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195 BIBLIOTHECA ORIENTALIS LXVII N° 1-2, januari-april 2010
ARCHEOLOGIE
TUNCA, Ö., A. McMAHON and A. BAGHDO — Chagar
Bazar (Syrie) II. Les vestiges «post-akkadiens» du chan-
tier D et études diverses. (Publications de la Mission
archéologique de l’Université de Liège en Syrie). Edi-
tions Peeters, Leuven, 2007. (30 cm, IV, 310). ISBN
978-90-429-1948-8. / 47,-.
Sir Max Mallowan excavated on Chagar Bazar in Syria
between 1935 and 1937. In 1999 a joint expedition of
the Direction Générale des Antiquités de Syrie, the Mission
Archéologique de l’Université de Liège en Syrie, and the
British School of Archaeology in Iraq resumed work in
Chagar Bazar. One aim of the ensuing campaigns was to
excavate an area not yet touched by the previous excavator.
This second excavation report presents mainly the Post-
Akkadian remains of Area D excavated in the years 1999 to
2000. The report consists of seven chapters by different
authors. Their contributions are written in French and Eng-
lish with a summary in Arabic. Chapters 1 to 5 present and
discuss the results of the excavations in Area D, phase II.
Chapter 6 and 7 are archaeo-magnetic and geomorphologic
studies, respectively. The plates completing each chapter
show illustrations, black-and-white photographs or drawings
of the materials discussed.
Chapter 1 (Ö. Tunca) is a general introduction to the site
and its research history (chap. 1.1), the method of documen-
tation (chap. 1.2), the stratigraphic approach (chap. 1.3), as
well as periodisation and chronology (chap. 1.4). A new topo-
graphical map of the tall is published (p. 9, pl. 1.2).
Chapter 2 (Ö. Tunca/M. Miftah) is an account of the results
from Area D. The profiles of the stratigraphy are given (chap.
2.1) and the chrono-stratigraphy with its three phases
explained (chap. 2.2). Phase 2 and the lithology, sedimentol-
ogy, architecture (as the remains of Building 2, that was
destroyed when Building 1 was constructed; cf. p. 18) and
installations of its sub-phases IIc (chap. 2.3), IIb (chap. 2.4)
and IIa (chap. 2.5), both with further sub-phases, are dis-
cussed in the following sub-chapters.
The authors describe a street south of Building 1 (chap.
2.6), and, finally, Building 1 (chap. 2.7ff.) extensively.
Building 1 consists of two main parts, four rooms in the front
part, and a large room (6.5 m are preserved) with a fireplace
in the back. A small annexe to the east with an own entrance
also was part of the complex. Based on the pottery found in
situ a Post-Akkadian date of the final habitation of Building
1 is proposed. Finds and features of Building 1 also allow
196
interpretations of the function of some of the rooms on the
ground floor. There was a room for stocking and cleaning
jars, and may be a kitchen; the large room in the north with
the hearth is interpreted as a living-“salon”. The building is
imagined as having had an upper floor (chap. 2.8).
Arrowheads found in the remains suggest that the build-
ing might have been abandoned due to conflict. The recon-
struction of the building recalls Bronze Age architectural
models from the Middle Euphrates known as “maison à
chambre haute” (chap. 2.9, pl. 2.16).
A. McMahon/P. Quenet analyse a late third millennium
pottery assemblage from Area D, phase II in chapter 3.
Chronology and terminology is debated, as well as the mer-
its of using chronological tags such as “Post-Akkadian” or
“Habur Hiatus”: “the term ‘Post-Akkadian’ is not ideal,
given the biases of historically based terminology …”; fur-
thermore, “the ‘Post-Akkadian’ period … must be under-
stood to coincide substantially with the ‘Ur III’ Period of the
south and probably to overlap with the ‘Isin-Larsa’ Period
there as well” (chap. 3.1). The affiliation and concordance of
the local pottery tradition with assemblages from other
regions and sites are indagated (chap. 3.2 and 3.3). Compa-
rable materials were found in the Khabur basin (with close
parallels in Tall Brak and Tall Mozan), on the Balikh (EB IV
levels of Hammam et-Turkman), the Syrian Euphrates
(Amarna, Qara Quzaq, Hadidi, Kabir, Sweyhat), Northern
Iraq and Upper Tigris region (Tall Taya, Niniveh, Hamad
Aga as-Saghir, al-Hawa), Anatolia and Upper Euphrates
(Lidar and Kurban Höyük), and Southern Mesopotamia (Nip-
pur, Isin, Uruk). The latter sites reveal additional parallels
with Area D, phase I, assemblage from Chagar Bazar. The
wares and fabric were determined macroscopically (chap.
3.4) and the surface treatment and decoration (chap. 3.5) ana-
lyzed. McMahon and Quenet describe the typology (chap.
3.6) and forms in the catalogue. These are well illustrated by
drawings or the occasional black-and-white photographs on
plates after the chapter. The pottery types comprise open
forms (chap. 3.6.1), vats (chap. 3.6.2), jars/closed forms
(chap. 3.6.3), medium jars (chap. 3.6.4), large jars (chap.
