10 1108 - IntR 08 2016 0256

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INTR
27,4 The drivers for cloud-based
virtual learning environment
Examining the moderating effect of
942 school category
Received 27 August 2016
Hew Teck Soon and Sharifah Latifah Syed A. Kadir
Revised 9 March 2017 Department of Operations and Management Information Systems,
Accepted 14 April 2017
Faculty of Business and Accountancy, University of Malaya,
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Abstract
Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to verify the moderating effects of school category based on the
self-determination theory (SDT) in cloud-based virtual learning environment (VLE) acceptance.
Design/methodology/approach – Two phases of national surveys were conducted using a random
sampling technique. The research model was tested empirically using 608 samples of primary and secondary
school teachers.
Findings – The full model supports significant effects of autonomy, competence, and relatedness on trust,
knowledge sharing attitude and behavioral intention except the autonomy-attitude and relatedness-
behavioral intention relationships. In primary school, 61, 24.1, 52.1, and 41.1 percent of variances whereas, in
secondary school, 57.4, 31.5, 48.6, and 37.5 percent of variances in instructional effectiveness, behavioral
intention, knowledge sharing attitude, and trust in VLE website were explained. There are significant
moderating effects of category of school in all causal relationships except the autonomy-knowledge sharing
attitude relationship.
Practical implications – There are several useful theoretical and practical implications for scholars and
practitioners including Ministry of Education, FrogAsia, etc.
Social implications – The findings may enhance education quality for societal change.
Originality/value – Unlike most studies which focused on TAM, UTAUT, etc., this study investigated the
effects of SDT on attitude in sharing knowledge, trust in website and instructional effectiveness. Instead of
studying gender differences, this study examined the school category differences.
Keywords Self-determination theory, Cloud computing, Instructional effectiveness,
Virtual learning environment, Internet learning, School category
Paper type Research paper
1. Introduction
The proliferation of cloud computing and Web 2.0 technologies has brought about the birth
of a new genre of virtual learning environment (VLE) known as cloud-based VLE (c-VLE).
Unlike the conventional grid-based VLE ( g-VLE), c-VLE is able to provide on-demand,
expedient and pervasive networks access to a common group of configurable computation
facilities that include unlimited on-the-cloud storage, applications, networks servers, and
services that can be accessed anytime anywhere due to its location and device independence
regardless of where the information is based or where the computing processes take place.
Considering the huge potential and capability of the c-VLE, the Malaysian Government in a
smart partnership with YTL Communications and FrogAsia has embarked on the
1BestariNet (i.e. 1SmartNet) project to provide 4G high-speed wireless internet link together
with the cloud-based Frog VLE (Figure 1) educational platform to 10,000 schools nationwide
Internet Research covering a region of 329,847 square-kilometers to linked half a million teachers, five million
Vol. 27 No. 4, 2017
pp. 942-973
students and 4.5 million parents together (Hew and Kadir, 2016a). Malaysia is the first
© Emerald Publishing Limited
1066-2243
country in the globe to unite whole educational community under a single converged
DOI 10.1108/IntR-08-2016-0256 network (Hew and Kadir, 2016a).
Drivers for
cloud-based
VLE
943
Figure 1.
Frog VLE interface
Nowadays, there are many VLE tools available and these include Frog VLE, Blackboard,
Moodle, MOOCs, LMS, Second Life, WebCT (acquired by Blackboard in 2006), Claroline,
Elluminate, Sloodle, Edusim, Atutor, Ilias, etc. However, large number of teachers still
uses VLEs as simple repository to provide learners with easy access to instructional
resources like presentation slides, etc. (Rienties et al., 2016). Although there is obvious
increase in the adoption of VLEs, there is no extensive proof that supports the
transformation in pedagogic practices since teachers only use the minimal affordances of
VLEs (Rienties and Townsend, 2012).
