There’s much more to this than learning about computers, although most
people employed in today’s world of work do need to learn about
computer-based information systems. For now, let’s just say that a
system is an arrangement of resources and routines intended to produce
specified results. To organize is to arrange. A system reflects
organization and, by the same token, an organization
is a system. A word processing operator and the word processing
equipment operated form a system. So do computers and the larger,
information processing systems in which computers are so often
embedded. These are generally known as “hard” systems.
There are “soft” systems as well: compensation systems, appraisal
systems, promotion systems, and reward and incentive systems.

e. Business Skills
Simply put, you’d better understand how a business works. In particular,
you’d better understand how the business in which and on which you’re
working works. This entails an understanding of money — where it
comes from, where it goes, how to get it, and how to keep it. It also calls
into play knowledge of markets and marketing, products and product
development, societys, sales, selling, buying, hiring, firing, EEO, AAP,
and just about anything else you might think of.

Question no 4:

What are the various assessment techniques to generate the

useful data about the students at learning level?

School closures and remote or blended learning plans mean that it's more
important than ever to understand student knowledge and the learning
process. Students need to recover lost skills and continue to learn, and you
need to know how to make your lesson plans effective. 

But testing can contribute to math anxiety for many students. Assessments

can be difficult to structure properly and time-consuming to grade. And as
a teacher, you know that student progress isn't just a number on a report
card. 

There’s so much more to assessments than delivering an end-of-unit exam

or prepping for a standardized test. Assessments help shape the learning
process at all points, and give you insights into student learning.
As mathematics educator Marylin Burns puts it:

“Making assessment an integral part of daily mathematics instruction is

a challenge. It requires planning specific ways to use assignments and
discussions to discover what students do and do not understand...The
insights we gain by making assessment a regular part of instruction
enable us to meet the needs of the students who are eager for more
challenges and to provide intervention for those who are struggling.”

The 6 types of assessments are:

 Diagnostic assessments
 Formative assessments
 Summative assessments
 Ipsative assessments
 Norm-referenced assessments
 Criterion-referenced assessments
Different types of assessments help you understand student progress in
various ways and adapt your teaching strategies accordingly.

In your classroom, assessments generally have one of three purposes:

1. Assessment of learning
2. Assessment for learning
3. Assessment as learning

Assessment of learning

Assessments are a way to find out what students have learned and if
they’re aligning to curriculum or grade-level standards. 

Assessments of learning are usually grade-based, and can include:

 Exams
 Portfolios
 Final projects
 Standardized tests

They have a concrete grade attached to them that communicates student

achievement to teachers, parents, students, school-level administrators and
district leaders. 

Common types of assessment of learning include: 

 Summative assessments
 Norm-referenced assessments
 Criterion-referenced assessments
Assessment for learning

Assessments for learning provide you with a clear snapshot of student

learning and understanding as you teach -- allowing you to adjust
everything from your classroom management strategies to your lesson
plans as you go. 

Assessments for learning should always be ongoing and actionable.

When you’re creating assessments, keep these key questions in mind:

 What do students still need to know?

 What did students take away from the lesson?
 Did students find this lesson too easy? Too difficult?
 Did my teaching strategies reach students effectively?
 What are students most commonly misunderstanding?
 What did I most want students to learn from this lesson? Did I
succeed?

There are lots of ways you can deliver assessments for learning, even
in a busy classroom. We’ll cover some of them soon!

For now, just remember these assessments aren’t only for students --
they’re to provide you with actionable feedback to improve your
instruction.

Common types of assessment for learning include formative assessments

and diagnostic assessments. 
Assessment as learning

Assessment as learning actively involves students in the learning process.

It teaches critical thinking skills, problem-solving and encourages students
to set achievable goals for themselves and objectively measure their
progress. 

They can help engage students in the learning process, too! One study
found:

“Students develop an interest in mathematical tasks that they understand,

see as relevant to their own concerns, and can manage. Recent studies of
students’ emotional responses to mathematics suggest that both their
positive and their negative responses diminish as tasks become familiar
and increase when tasks are novel” Douglas B. McLeod

Some examples of assessment as learning include ipsative assessments,

self-assessments and peer assessments.

6 Types of assessment to use in your classroom

There’s a time and place for every type of assessment. Keep reading to
find creative ways of delivering assessments and understanding your
students’ learning process!

1. Diagnostic assessment
Let’s say you’re starting a lesson on two-digit multiplication. To make
sure the unit goes smoothly, you want to know if your students have
mastered fact families, place value and one-digit multiplication before you
move on to more complicated questions.