3.6.5), cooking pots (chap. 3.6.6), bases (chap. 3.6.7), and
other forms e.g. stands, strainers and trays (chap. 3.6.8).
Indices by inventory number and stratigraphic unit are also
listed.
In chapter 4 A. Baghdo provides an account of the small
finds from phase II of Area D; these consist in part of inlay
fragments (chap. 4.2), terracotta objects e.g. animals and
chariots (chap. 4.3), clay objects such as sealings (chap. 4.4),
bone tools (chap. 4.5), metal objects (chap. 4.6), and, finally,
stone objects i.e. beads, tools or mortars (chap. 4.7).
D. Flas discusses in chapter 5 the six Bronze Age silex
arrowheads stemming from the last occupation of Building 1
(sub-phase IIb) in Area D. They show similarities with arrow-
heads from Tall Brak, Tepe Hissar, and Hamman at-Turk-
man. Besides drawings of these items their find spots are
charted in a small map (p. 265).
J. Hus/S. ech-Chakrouni (chapter 6) give the archaeo-mag-
netic date results of two bread ovens and a burnt area.
Whereas one of the structures delivers a fitting date of about
2200 to 1700 BC, the other two seem older, as they are dated
to 3900 to 2900 BC. The deviance may be ascribed to the
distance from the reference site situated in Bulgaria. Nonethe-
less the archaeo-magnetic probes are considered a viable way
to reconstruct the ancient geo-magnetic field and its standard
93248_BIOR_2010-1-2_01 08-06-2010 17:26 Pagina 101
197 BOEKBESPREKINGEN — ARCHEOLOGIE
curves in the Near East. A compilation of the archaeo-mag-
netic information of the region around Chagar Bazar in order
to reconstruct the standard curves is underway. This will cer-
tainly improve the prospects of archaeo-magnetic dating in
Syria and the Near East.
Chapter 7 by Y. Cornet is dedicated to the geomorphologic
and electro-tomographic reconstruction of the natural surface
of the tall. Cornet describes the general and local geomor-
phologic context of the tall, its surroundings and the nearby
Wadi Khanzir (chap. 7.2 and 7.3).
The new research has revealed that one of the settlement
hiatuses on Chagar Bazar proposed by M. Mallowan, can
now be replaced by a “Post-Akkadian” occupation. The
excavated Building 1, though to date an isolated type, adds
to our knowledge of domestic architecture in Northern Syria.
The exhaustive analysis of the pottery of Area D, phase II,
backed by an extensive catalogue, demonstrate the wide-rang-
ing catchment area of Chagar Bazar during the “Post-Akka-
dian” period.
Finally, as with the first report of this series, one must once
more commend the authors and editors for the high standards
of publishing the discovered material, whilst keeping with a
reasonable format and price of the book.
Cf. also: McMahon, A. et al.: New Excavations at Chagar
Bazar 1999-2000. In: Iraq 63, 201-222.
University of Berne Oskar KAELIN
December 2009
* *
*
WARTKE, R.-B. — Sam’al. Ein aramäischer Stadtstaat des
10. bis 8. Jhs. V. Chr. und die Geschichte seiner Erfor-
schung. Verlag Philipp von Zabern, Mainz am Rhein,
2005. (23 cm, 96). ISBN 3-8053-3561-X; 978-3-8053-
3561-4.
The general reorganisation of the Vorderasiatisches
Museum in Berlin and the chance to examine large amounts
of documents available in the archives of the Museum are
probably some of the reasons which prompted the publica-
tion of this book. This publication provides a general
overview of the results of the German excavation carried out
at the end of the 19th century at the Iron Age site of Zincirli
(spelt Sendschjrli in German) in south-eastern Turkey and of
the current status of small finds and architectural elements
from this site which are kept in museums in Berlin and Istan-
bul, along a detailed history of the excavations at the site.
One year after the publication of this book, a similar publi-
cation concerned the site of Tell Halaf.1)
Five archaeological campaigns were carried out at the site
of Zincirli on behalf of the Orient Comité and the Königliche
Museen in Berlin, which brought to light large imposing archi-
tectural remains and carved sculptures and orthostats on the
acropolis. The excavated structures and remains belong to the
neo-Hittite town centre of Sam’al, a new Iron Age foundation
(around the 10th century BC) in a territory of local Syrian tra-
dition, which during the Late Bronze Age was under Hittite
1
) W. Orthmann, Die aramäisch-assyrische Stadt Guzana. Ein Rückblick
auf die Ausgrabungen Max von Oppenheims in Tell Halaf (Wiesbaden
2005).