Generally, we may categorize VLEs into the traditional g-VLE and the state-of-the-art
c-VLE. Moodle, Blackboard, and electronic learning management system (e-LMS) are
examples of g-VLE whereas Frog VLE, Haiku LMS, Luminosity LMS, Integrated LMS,
OpenClass LMS, and ScholarLMS are examples of c-VLE. Nevertheless, c-VLE is
significantly dissimilar from the traditional g-VLE in several ways (El-Seoud et al., 2013;
Hew and Kadir, 2016a) such as c-VLE comes with unlimited storage space, infinite
scalability, and on-the-cloud network access that is independent of location and device.
It uses on-demand technology and provides versatile and dynamic resource allocation for
warranted and reliable services and supports socially oriented and cooperative learning
theories via collaborative instructional approaches. In addition, it does not have hardware
failures and no hardware upgrades are required as everything is managed virtually.
Moreover, it is a decentralized, mobile and just-in-time learning platform with a flexible
learning mechanism that enables delivery of learning content anytime and anywhere on the
cloud. It also allows for fast and easy replacements of servers with creation of clones using
virtualization and only needs to supervise one place for data access and monitoring. Finally,
its collaborative and open nature allows for more personalized learning experience.
Furthermore, c-VLE is based on cloud computing (Figure 2) and according to Mell and
Grance (2011), it may be referred to as “a model for enabling convenient, on-demand
network access to a shared pool of configurable computing resources (e.g. networks, servers,
storage, applications, and services) that can be rapidly provisioned and released with
minimal management effort or service provider interaction” (Puthal et al., 2015, p. 2).
Sasikala (2013) describes cloud computing as possessing five crucial characteristics
INTR
27,4 Broad
Network Access
Rapid Elasticity Measured Service
On-Demand
Self-Service
Essential
Characteristics
Resource Pooling
944
Software as a Platform as a Infrastructure as a Service
Service (SaaS) Service (PaaS) Service (IaaS) Models
Deployment
Public Private Hybrid Community Models
Figure 2.
The cloud
computing model
Source: www.cloudcontrols.org/cloud-standard-information/cloud-definitions/
(i.e. wide-ranging network access, measured services, on-demand self-services, quick

elasticity and resource sharing), three models of service (i.e. IaaS, SaaS, and PaaS), and four
models of deployment (i.e. private, public, hybrid, and community cloud).
Cloud computing is a paradigm of computation where IT facilities are available in terms
of services via internet connection in an adaptive and flexible way (Sosinsky, 2010).
It provides more services over the grid computing such as web hosting, DB support,
multiple OS, etc. Ouf and Nasr (2011, p. 41) assert that cloud computing has several potential
values for education. These include no need for backup because repository of information
can be created and grow as far as we want. Besides that, crash recovery is virtually
unneeded as data will not be lost since everything is saved in-the-cloud. It also enables users
to perform their tasks from numerous locations (e.g. school, home, library, etc.), search and
edit files on-the-cloud using various devices. Its flexibility allows users to scale dynamically
when demands fluctuate. Furthermore, it enhances improbability since it is virtually
impossible to locate the machine that stores the data (e.g. exam papers, scores, etc.). It also
allows the swift replacement of compromised cloud server with minor cost using a virtual
machine. In addition, its centralized data storage means no problem of losing cloud client as
the primary component of the data and application is saved in-the-cloud. Finally, monitoring
of data access is easier since only one place needs to be supervised.
The cloud-based Frog VLE’s architecture (Figure 3) clearly depicts the interplays
between the cloud-based solutions, VLE cloud platform, internet access, security, content
filtering, data hosting, support platform, and patch management.
The significant differences between c-VLE and g-VLE have led us to select
self-determination theory (SDT), knowledge sharing attitude and website trust as our
theoretical focus. The on-demand feature of c-VLE has rendered teachers’ self-determination
to become an imperative factor in determining whether to use the Frog VLE or not. It would
be exciting to study if teachers’ self-determination really influences their intention to use
and if so how significant is the effect. Furthermore, since c-VLE allows for socially oriented
and cooperative learning that requires knowledge sharing among the teachers,
we anticipate that teachers’ attitude toward knowledge sharing will play an imperative
Drivers for
1BestariNet enabler Access and Connectivity
cloud-based
Schools
(1BRIS)
VLE
Internet Access
PMO/Transformation Program
945
Frog VLE Platform
Cloud-Based Solution/
1BestariNet/VLE Cloud
Security and
Back-end Support
Patch Mgmt. Content Filtering

Antivirus
Platform
Data Center and Hosting Platform
Support Platform Figure 3.