When you structure diagnostic assessments around your lesson, you’ll

get the information you need to understand student knowledge and
engage your whole classroom.

Some examples to try include:

 Mind maps
 Flow charts
 KWL charts
 Short quizzes
 Journal entries
 Student interviews
 Student reflections
 Graphic organizers
 Classroom discussions

Diagnostic assessments can also help benchmark student progress.

Consider giving the same assessment at the end of the unit so students can
see how far they’ve come!

Using Prodigy for diagnostic assessments

One unique way of delivering diagnostic assessments is to use a game-

based learning platform that engages your students.
Prodigy’s assessments tool helps you align the math questions your
students see in-game with the lessons you want to cover.

To set up a diagnostic assessment, use your assessments tool to create

a Plan that guides students through a skill and automatically drops them
down to pre-requisites when necessary.

2. Formative assessment

Just because students made it to the end-of-unit test, doesn’t mean

they’ve mastered the skill. Formative assessments help teachers
understand student learning while they teach, and adjust their teaching
strategies accordingly. 

Meaningful learning involves processing new facts, adjusting assumptions

and drawing nuanced conclusions. Or, as researchers Thomas Romberg
and Thomas Carpenter describe it:

“Current research indicates that acquired knowledge is not simply a

collection of concepts and procedural skills filed in long-term memory.
Rather, the knowledge is structured by individuals in meaningful ways,
which grow and change over time.”

Formative assessments help you track how student knowledge is

growing and changing in your classroom in real-time. While it requires
a bit of a time investment — especially at first — the gains are more than
worth it. 

Some examples of formative assessments include:

 Portfolios
 Group projects
 Progress reports
 Class discussions
 Entry and exit tickets
 Short, regular quizzes
 Virtual classroom tools like Socrative or Kahoot!

When running formative assessments in your classroom, it’s best to keep

them short, easy to grade and consistent. Introducing students to
formative assessments in a low-stakes way can help you benchmark their
progress and reduce math anxiety when a big test day rolls around.

How Prodigy helps you deliver formative assessments

Prodigy makes it easy to create, deliver and grade formative assessments

that keep your students engaged with the learning process and provide you
with actionable data to adjust your lesson plans. 

Use your Prodigy teacher dashboard to create an Assignment and make

formative assessments easy!

Assignments assess your students on a particular skill with a set number of

questions and can be differentiated for individual students or groups of
students.

3. Summative assessment
Summative assessments measure student progress as an assessment of
learning and provide data for you, school leaders and district leaders.

They're cost-efficient and valuable when it comes to communicating

student progress, but they don’t always give clear feedback on the learning
process and can foster a “teach to the test” mindset if you’re not careful. 

Plus, they’re stressful for teachers. One Harvard survey found 60% of

teachers said “preparing students to pass mandated standardized tests”
“dictates most of” or “substantially affects” their teaching.

Sound familiar?

But just because it’s a summative assessment, doesn’t mean it can’t be

engaging for students and useful for your teaching. Try creating
assessments that deviate from the standard multiple-choice test, like:

 Recording a podcast
 Writing a script for a short play
 Producing an independent study project

No matter what type of summative assessment you give your students,

keep some best practices in mind:

 Keep it real-world relevant where you can

 Make questions clear and instructions easy to follow
 Give a rubric so students know what’s expected of them
 Create your final test after, not before, teaching the lesson
 Try blind grading: don’t look at the name on the assignment before
you mark it
Preparing student for summative assessments with Prodigy

Did you know you can use Prodigy to prepare your students for
summative assessments — and deliver them in-game?

Use Assignments to differentiate math practice for each student or send an

end-of-unit test to the whole class.

Or use our Test Prep tool to understand student progress and help them

prepare for standardized tests in an easy, fun way!

4. Ipsative assessments

How many of your students get a bad grade on a test and get so
discouraged they stop trying? 

Ipsative assessments are one of the types of assessment as learning

that compares previous results with a second try, motivating students
to set goals and improve their skills. 

When a student hands in a piece of creative writing, it’s just the first draft.
They practice athletic skills and musical talents to improve, but don’t
always get the same chance when it comes to other subjects like math. 

A two-stage assessment framework helps students learn from their

mistakes and motivates them to do better. Plus, it removes the instant
gratification of goals and teaches students learning is a process. 