198
control. The new town of Sam’al was politically independent
until it was seized, partially destroyed and conquered by the
Assyrian empire at the end of the 7th century BC, becoming
an Assyrian province. The results of these excavations were
published in five volumes, of which the first four dealt basi-
cally with architectural remains, the inscriptions and carved
orthostats, while the last one, which the director of the
museum W. Andrae published (1943) long after the death of
the director of the excavations, provided a general overview
of the small finds gathered during the excavations based on
the original manuscript of the director. In the last sixty years
several scholars have focused on specific groups of findings
from Zincirli, such as iconography, language or specific
groups of finds such as the fibulae or the stamp seals.2) Since
2006 the Neubauer Expedition to Zincirli, an archaeological
project of the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago,
has restarted excavations at the site under the directorship of
Prof. D. Schloen, focusing mainly on investigating the lower
town. The three new archaeological campaigns brought to
light large parts of the lower town and the discovery of an
inscribed Aramean stele, and fragments of sculptures clearly
point out that the site still has a large potential.3)
The author of this book, who is the deputy director of the
Vorderasiatisches Museum in Berlin, pursues two main goals
which are mirrored in the structure of the publication: on the
one hand he provides a history of the excavations at the site,
on the other a general overview of the results, including
recent studies and the relevance of the excavations at the site
in the study of the history and archaeology of the First Mil-
lennium of northern Syria and south-eastern Turkey.
The first part (I. Die Ausgrabungen) deals mainly with the
discovery of the site, beginning and organising the excava-
tions, and the history of the objects brought to Germany. The
author not only makes use of already published information
but also of all the unpublished documents of the Archiv des
Orient-Comités kept in the Vorderasiatisches Museum: large
passages from the director’s letters as well as the Tagebücher
are included in this book, as well as an interesting section on
the director of the excavation, Felix von Luschan. This not
only provides snapshots of daily life during the excavations,
but is extremely pleasant and fluent reading, which also offers
relevant information for scholars still dealing with Zincirli.
It describes how large statues and orthostats were modified
in order to be brought to Berlin, the conditions under which
campaigns took place, and the main goals influencing archae-
ological decisions made at the site. The part concerning the
arrangement of the sculptures in the museum (which is as it
remains to this day) and the losses after the Second World
2
) Large parts of general iconographic analyses concern reliefs and stat-
ues from Zincirli as in W. Orthmann, Untersuchungen zur Späthethitischen
Kunst (Bonn 1971) and D. Bonatz, Das syro-hethitische Grabdenkmal.
Untersuchungen zur Entstehung einer neuen Bildgattung im nordsyrisch-
südostanatolischen Raum in der Eisenzeit (Mainz 2000), while J. Tropper,
Die Inschriften von Zincirli (Münster 1993) translated with linguistic details
the inscriptions from the site. F. Pedde published in his Vorderasiatische
Fiebeln (Saarbrücken 2000) the restored fibulae from the site kept in the
Vorderasiatisches Museum, while the stamp seals from Zincirli were
included in a catalogue of the Museum, cf. L. Jacob-Rost, Die Stempelsiegel
Die Stempelsiegel im Vorderasiatischen Museum (Mainz 1997).
3
) A very detailed description of the ongoing excavations is available
on line at http://ochre.lib.uchicago.edu/zincirli/ while the new stele was pre-
sented at the meeting of the American Schools of Oriental Research on Nov.
22-23 2008 in Boston SBL and part of its Aramaic dialect translation is
published on line at http://news.uchicago.edu/news.php?asset_id=1486.
93248_BIOR_2010-1-2_01 08-06-2010 17:26 Pagina 102

199 BIBLIOTHECA ORIENTALIS LXVII N° 1-2, januari-april 2010 200

War is of great importance both to modern visitors to the unpublished pottery from the German excavations began sev-
museum and to scholars. eral years ago, and has been restarted with a project financed
The second half of the book focuses on the archaeological by the White Levy Foundation.6) All these projects and works
relevance of this site in the History of the Near East and is clearly indicate that although the site was excavated more
divided into several parts: a brief summary of the historical than one hundred years ago it remains very relevant in the
sources found during the excavations (Chapter II) includes History of Iron Age northern Syria and south-eastern Turkey,
not only large passages of Tropper’s translation of the inscrip- and this book in particular demonstrates that analysing the
tions, but also a high resolution photo (Abb. 56) of the original documentation of past excavations can still yield
cuneiform tablet (S3566), which has been frequently quoted important information. Together with ongoing projects these
but still needs to be fully transcribed and translated.4) A sum- new works, and in particular the work reviewed here, per-
mary (Chapter III) of the architecture, sculptures and reliefs, fectly complement the reprisal of excavations at the site.
an overview of the small finds and short abstract on the Pan-
theon of the site constitute the third chapter of this book. Freie Universität Berlin Marina PUCCI
While the first summary provides a general overview of the
already published results, the part on the small finds includes
* *
large photos of newly restored metal objects and to date
*
unpublished pottery, ivory fittings and coins. The author con-
cludes the work with a brief excursion on the projected reor-
KÜHNE, H., R.M. CZICHON and F.J. KREPPNER – Pro-
ganisation of the Museum, due to be completed in the next
ceedings of the 4th International Congress of the Archae-
five years and which will require a new concept for exhibit-
ology of the Ancient Near East. Volume 1: The recon-
ing the objects, statues and orthostats from Zincirli. As the
struction of environment: natural resources and human
general concept of the museum is the same since it was first
interrelations through time; Art history: visual commu-
built, the Zincirli objects and reliefs are currently exhibited
nication. Verlag Otto Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden, 2008.
together with those from Tell Halaf, while some of the carved
(24,5 cm, XXXV, 642). ISBN 978-3-447-05703-5
architectural elements, such as the four lion jambs, are placed
/ 98,-.
together in a way which does not mirror the archaeological
context in which they were found. KÜHNE, H., R.M. CZICHON and F.J. KREPPNER – Pro-
The 112 illustrations (in colour and black and white) rep- ceedings of the 4th International Congress of the Archae-
resent one of the strengths of this book showing, as mentioned ology of the Ancient Near East. Volume 2: Social and
above, not only small finds in high quality resolution, but also cultural transformation: the archaeology of transitional
photos taken during the excavations and original maps. The periods and dark ages. Verlag Otto Harrassowitz, Wies-
extensive captions next to each illustration compensate for the baden, 2008. (24,5 cm, XXXIII, 446). ISBN 978-3-447-
lack of references to the illustrations in the text. 05757-8 /78,-.