Frog cloud-based
architecture
Source: www.slideshare.net/Fadzliaton/1bestarinet-15720785
role in determining their behavioral intention. Finally, since everything is stored and
managed virtually on-the-cloud we foresee that teachers’ trust on website would be an
essential element that may significantly affect their intention to use the c-VLE.
There are several motivations for this study. First, the various initiatives such as Smart
School, Computer Literacy, CIE, CAI, etc. implemented to integrated ICT into classrooms
still result in unfavorable encouragement as almost 80 percent of teachers spent less than an
hour weekly using the ICT (Hew and Kadir, 2016b). Hence, to promote more teachers to use
the VLE, a research on drivers that may lead to improved acceptance rate is indeed
warranted. Second, even though previous research works have investigated the antecedents
of VLE behavioral intention using various IS theories including TAM (e.g. Motaghian et al.,
2013; Shin et al., 2013; Sanchez and Hueros, 2010), TAM2 (e.g. Van Raaij and Schepers, 2008),
UTAUT (e.g. Sumak et al., 2010), e-learning system success (ELSS) (e.g. Eom, 2012),
three-tier use model (3-TUM) (e.g. Liaw, 2008), channel expansion theory (i.e. CET), and/or
SDT (e.g. Hew and Kadir, 2016a, b, c), very limited research was done to inspect the effects of
SDT on attitude in knowledge sharing, website trust, and instructional effectiveness of VLE.
Hence, the integration of SDT with attitude toward knowledge sharing and trust in website
will definitely offer significant contribution in advancing current theoretical development of
extant VLE literature through corroboration of newly developed relationships that were not
studied previously. Finally, unlike previous studies which did not engage moderating
variable, this study examines the moderating effects of school category by conducting a
multi-group comparative study.
Due to the differences in school culture and environment between primary and
secondary schools, we argue that it is important to examine whether there are any
substantial variations so that scholars and policy makers can come up with different
strategies, policy or plans, to cater the needs of both categories of school. Furthermore, this
can also provide a new research paradigm in comparison to the gender differences studies in
m-learning (Wang et al., 2009) and e-learning (Dečman, 2015). This study is among the first
which compares primary and secondary schools and thus can provide novel insight and
understanding while advancing the present VLE literature.
INTR Our current study has several unique advantages and contributions to this particular
27,4 research topic compared to prior studies that adopt different theoretical perspectives, such
as TAM, TAM2, CET, and UTAUT. First of all and most importantly, this study is perhaps
the first of its kind in examining the moderating effect of category of school in the c-VLE
literature. This is uniquely different from the more popular and widely studied moderating
effect of gender or gender differences in various research works including Cheung and Lee
946 (2011), Cheung et al. (2002), Shen et al. (2010) and Zhang et al. (2009, 2014). Second, this
study has successfully integrated the constructs of attitude toward knowledge sharing
(i.e. drawn from the knowledge management literature) as well as trust in website
(i.e. drawn from the trust literature) with the constructs of SDT. Third, unlike previous
studies, the study has also examined the mediating effects of the mediators (i.e. attitude
toward knowledge sharing and trust in website). Finally, this study engaged two waves of
random sampling surveys across the nation to provide a better degree of validity as well as
generalization of the outcomes compared to the previous studies which mostly used
convenience sampling.
The paper commenced with the introduction of the study followed by description of
cloud computing in VLE. Then, the literature review and underpinning theories are
elucidated. Next, we present the hypothesis development and research methodology.
We give details of instrument development and validation process before the data collection
procedure. Subsequently, we explain the data analysis and discuss the findings followed by
the implications (i.e. theoretical and practical) of the study. This paper finishes with
limitations, upcoming research direction, and conclusions.