You can incorporate ipsative assessments into your classroom with:

 Portfolios
 A two-stage testing process
 Project-based learning activities

One study on ipsative learning techniques found that when it was used

with higher education distance learners, it helped motivate students and
encouraged them to act on feedback to improve their grades. What could it
look like in your classroom?

5. Norm-referenced assessments

Norm-referenced assessments are tests designed to compare an

individual to a group of their peers, usually based on national standards
and occasionally adjusted for age, ethnicity or other demographics.

Unlike ipsative assessments, where the student is only competing against

themselves, norm-referenced assessments draw from a wide range of
data points to make conclusions about student achievement.

Types of norm-referenced assessments include:

 IQ tests
 Physical assessments
 Standardized college admissions tests like the SAT and GRE

Proponents of norm-referenced assessments point out that they accentuate

differences among test-takers and make it easy to analyze large-scale
trends. Critics argue they don’t encourage complex thinking and can
inadvertently discriminate against low-income students and minorities. 
Norm-referenced assessments are most useful when measuring student
achievement to determine:

 Language ability
 Grade readiness
 Physical development
 College admission decisions
 Need for additional learning support

While they’re not usually the type of assessment you deliver in your
classroom, chances are you have access to data from past tests that can
give you valuable insights into student performance.

6. Criterion-referenced assessments

Criterion-referenced assessments compare the score of an individual

student to a learning standard and performance level, independent of
other students around them. 

In the classroom, this means measuring student performance against

grade-level standards and can include end-of-unit or final tests to assess
student understanding. 

Outside of the classroom, criterion-referenced assessments appear in

professional licensing exams, high school exit exams and citizenship tests,
where the student must answer a certain percentage of questions correctly
to pass. 

Criterion-referenced assessments are most often compared with norm-

referenced assessments. While they’re both valuable types of assessments
of learning, criterion-referenced assessments don’t measure students
against their peers. Instead, each student is graded on their own strengths
and weaknesses.

How to create effective assessments

You don’t want to use a norm-referenced assessment to figure out where

learning gaps in your classroom are, and ipsative assessments aren’t the
best for giving your principal a high-level overview of student
achievement in your classroom. 

When it comes to your teaching, here are some best practices to help you
identify which type of assessment will work and how to structure it, so
you and your students get the information you need.

Question no 4:
Describe the Management Information system with the factors that
help the decision making tasks for managers.

MANAGEMENT INFORMATION SYSTEM

Management Information Systems (MIS) is the study of people,
technology, and organizations. If you enjoy technology like iPhones,
iPodS, you have what it takes to major in information systems. All you
need is an interest in technology and the desire to use technology to
improve people's lives. Many people think that MIS is all
programming.
However, programming is just a small part of our curriculum and there
are many, many jobs in MIS where you do not program.
Management information system (MIS) provides information that
organizations require to manage themselves efficiently and effectively.
Management information systems are typically computer systems used
for managing the organizations. The five primary
components of MIS are:
1) Hardware
2) Software
3) Data (information for decision
making),
4) Procedures (design, development and documentation), and
5) People (individuals, groups, or organizations).

Management information systems are distinct from other information

systems because they are used to analyze and facilitate strategic
and operational activities. Academically, the term is commonly used to
refer to the study of how individuals, groups, and organizations evaluate,
design, implement, manage, and utilize systems to generate information
to improve efficiency and effectiveness of decision making, including
systems termed decision support systems, expert systems, and
executive information systems.

History of MIS
Kenneth C. Laudon and Jane Laudon identify five eras of Management
Information System evolution corresponding to the five phases in the
development of computing technology: 1) Mainframe and minicomputer
computing, 2) Personal computers, 3) Client/server networks, 4)
Enterprise computing, and 5) Cloud computing. The first era
(mainframe and minicomputer) was ruled by IBM and their mainframe
computers. These computers would often take up whole rooms and
require teams to run them – IBM supplied the hardware and the
software. As technology advanced, these computers were able to handle
greater capacities and therefore reduce their cost.. The second era
(personal computer) began in 1965 as microprocessors started to
compete with mainframes and minicomputers and accelerated the
process of decentralizing computing power from large data centers to
smaller offices. In the late 1970s minicomputer technology gave way to
personal computers and relatively low cost computers were becoming
mass market commodities, allowing businesses to provide their
employees access to computing power that ten years before would have
cost lakhs of rupees. As technological complexity increased and costs
decreased, the need to share information within an enterprise also grew,
giving rise to the third era (client/server), in which computers on a
common network access shared information on a server. This lets
thousands and even millions of people access data simultaneously. The
fourth era (enterprise) enabled by high speed networks, tied all aspects
of the business enterprise together offering rich information access
encompassing the complete management 199 structure. Every computer
is utilized. The fifth era (cloud computing) is the latest and employs
networking technology to deliver applications as well as data storage
independent of the configuration, location or nature of the hardware.
This, along with high speed cell phone and Wi-Fi networks, led to new
levels of mobility in whichmanagers access the MIS remotely with
laptop and tablet computers, plus smart phones.