This publication satisfies the needs of two very different
At the time of writing, three out of six ICAANE proceed-
groups of readers: it addresses the wider public by providing
ings have been published; 1ICAANE (Rome, 1998),
a general summary of the German excavations at Zincirli and
4ICAANE (Berlin, 2004), and recently 5ICAANE (Madrid,
emphasising the relevance of the site itself in the history of
2006). Given the fact that the publication of 4ICAANE took
the Ancient Near East, with no requirement for previous
four years, and of 5ICAANE only three, there might be some
knowledge. The author supplies all the bibliographical infor-
hope for the future. Nevertheless, these are still long periods
mation which those wishing to pursue the subject might need
between the actual conferences and their publications. This
and also entertains the reader with the original accounts of
is especially unfortunate because ICAANE has developed
the archaeologists. The work satisfies scholarly interest in
into an important venue for the presentation of research by
two areas: the history of the Orient Comité and its connec-
young scholars, for whom a good publication record is impor-
tions with the founding of the Vorderasiatisches Museum
tant in applying for grants and funding, and because of its
play a background role in the excavations at Zincirli, and the
emphasis on the presentation of recent fieldwork, to which
illustrations of the small finds as well as the description of
traditionally one of the four main sessions is devoted. A num-
their history provide further keys to analysing the site.
ber of the workshops that were held during 4ICAANE have
Since the publication of this book several scientific events
been published elsewhere, and in some cases well before the
directly or indirectly concerning the archaeological site of
publication of the present proceedings. This suggests that the
Zincirli have taken place: in 2005 the University of Vienna
huge success that the ICAANE formula has had over the past
organised an exhibition and symposium on Felix von
ten years may also become its main drawback. There are so
Luschan, the director of the excavations at Zincirli, the
many authors involved that delay in publication becomes
stratigraphy and architecture of the site have been reanalysed,
almost inevitable. If ICAANE continues along this way, one
and its reliefs and statues have been the subject of recent PhD
wonders whether it would eventually not be more practical
works at the Free University of Berlin.5) An analysis of the
to publish not only the workshops individually, but the main
themes as well.
4
) Some information on the first reading of this tablet were provided by The 4ICAANE proceedings have been published in two
G. Lehmann, “Zu den Zerstörungen in Zincirli während des frühen 7. volumes. Each volume starts with a full conference time
Jahrhunderts v. Chr.” in MDOG 124, 1994. table, so that one can also get an idea of the papers that were
5
) A small summary of the exibit is available online at http://klass-
archaeologie.univie.ac.at/fileadmin/user_upload/inst_klassarc/Samm-
lung/Luschan.pdf. The architecture and stratigraphy was reanalyzed in M.
6
Pucci, Functional Analysis of Space in Syro-Hittite Architecture (Oxford ) The reanalysis of the small finds and pottery from Zincirli is currently
2008). ongoing (M. Pucci and G. Lehmann).
93248_BIOR_2010-1-2_01 08-06-2010 17:26 Pagina 103
201 BOEKBESPREKINGEN — ARCHEOLOGIE
held during the conference, many of which were not submit-
ted for publication, and ends with a complete list of partici-
pants. The papers have been arranged by theme, and each
volume includes the papers presented in two of the four main
sessions. Thus, volume 1 contains the papers of the themes
‘The reconstruction of environment: natural resources and
human interrelations through time’ and ‘Art history: Visual
communication’, whereas volume 2 presents the themes
‘Social and cultural transformation: the archaeology of tran-
sitional periods and dark ages’ and ‘Archaeological field
reports (excavations, surveys, conservation)’. The papers in
each theme are preceded by a paper introducing the session’s
topic, and for each theme, a scholar has been asked to write
a résumé so that individual papers can be placed in a wider
perspective. The majority of the papers are written in Eng-
lish, a few in French, and one in Italian. Editing has not been
extremely strict, as there are some differences between papers
in the handling of notes and references. Illustrations and
tables have been attached to the end of each paper, which
hampers readability, but which has probably significantly
speeded up the editing process. Quality of the images is usu-
ally good, although in a few obviously scanned images small
details are difficult to discern, and there are a few figures that
have been printed in a rather low resolution in which pixels
can be clearly discerned. That the editing process was prob-
ably carried out under severe time stress is especially evident
in the spelling error in the Foreword of the editors, which
could easily have been avoided.