2. Literature review
The main focus of this section is to discuss theories that have been adopted in VLE studies
so that it may assist us to appreciate the adoption of the SDT theory from a theoretical
development viewpoint. Based on comprehensive literature review, we found that there is
scarcity in studies on c-VLE. Generally, studies on VLE can be categorized into two broad
contexts of g-VLE and c-VLE. In the g-VLE context, Van Raaij and Schepers (2008) have
studied Casslearn using convenience sampling of 40 Chinese executives. They used
an extended TAM2 model with social norm, personal innovativeness in IT, and computer
anxiety. The finding showed that personal innovativeness significantly influences
computer anxiety and ease of use. Also, ease of use influences computer anxiety while
usefulness is impacted by social norm and ease of use.
Liaw (2008) conducted a study on Blackboard behavioral intention and satisfaction in
Taiwan using the 3-TUM. Using a convenience sample of 424 undergraduates, they found
that perceived self-efficacy, service quality, and multimedia instruction affect Blackboard
satisfaction. Moreover, usefulness and perceived satisfaction affect behavioral intention.
Service quality, interactive learning activities, and multimedia instruction affect
effectiveness in learning. In Slovenia, Sumak et al. (2010) examined the Moodle
acceptance based on UTAUT with 235 undergraduates as a convenient sample and
found that social influence and perceived expectancy significantly affect attitude. Social
influence and attitude influence behavioral intention while facilitating conditions and
behavioral intention influence use behavior. A study on Moodle acceptance was also carried
out in Spain by Sanchez and Hueros (2010). Using a convenient sample of 226 university
students with extended TAM, the finding revealed that technical support significantly
impacts usefulness and ease of use while usage behavior is impacted by attitude and
ease of use.
In USA, Eom (2012) investigated the e-LMS acceptance. Applying the ELSS model with a
convenient sample of 674 undergraduates, the results indicated that self-efficacy affects use
behavior. Service quality and information quality influence satisfaction while satisfaction Drivers for
affects system effectiveness. In addition, web-based learning acceptance in Iran has been cloud-based
investigated by Motaghian et al. (2013) using an integrated TAM-ISSM model with cluster VLE
sampling of 115 lecturers indicating that social norm and information quality influence
usefulness. Moreover, ease of use is affected by the quality of information, self-efficacy and
the quality of service while behavioral intention is impacted by system quality, ease of use
and usefulness. Furthermore, perceived interactivity significantly influences satisfaction 947
and attitude.
However, Shin et al. (2013) studied the acceptance of three-dimensional VLE prototype
in South Korea with convenient sampling of 264 university students with an integrated
TAM-CET model. The finding indicated that experience and satisfaction significantly affect
behavioral intention. There were also direct influences of usefulness and ease of use on
confirmation and impact of confirmation on satisfaction. Finally immersion, satisfaction,
and presence influence confirmation.
The key message or purpose of above paragraphs is to show that existing g-VLE studies
have been adopting extrinsic motivation (EM) theories and there is indeed a scarcity in
adopting intrinsic motivation (IM) theory such as SDT. Hence, the adoption of SDT
in understanding teachers’ intention to adopt c-VLE would be able to contribute
significantly in advancing the existing VLE literature and therefore would be very much
appreciated by scholars and practitioners.
On the other hand, from the c-VLE context, Hew and Kadir (2016b) have studied
intention to use c-VLE in Malaysia using SDT and CET. Based on a random sample of 1,075
school teachers, the study showed that perceived relatedness influences attitude toward
knowledge sharing while perceived autonomy affects behavioral intention while perceived
competence influences trust in website and behavioral intention. Besides that, content
design directly influences perceived media richness which affects interactivity. Behavioral
intention is also indicated to be affected by content design, perceived media richness, trust
in website, educational level, attitude toward knowledge sharing, perceived autonomy and
competence. Hew and Kadir (2016c) also conducted a study on c-VLE by extending the CET
with VLE task-specific variables (i.e. content design, trust, and interactivity), attitude
toward knowledge sharing and school support with experience and education as the control
variables. Based on a random sample of 624 school teachers, their findings revealed
that media richness is influenced by content design and interactivity while behavioral
intention is affected by attitude toward knowledge sharing, media richness, interactivity,
trust and school support. Instructional effectiveness is also directly influenced by
behavioral intention.