Role of Management Information Systems in an Organization

The role of the MIS in an organization can be compared to the role of
heart in the body. The information is the blood and MIS is the heart. In
the body the heart plays the role of supplying pure blood to all the
elements of the body including the brain. The heart works faster and
supplies more blood when needed. It regulates and controls the incoming
impure blood, processes it and sends it to the destination in the quantity
needed. It fulfills the needs of blood supply to human body in normal
course and also in crisis. MIS plays exactly the same role in the
organization. The system ensures that an appropriate data is
collected from the various sources, processed, and sent further to all the
needy destinations. The system is expected to fulfill the information
needs of an individual, a group of individuals, the management
functionaries, the managers and the top management. MIS satisfies the
diverse needs through a variety of systems such as Query Systems,
Analysis Systems, Modeling Systems and Decision Support Systems,
MIS helps in Strategic Planning, Management Control, Operational
Control and Transaction Processing. MIS helps the clerical personnel in
the transaction processing and answers their queries on the data
pertaining to the transaction, the status of a particular record and
references on a variety of documents. MIS helps the junior management
personnel by providing the operational data for planning, scheduling and
control, and helps them further in decision making at the operations
level to correct an out of control situation. MIS helps the middle
management in short them planning, target setting and controlling
the business functions. It is supported by the use of the management
tools of planning and control. MIS helps the top management in goal
setting, strategic planning and evolving the business plans and their
implementation. MIS plays the role of information generation,
communication, problem identification and helps in the process of
decision making. MIS, therefore, plays a vital role in the management,
administration and operations of an organization.

Factors contributing to the success of an MIS

If an MIS has to become successful then it should have all the features
listed as follows.
MIS is integrated into the managerial functions. It sets clear objectives
to ensure that the MIS focuses on the major issues of the business.
Adequate development resources are provided and the human &
organizational barriers to progress are removed. An appropriate
information processing technology required to meet the data processing
and analysis needs of the users of the MIS is selected.

MIS is oriented, defined and designed in terms of the user’s

requirements and its operational viability is ensured.
MIS is kept under continuous surveillance, so that its open system
design is modified according to the changing information needs. 200

MIS focuses on the results and goals, and highlights the factors and
reasons for non-achievement.

MIS is not allowed to end up into an information generation mill

avoiding the noise in the information and the communication system.
MIS recognizes that a manager is a human being and therefore, the
systems must consider all the human behavioral factors in the process of
the management.

MIS recognizes that the different information needs for different

objectives must
be met with. The globalization of information in isolation from the
different objectives leads to too much information and its non-use.

MIS is easy to operate and, therefore, the design of the MIS has
such features which make up a user-friendly design.

MIS recognizes that the information needs become obsolete and

new needs emerge. MIS design, therefore, has a basic potential
capability to quickly meet new needs of information.

MIS concentrates on developing the information support to manage

critical success factors. It concentrates on the mission critical
applications serving the needs of top management.

Factors contribution to MIS failure

Many a times MIS is a failure in PSUs. The common factors which are
responsible for this are listed as follows.

MIS is conceived as a data processing tool and not as an

information processing tool and MIS does not provide that information
which is needed by the managers but it tends to provide the information
generally the function calls for. In this case MIS becomes an impersonal
system.

Underestimating the complexity in the business systems and not

recognizing it in the MIS design leads to problems during
implementation.
Adequate attention is not given to the quality control aspects of the
inputs, the process and the outputs leading to insufficient checks and
controls in the MIS.

MIS is developed without streamlining the transaction processing

systems in the organization and lack of training on MIS to stakeholders.
Failing to appreciate that the users of the information and the generators
of the data are different and
not identifying that both of them have to play an important &
responsible role in the MIS.

MIS does not meet certain critical and key factors of its users such
as, response to the query on the database, inability to get the processing
done in a particular manner, lack of user-friendly system and
dependence on the system personnel.