The rest of this review will be devoted to a discussion of
the papers of each main theme. Given the fact that the pro-
ceedings include 83 papers, a number of them will necessar-
ily be excluded from the present review. The reviewer’s own
interest plays a role in this as well. It will however be
intended to do full justice to the large variety of themes and
topics that can be found in these two volumes.
The first theme, ‘The reconstruction of environment: nat-
ural resources and human interrelations through time’, is
introduced by Tony Wilkinson, who provides as usual some
keen insights into the development of human-environment
interactions. He rightly warns against too deterministic mod-
els, whether they are driven by cultural change or environ-
mental change. In the remaining 17 papers, the environment
is dealt with from very diverse perspectives. The papers cover
a large time span. The earliest period touched upon is the
Aceramic Neolithic (W. Matthews, ‘Micro-contextual analy-
sis of plant remains: study of human-environment inter-rela-
tionships in early agricultural and urban settlements in the
Ancient Near East’), and from there, virtually all periods are
covered up to and including the Roman period (M.
Zuchowska, ‘Wadi al Qubur and its interrelations with the
development of urban space of the city of Palmyra in the Hel-
lenistic and Roman periods’), although there is an emphasis
on the third and second millennia BC. Geographically, papers
cover areas as far apart as Oman in the east (J. Giraud,
‘Ja’alan (Oman) in the third millennium: an attempt at a
modelisation of an interrelational geographic space’) and
Palestine in the west (I. Roll and O. Tal, ‘The route network
of Persian period Palestine’). With 9 out of 17 papers, the
geographical focus is however decidedly on regions and sites
in modern Syria.
The adopted approaches vary just as widely. Several
papers show that approaches based on Geographic Informa-
tion System (GIS) technology have become widespread in
202
Near Eastern archaeology. These include the papers by O.
Barge and B. Moulin, ‘The development of the Syrian steppe
during the Early Bronze Age’, Giraud’s paper on Ja’alan, and
M. Ramazzotti, ‘An integrated analysis for the urban settle-
ment reconstruction. The topographic, mathematical and geo-
physical frame of Tell Mardikh-Ebla’. Based on the large
database of the regional project around Al-Rawda, Barge and
Moulin discuss pastoral and agricultural use of this semi-arid
environment. Through modelling of the drainage system
around Al-Rawda, they are able to show that the low stone
structures in the main wadi could divert water in diverse
ways, as necessitated by local water requirements for specific
agricultural plots. Giraud’s paper also builds on 18 years of
previous archaeological research in the widest sense in the
Ja’alan region in eastern Oman. She first looks at the land-
scape that was created in third millennium Ja’alan, and then
considers the spatial distribution of funerary monuments and
settlements to reconstruct the social and lived space of third
millennium Ja’alan. Ramazzotti’s paper is not so much con-
cerned with the ancient landscape, as well as with the mod-
ern environment of Tell Mardikh. He combines GIS and geo-
physical research to show how archaeological research and
heritage management can be profitably interwoven within a
single project.
Despite the increasing importance of GIS-related analyses,
more ‘traditional’ approaches still remain vital and continue
to produce equally interesting results. S. Bracci, ‘Remarks on
the relation between town and country in the ancient Near
East: the case of Nuzi’, analyses texts and architectural space
in Nuzi to show that the division of both the city and its sur-
rounding landscape is governed by very similar social cate-
gories. In their paper ‘Animals in the steppe: patterns of ani-
mal husbandry as a reflection of changing environmental
conditions in the Khabur Triangle’, R. Kolinski and J.
Pi∏tkowska-Malecska, analyse the distribution of animal
species in the animal bone assemblages from Tell Arbid to
reconstruct environmental conditions, with a focus on the
third and early second millennium BC.
The second theme, ‘Art history: visual communication’, is
introduced by Winfried Orthmann. In his paper ‘Aspects of
the interpretation of ancient Near Eastern art as visual com-
munication’, Orthmann addresses the key questions that any
scholar of iconographic remains must answer: who made it,
what does it represent, for whom was it made, and why? He
shows the striking resemblance between scenes depicted on
twelfth-century European paintings and Neo-Hittite reliefs,
but whereas the former can be interpreted with help from tex-
tual sources, the deeper meaning of the latter remains utterly
unknown. This problem surfaces throughout Orthmann’s dis-
cussion; he needs textual sources as a starting point for mak-
ing inferences about meaning. This reliance on texts is
inevitable given his dismissal of ‘intrinsic meaning’ sensu
Panofsky, but is also unnecessary as this approach has been
applied to Çatal Höyük imagery with some interesting results.
Twenty-seven papers explore this theme from a wide vari-
ety of viewpoints, using case-studies as diverse as Nabatean
stelae (R. Wenning, ‘Decoding Nabatean betyls’), Anatolian
defensive walls (T. de Vincenzi, ‘Fortification walls. Devel-
opment and conformation of Anatolian “saw-tooth wall”,
“Kastenmauer”, “Casematte” defence systems, and their
building techniques in the Bronze Age’), and Late Assyrian
relief slabs (E. Guralnick, ‘Nimrud and Nineveh: standards
of measurement’). In ‘Cracking the code? Aspect and impact
93248_BIOR_2010-1-2_01 08-06-2010 17:26 Pagina 104
203 BIBLIOTHECA ORIENTALIS LXVII N° 1-2, januari-april 2010
in Mesopotamian architecture’, D. Meijer considers whether
Mesopotamian public architecture was governed by traditions
similar to those of ancient Greece or Medieval churches, but
concludes that reconstructing them is extremely difficult,
again partly due to the lack of texts. In ‘Eski Dogubayazit –
a tomb or a sanctuary?’, K. Jakubiak reconsiders the func-
tion of the Urartian rock chambers at Eski Dogubayazit.