Nevertheless, the studies by Hew and Kadir (2016b, c) did not explore the impacts of SDT
on trust in VLE website, behavioral intention as well as attitude in knowledge sharing.
Besides that, no comparative study was done to further examine whether there are any
moderating effect of school category (i.e. primary and secondary schools). We argued that
due to differences in school environment and working cultures, the findings may be
different for these two school categories. Hence, the research question would be:
RQ1. Are there significant differences in the effects of SDT on knowledge sharing
attitude, trust in website and behavioral intention between primary and secondary
schools?
3. Research model and hypotheses

The research model (Figure 4) examines how SDT, knowledge sharing attitude as well as
trust in website influence behavioral intention and ultimately VLE instructional
effectiveness with school category as the moderating variable.
INTR
Attitude toward
27,4 H1 knowledge sharing
Perceived
Autonomy H2
H10
H3
H4
948 Perceived
H5
Cloud-based VLE
H12
VLE instructional
Competence behavioral intention effectiveness
H6
H7
Perceived H8
H11
Relatedness
H9
Trust-in-Website
H13
Figure 4.
Moderating variable:
Research model
Category of school
3.1 SDT
SDT can be regarded as a fast emergent motivational theory (Noour and Hubbard, 2015).
Grolnick (2015, p. 65) defines SDT as “a theory of human motivation that addresses
individual’s initiation of behavior.” Deci and Ryan (1985) opined that SDT (Figure 5) may be
defined as a motivational meta-theory which presumes individual behavior as a dynamic
organism that is influenced by three general basic psychological human innate needs (BPHIN).
The first BPHIN is perceived relatedness which is referred as the mode of feeling and
experiencing shared respect amongst peers for the objective of significant relations with
others (Nukta et al., 2011). The second BPHIN is the need for autonomy which refers to
persons who make their own decisions, experience freedom of choice, and options. The last
BPHIN is the need for competence which is referred as the feeling which brings about and
produces desired outcomes. Here, we define perceived relatedness as the teacher’s feeling of
identification or connectedness toward other teachers, perceived autonomy as the extent of
taking control over a teacher’s personal behaviors and perceived competence as teacher’s
belief in accomplishing a specific behavior or task effectively (Hew and Kadir, 2016b).
Nonself-Determined Self-Determined
Motivation A motivation Extrinsic Motivation Intrinsic Motivation
Regulatory External Introjected Identified Integrated

Non-Regulation Intrinsic Regulation
Styles Regulation Regulation Regulation Regulation
What is the
Somewhat Somewhat
source of the Impersonal External Internal Internal
External Internal
motivation?
Nonintentional, Compliance, Self-control, Ego- Personal Congruence, Interest,
What Nonvaluing, External Involvement, Importance, Awareness, Enjoyment,
Figure 5. regulates the Incompetence, Rewards and Internal Rewards Conscious Synthesis Inherent
The self-determination motivation? Lack of Control Punishments and Punishments Valuing With Self Satisfaction
continuum
Source: Based on Ryan and Deci (2000)
Ryan and Deci (2000) proposed three kinds of motivations, namely, IM, EM, and Drivers for
Amotivation (AM). IM is referred as people experiencing the enjoyment, pleasure, cloud-based
and gratification innate in the tasks (Deci et al., 1989) whereas EM is divided into four VLE
subcategories, namely, integrated, identified, external as well as introjected regulations with
the strongest self-determination being integrated regulation (Noour and Hubbard, 2015).
Integrated regulation appears when individual performs an activity as it has been
completely integrated into the self (Noour and Hubbard, 2015). Identified regulation emerges 949
when someone is performing an activity as it is in agreement with his/her identity while
introjected regulation occurs when one is performing an activity to obtain high self-esteem
or to evade negative feelings (Noour and Hubbard, 2015). External regulation, on the other
hand, depends on external contingencies such as attaining a reward or evading negative
feedback (Noour and Hubbard, 2015). In contrary, AM is referred as individual behavior
acting through the gestures without intention to do what he/she does such as students who
are experiencing deficiency of intent to involve themselves in the course of learning because
of inadequate instructional resources (Noour and Hubbard, 2015, p. 514).