Based on an analysis of the elements that can be found on
the relief it is argued that this structure functioned as a sanc-
tuary rather than a tomb, and that festivities may have been
carried out there. Again, texts play a key role in some of the
links that are made between the iconography of the relief and
Urartian objects that are associated with the cult of the god
for which the sanctuary was established.
Theme 3, ‘Social and cultural transformation: the archae-
ology of transitional periods and Dark Ages’, is introduced
by R. Matthews. He rightly stresses that the very idea of a
‘transitional period’ is misleading, as it would imply the exis-
tence of non-transitional periods as well. It is necessary to
consider the degree to which this view of a static society
punctuated by chaotic intermediate periods results from the
archaeologist’s perception of the archaeological record,
whereby a smooth material culture development is broken up
in multiple distinct ‘cultures’. Societies are subject to con-
stant change, and whether an archaeologist observes change
is as much a result of the archaeological record as it is of
what change the archaeologist deems important. Matthews
argues that the term ‘Dark Age’ is similarly misleading in
that it suggests that an absence of texts, to which the term
usually refers, is an absence of human society, which is
proven wrong by all of prehistory. In essence, then, his intro-
ductory paper can be read as an essay against the very exis-
tence of an archaeology of transitional periods and Dark
Ages.
Nineteen papers then explore the various transitional peri-
ods and Dark Ages that have been identified in the Near East.
Their wide geographical and chronological distribution sug-
gests that Matthews’ cautionary tale may indeed have some
truth in it. There is scarcely a period that is not covered by
one of the papers, suggesting that the terms ‘transitional
period’ and ‘Dark Age’ may have lost their descriptive util-
ity altogether. Thus, to name a few, there are papers dealing
on the Neolithic (A. Fletcher, ‘Ceramic styles at Domuztepe:
evidence for social interaction in the late Neolithic’), the Late
Chalcolithic (F. Balossi-Restelli, ‘Post-Ubaid occupation on
the Upper Euphrates: Late Chalcolithic 1-2 at Arslantepe
(Malatya, turkey)’, P. Guarino, ‘Mass produced bowls in a
Late Chalcolithic ceremonial building at Arslantepe. Evi-
dence for a centralised economic system before the spread of
Uruk culture’), and the EB-MB transition in Syria (C. Felli
and E. Merluzzi, ‘EB-MB Afis: a single cultural tradition
between two phases?’, M. Lönnqvist, ‘Were nomadic Amor-
ites on the move? Migration, invasion and gradual infiltra-
tion as mechanisms for cultural transitions’).
The fourth theme traditionally deals with archaeological
fieldwork reports. Fourteen papers present excavation and
survey results in Israel, Turkey, Jordan, Lebanon and Syria,
of which six deal with sites in the latter country.
Some trends can be observed in the collection of papers
that was just discussed. One of the interesting advantages of
the ICAANE proceedings is the possibility to bring together
several papers highlighting different aspects of the same
archaeological project. Thus, there are three papers dealing
204
with various expects of the projects centred on Ebla, Al-
Rawda, and Tell Barri each. With the exception of the papers
on Tell Barri, which fall in the traditional category of exca-
vation and artefact reports, the other papers reflect the highly
diverse nature of research that can nowadays be carried out
at archaeological sites, or perhaps more correctly, archaeo-
logical landscapes. Archaeological research in Syria is
strongly represented in the papers included in these two vol-
umes. Especially as regards environmental reconstruction and
landscape approaches, Syrian projects are currently at the
forefront of what Near Eastern archaeology has to offer, and
this is amply reflected in these proceedings.
Despite the minor shortcomings mentioned at the begin-
ning of this review, the editors are to be congratulated for
bringing together as large a number of papers as can be found
in these two volumes. They stand as a lasting testimony to
the enormous range of topics and methods that are nowadays
addressed in Near Eastern archaeology.
Leiden, 2009 Arne WOSSINK
* *
*
GANDULLA, B. – Los hebreos en el gran Canaán, del
Bronce Antiguo al Bronce Tardío. Editorial Canaàn,
Buenos Aires, 2005. (21, 5 cm., XXII, 245). ISBN 987-
21649-3-2.
This book is a general survey of the ideas previously
advanced in the doctoral thesis of this Argentinian scholar,
who has devoted his life to the study of the implications of
Old Testament texts for Near Eastern archaeology, particu-
larly for those lands focused on so-called “Biblical Archae-
ology”, for a long period of time.
The ethnic overtone of the expression “Gran Canaán” in
the title could confuse or even mislead the general reader
about the main theme of the book. During the course of its
250 pages it investigates some deep questions arising from
several lands in the region. From the beginning it exhibits a
serious desire to pursue detailed research on various related
historical and archaeological matters. These have a wide
chronological span and mainly concern the ethnic origins of
the habiru and of Israel (cf. p. 216). The expression “Greater
Canaan” is hardly appropriate in this context, and this should
be regarded as a minor defect in the title.
The large chronological and geographical vistas are out-
lined in pages 5-155, which can be read as a general cata-
logue about the development of the Levantine and
Mesopotamian regions from the pre-pottery Neolithic to the
Late Bronze Age periods. The author adopts this method here
as in his thesis to answer some of the main doubts about pos-
sible relationships between Hebrews and Hurrians. From the
beginning (cf. p.4) he concentrates on the hypothesis of an
enduring presence of Transcaucasian elements in the Near
Eastern population. His explanations of this in his final con-
clusions produce remarkable results.
G. has chosen the term “Gran Canaán”, perhaps because
that term has more significance for readers in Argentina, to
denote the region of the southern Levant, a confluence of
ethnic and cultural streams flowing roughly from the north,
from the Caucasus and Northern Mesopotamia. When talk-
ing of foreign elements entering the sub-region of Israel and
93248_BIOR_2010-1-2_01 08-06-2010 17:26 Pagina 105
205 BOEKBESPREKINGEN — ARCHEOLOGIE
Palestine he opposes the school of thought based on the
prevalence of Egyptian influence. He accepts that there was
Egyptian influence, but only on a very limited scale, and not
continuous or dominant in the Bronze Age. He connects the
hypothesis of an expanding Anatolian-Caucasian population
with the older question of the Amurru or, as he prefers to
call them, the Hurro-Amorreo. He traces the changing situ-
ation particularly to the dissolution of urbanism in the local
EB III period, from the 24th to the 23rd centuries BC. It is
an attractive hypothesis, and it is systematically explained
in the course of the book. In the foreword G. had stated his
intention to focus on the Early and especially on the Middle
Bronze Ages (cf. p. xxi).
To understand how his book is presented and the long
years devoted to his earlier thesis it is important to know the
background of this distinguished researcher. G.’s liberal
thinking and quest for alternative ways of interpreting the
data on the ancient lands of Israel and Palestine, together with
that on Mesopotamian and Caucasian material culture, has
first been influenced by Adam Rosenvasser. In some Span-
ish speaking circles he is regarded as an obscure former
researcher, but in Argentina and also in Israel he is regarded
as an empirical scholar of the biblical tradition and ancient
Semitic languages. In that same way G. follows the ideas of
monumental publications on the archaeology of Ancient
Israel, such as the much debated studies of Herzog and
Finkelstein on the Iron Age. He was taught later by Andre
Finet, with whom he shared a parallel career. These events
can be inferred now and again from the book (see especially
p. xvii). In the Introduction he speaks of the “end of the clas-
sical Bible’s myth” and the need for a scientific and objec-
tively critical approach, echoing the call of some Israeli
scholars who are concerned to contrast the results of archae-
ology with biblical traditions. He feels, therefore, obliged to
negate the legacy of the Albright school, despite the contri-
butions it made in its time, as was done in the article by
Long-Burke’s in 1997 when itemising the failures of that
school.
G.’s particular use of the Spanish language throughout the
book is a problem, albeit a minor one. We have already men-
tioned the difficulty of using Gran Canaán to denote the Lev-
ant and Mesopotamia. Instead of using what is now the cur-
rently accepted Classical Spanish term for the Ancient Near
East, Oriente Próximo Antiguo, he uses Cercano Oriente
Antiguo. English forms of geographical terms are sometimes
used, e.g. Balikh rather than Balij. Failing to say what pre-
cisely is meant by the term “Biblical period” (p.24) will lead
to confusion. More precision was needed to distinguish ria-
chos “creeks” from riachuelos (p.19) to conform to the Span-
ish in general use in Europe. The philologist gains an excel-
lent introduction to this rich Spanish style with its wide
lexical variations but this was hardly the point of the book.
His use of nómades instead of the usual nómadas belies
French inspiration. Referring today to “Soviet” instead of
“Russian” scholars (p. 9) is anachronistic. But such failures
should not be allowed to spoil his excellent results.
The reader is first introduced to the geography and pre-
history of the Levant and Mesopotamia (pp. 5-54). The geo-
graphical element is justified (p.6) because of the continuum
of the climate of that region, “with scarce rain in the sum-
mer months”. But observations on the sub-regions are over-
looked, e.g. no attention is paid to the variations in rainfall.
This is relevant because G. argues for “ a decisive incidence
206
(of the environment) in the ethnocultual processes”, although
he does not support the “determinist” school with regard to
environment impact (pp. 208-209). There is a full summary
of research on the climatology of these regions, together with
good descriptions of flora and fauna and a convenient table
(p. 31, Table 7).
The subject of environmental determinism is raised later
in the book (p. 48), but he also stresses the ideas of Jacques
Cauvin about sociological factors. G. has joined other
researchers who are strong advocates of the interaction of
ecological and cultural changes (cf. p. 50, 57 for the early
prehistoric periods). He asserts that easy access to water was
a powerful determinant in the distribution of Levantine set-
tlements (p.21). These ecologically based theories stress those
of Ben-Yosef and Hopkins about the weather of the Levant.