From the context of knowledge sharing behavior (KSB) in HRM, based on the conceptual
paper by Gagné (2009), it is hypothesized that individual with identified motives tends to share
knowledge to assist others to achieve valued goals while those with introjected motives tend to
share knowledge to boost their self-esteem as well as show off their knowledge. Gagné (2009)
opined that when individuals feel autonomous, competent, and connected to others with whom
they have chances to share their knowledge, the individuals will be more appreciate and love
sharing the knowledge. Besides that, Wang and Hou (2015) have examined the impacts of hard
and soft rewards on employees’ KSBs. Hard rewards are referred as “individual’s expectations of
obtaining explicit outcomes (e.g. promotion, financial rewards, reciprocity, etc.)” (Wang and Hou,
2015, p. 6). According to SDT, hard rewards are forms of external regulations. On the other hand,
soft rewards are rewards that “make individuals feel implicitly controlled or pressured to perform
the behavior due to the implicit consequences related to the behavior” (Wang and Hou, p. 6).
Soft rewards are forms of introjected regulations. Based on a survey on 34 Taiwanese financial
services companies, 259 valid responses were gathered and analyzed. The results showed that
hard and soft rewards have direct effects on KSBs.
Furthermore, Cockrell and Stone (2010) have examined the industry culture’s influences
on pseudo-knowledge sharing. Pseudo-knowledge is not considered as real knowledge but a
mere deception whereby unusable knowledge is distorted for private financial advantage
(Cockrell and Stone, 2010). Based on survey on certified management accountants (CMAs)
from the industry of finance, insurance, and real estate (i.e. FIRE) and higher education, the
findings revealed that higher pseudo-knowledge sharing happens amongst FIRE CMAs.
It was also found that the quality of knowledge sharing motivation and financial incentives
completely mediate the influence of industry on pseudo-knowledge sharing. Here, quality of
the knowledge sharing motivation is defined as “the extent of autonomous minus controlled
motivation, which was measured using the relative autonomy index” (Cockrell and
Stone, 2010, p. 844). However, Wang (2016) investigated the effect of environmental
and personal aspects on employees’ KSBs using 294 professionals in the industry and the
results showed that knowledge sharing self-efficacy, trust, relationship orientation as well
as relative autonomous motivation relating KSBs are core determinants of KSBs.
Based on the above studies on KSBs that adopted SDT, we believe that our approach is
better in several ways. First, unlike previous studies which were conducted from
the contexts of HRM (Gagné, 2009), financial services (Wang and Hou, 2015), CMAs
(Cockrell and Stone, 2010), and personal and environmental (Wang, 2016), we examined the
effects of SDT from a totally different context of VLE. Second, unlike previous studies
which are either conceptual (Gagné, 2009) or examined in the context of hard and soft
rewards (Wang and Hou, 2015), industry culture (Cockrell and Stone, 2010), or personal and
INTR environmental factors (Wang, 2016), we examined the direct effects of the three SDT
27,4 constructs of perceived relatedness, competence, and autonomy on attitude toward
knowledge sharing among teachers. Third, we have engaged a better approach by
performing rigorous instrument development and validation based on expert panel, Q-sort
procedures by practitioners and English-Malay back-translation as well as gathering the
data in two waves of national surveys using random sampling. Fourth, unlike prior studies,
950 we have also examined the fulfillment of multivariate assumptions (i.e. linearity, normality,
homoscedasticity, and multicollinearity). Finally, we not only examined the effects of SDT
on attitude toward knowledge sharing but also its effects on trust in website and more
importantly we also examined the moderating effects of school category.
SDT has been applied in educational settings including universities, colleges as well as
schools to gauge the effects of motivation on instructors and learners (Noour and Hubbard, 2015).
SDT drives the attentions of students in the learning surrounding while improving competencies
and outcome performance (Ryan and Weinstein, 2009). Advancements in IT have further
enhanced instructions in benefitting virtual learning (VL) activities for instructors and learners
which enhance motivation levels of instructors and learners (Noour and Hubbard, 2015).