They concluded that there was little essential change between
the ancient and the present climate. Alternative explanations
for Greater Mesopotamia (cf. p.25) for a “different climato-
logical situation in the Prehistory” (p. 24) are missing. Trav-
ellers in the 19th century noted certain changes, and man’s
activities will also have had an effect. The myth of the Del-
uge is related to environmental changes around 4000 BC in
the region (p. 8) and the actual shape of the alluvial low
plains of Mesopotamia and the Egyptian Delta formed at that
time. The supposed Caucasian elements are related to bibli-
cal terminology concerning Mount Ararat (p.215).
There are a few terms concerning chronology, which will
be confusing to someone not expert in the field. The use of
“period” in connection with Uruk, Ubaid and Halaf has been
shown to be unjustified, and it is preferable to speak of “cul-
ture” instead. Others have made the same mistake.
He relates Yoffee’s interpretations of the expansion of
Halaf culture with economic issues instead of with an addi-
tional expansion of “minds and peoples” (i.e. the Petr
Charvàt hypothesis), whereby the symbols spread more
widely (p.34). He connects Amuq C, in the Levant, with sim-
ilarities in the same period in the Caucasus. In using this idea
in his conclusions, he bases his main hypothesis on cultural
expansion. Similarly Ubaid cultural symbolism is taken as
the start of a system of beliefs (following Yoffee in 1995).
The Deluge, Mesopotamian literature and Caucasian elements
in the material culture are all taken in support for the thesis
of a Hurrian element in the Levant during the Bronze Ages.
By using the term “protodynastic” for central and south-
ern Mesopotamia only he avoids confusion. It could be
argued that there is a lack of precision for several regions in
the north, with the need for a footnote showing better use of
the terms EB I-III for different geographical areas (p. 38ff.).
But the careful reader will be satisfied by the inclusion of a
special chapter on the history of the region (p. 45 onwards).
That very pleasant chapter has plenty of examples of interest
to the general historian, which makes it easier to understand
the importance of the Third Millennium BC for Near East-
ern History. He completes his historical travelogue with
events of the Middle Bronze Age (pp.43-45) and this is
important for his final conclusions. After reading those his-
torical chapters it is easier to appreciate the opposition
betweens the mountains and the plains throughout the ages
of Mesopotamian history, and this reader is inclined to asso-
ciate it also with the distinction between nomads and semi-
nomads.
While maintaining that there was a continuum in the Early
Bronze period he stresses the appearance of new features in
93248_BIOR_2010-1-2_01 08-06-2010 17:26 Pagina 106

207 BIBLIOTHECA ORIENTALIS LXVII N° 1-2, januari-april 2010 208

the pottery as foreign elements, and he uses this to support

his general hypothesis (pp. 48-49). The examples adduced
show his good knowledge and reliance on the archaeological
material from the Syrian Euphrates for Northern
Mesopotamia. It provides strong archaeological support for
his theory that Kura-Araxes elements in the Levant region
passed through North Mesopotamia and Eastern Anatolia
after this time. Recent excavations have in a way supported
the presence of Caucasian artifacts in the excavated material,
as at Arslantepe, the EB “Royal Tomb”). This hypothesis of
a multi-ethnic substratum in the Levant has been well sub-
stantiated. The example from Mari and Tell Hasor texts can
be explained if both royal families belonged to the same big
Amorite ethnic substratum or occupied positions of high
strategic influence (p.51). Developments in the Late Bronze
Age are outlined in the following pages.
Lengthy and thorough explanations of the archaeological
data from the area occupy pp. 56-157 (“Greater Canaan” is
used for the whole of Mesopotamia). Only in the last 50
pages before the conclusions does he expand his hypothesis
with written sources. There he compares biblical material
with that of the Ancient Near East and shows his command
of Semitic languages.
His brief archaeological accounts, which list the main sites
of the Levant, mostly cover the period prior to the 1990s and
they need to be revised to include later findings, such as
Göbekli and similar sites for the PPN period. He asserts
“PPNB sites are better known than PPNA ones” (p. 65) but
this statement is no longer of value now that we have
sequences such as Yiftahel in the Levant, and sites such as
Jerf Al-Ahmar, Djade or Urfa in Northern Syria and Eastern
Anatolia. G. focuses on a few sites as general examples, such
as Tell Aswad and Ras Shamra, and provides a good sum-
mary of their archaeological sequences. Again he insists on
explaining the data on an ecological basis (p. 66). Figures 10
and 11 are particularly useful to show the pattern of distrib-
ution of PPNA and PPNB sites in the Levant, seeing that the
central hypothesis of the book involves a north-south diffu-
sion for the period (p.69). The way that Khirbet Kerak ware
was dispersed is naturally one of the highlights in G.’s expla-
nations for the period before textual evidence from the sec-
ond millennium BC. It is certainly true that the dispersion of
this ware is still one of the strongest links between Syro-
Palestinian and Caucasian cultures.
This excellent book can be recommended with confidence
to the general public and as required reading for students of
“Biblical Archaeology” and ancient Semitic languages in
Spanish schools.

Madrid, December 2009 Jesús Gil FUENSANTA