IM literature has indicated that it is frequently applied to explore users’ engagement in VL,
and at times IM is more desirable than EM in the context of VL (Xie et al., 2006). In fact, IM is a
crucial component for instructors (Ryan and Stiller, 1991). Hence, SDT is used in this study to
examine its effects on trust in VLE website, attitude in sharing knowledge as well as intention
to use VLE among primary and secondary school teachers. Furthermore, perceived relatedness,
autonomy, and competence have been verified to have significant and strong association
with teachers’ self-determined motivation (Carson and Chase, 2009). Therefore, using the
similar approach adopted by Sørebø et al. (2009) in examining teachers’ motivation in
the continuance adoption of e-learning, it is appropriate to use perceived autonomy,
competence, and relatedness to represent the degree of teacher’s autonomous motivation
in c-VLE context.
3.2 Hypotheses
A culture which promotes autonomy may encourage knowledge sharing among employees
(Park et al., 2004). Furthermore, Lin (2007a) asserts that participative decision making that
affects autonomy is significantly associated to sharing of knowledge. Lin (2007b) discovered
that knowledge sharing is affected by affective organizational commitment which develops
partially through autonomous work motivation (Gagné et al., 2009). Hence, we anticipate
that when teachers are capable of satisfying their desires for autonomy, their knowledge
sharing attitude will be stronger. Hence, we theorize the hypothesis as follows:
H1. Perceived autonomy has positive impact on knowledge sharing attitude.
The impact of perceived autonomy toward behavioral intention has been verified in the context
of self-service technologies (Leung and Matanda, 2013), participation in self-governance
(Zhang et al., 2012), mobile-based assessment (Nikou and Economides, 2014), online discussion
board (Xie et al., 2006), and Q-board acceptance (Lee et al., 2015). Here, behavioral intention is
defined as teachers’ intention to adopt cloud-based Frog VLE. We theorize that when teachers
have a high degree of autonomy to decide on their ways of using the VLE, their behavioral
intention will also be high and thus we postulate the following hypothesis:
H2. Perceived autonomy positively influences behavioral intention to adopt c-VLE.
Deci et al. (1989) found that if managers are more autonomy supportive then their
subordinates will possess higher degree of trust in the organization. Role autonomy affects
trust in purchasing in managers by creation of chances to satisfy the expectations of
supplier representatives (Perrone et al., 2003). Role autonomy is referred as the extent of
freedom role incumbents have in balancing the various expectations from their roles set by Drivers for
developing suitable behaviors and actions (Perrone et al., 2003). From the perspective of cloud-based
social media, when a person perceives that social media can maintain his or her rational VLE
policies and operate consistently, the beliefs in integrity trust toward social media will
increase (Wang and Li, 2014). Integrity trust beliefs for social media is referred as the extent
to which people perceives that social media can assist numerous activities and safeguard his
or her private information in the time to come (Wang and Li, 2014). Therefore, it is 951
anticipated that the higher the extent of perceived autonomy among teachers, the higher
their trust in the VLE website. Therefore, the hypothesis is theorized as follows:
H3. Perceived autonomy has positive impact on trust in website.
Influence of perceived competence on trust has been corroborated in numerous perspectives
like online shopping (Sadi and Al-Khalifah, 2012), Facebook (Wu et al., 2012), and web
vendor (Kim and Kim, 2005). Several research works have shown that trust remains a
critical success factor for knowledge sharing as it improves interactions among colleagues
(Chow and Chan, 2008). Bock and Kim (2002) opined that expectation to make a substantial
input to organizational performance (i.e. perceived competence) significantly influences
knowledge sharing attitude. We believe that when the extent of perceived competence
among teachers increases, their attitude to share knowledge will be increased accordingly
and the hypothesis is put forward as follows:
H4. Perceived competence has positive effect on knowledge sharing attitude.
When people believe that they are able to perform an activity, they will be stimulated to
engage themselves in such activity (Montero, 2004). They will also have the tendency to adopt
and internalize relevant knowledge to make the activity a success (Deci and Ryan, 2000).
Impact of perceived competence toward behavioral intention has been validated in the context
of virtual communities (Tsai and Pai, 2014) and self-governance (Zhang et al., 2012).
We believe that when teachers possess high degree of competence in using the VLE, their
behavioral intention will also be stronger and hence we put forward the hypothesis as follows:
H5. Perceived competence positively influences behavioral intention to adopt c-VLE.
Study has found that higher level of competence is associated positively to higher level of
consumer trust (McInnes et al., 2007). Perceived competence supports the process of forming
and sustaining trust among members and also among members and the operators of the
virtual community (Leimeister et al., 2005). We foresee that when teachers’ perceived
competence is high, the level of trust in website will also be high. Therefore, we establish the
hypothesis as follows:
H6. Perceived competence positively influences trust in website.
Cho et al. (2010) opined that when people have a strong social bonding with or attachment to other
members of the community, they tend to be stimulated to share their knowledge. Expectation to
enhance job relationships (i.e. perceived relatedness) is significantly associated to attitude in
knowledge sharing (Bock and Kim, 2002). Stewart (2003) opined that the greater the perceived
relatedness between a trusted target and an unidentified target, the greater the initial trusting
beliefs about the unidentified target (Stewart, 2003, p. 117). Hence, when the degree of perceived
relatedness among teachers increases, we anticipate that there will be a corresponding increase in
their attitude to share knowledge. Thus, the hypothesis is therefore suggested as follows:
H7. Perceived relatedness has positive effect on knowledge sharing attitude.
Roca and Gagné (2008) assert that in technology-mediated community, an individual
is prepared to participate in activities of the community if he or she is associated to others.
INTR Sørebø et al. (2009) stressed that the need for affiliation among teachers who handle the students’
27,4 usage of e-learning indicates the craving to gain supported by and connected to others in the
social environments. Deci and Ryan (1985) further stressed that fulfilling the craving for
relatedness and support within the social context may affect the degree of motivation. Roca and
Gagné (2008) as well as Sørebø et al. (2009) have corroborated the indirect effects of perceived
relatedness on behavioral intention. Based on SDT, individuals have the tendency to support the
952 objectives of their group more if they are associated to others. When actions are not naturally
appealing or hedonic, the main reason they are performed is due to the appreciation by
significant others that are associated (Deci and Ryan, 2000). Thus, we believe that when the
extent of perceived relatedness increases, there will be a corresponding increase in behavioral
intention. Hence, the hypothesis is posited as follows:
H8. Perceived relatedness has positive influence on behavioral intention to adopt c-VLE.
Benevolence and integrity trust are dependent on the level of perceived relatedness
(Kim, 2014). From the context of psychological need for team athlete, when the need for
relatedness is not satisfied, there will be a desire for this need as it is perceived to lead to
increase in trust (Sports Coach UK, 2016). If the team athletes believe that they recognize
everybody in the team and are confident with them, they will enjoy taking part in the sport
more and eventually perform better. Based on trust transference theory (Stewart, 2003),
which states that trust can be transferred from one context to another context, we foresee
that when the extent of perceived relatedness among teachers increases, the degree of trust
in website will also increase. Hence, we recommend the hypothesis as follows:
H9. Perceived relatedness has positive effect on trust in website.
Theory of reasoned action emphasizes that the more positive the attitude of a person on a
particular behavior, the higher the intent to engage that behavior (Bock et al., 2005).
Similarly, the more positive the person’s attitude in sharing of knowledge, the higher the
knowledge sharing intention will be (Chow and Chan, 2008). Chen and Chen (2009)
assert that positive attitude can increase positive intention of knowledge sharing that may
lead to actual behaviors. Knowledge sharing attitude has been verified to have indirect
influences on behavioral intention to use website (Lin and Lu, 2000), course blogs
(Cheng and Chen, 2011), e-knowledge repository (Hung et al., 2011), and virtual community
of practice (Gang and Ravichandran, 2011). Thus, we expect that if the teachers have highly
positive knowledge sharing attitude, their intentions to use would be higher. Hence, the
hypothesis is formulated as follows:
H10. Knowledge sharing attitude has positive influence on behavioral intention to
adopt c-VLE.
Trust is an imperative predictor of behavioral intention in IS adoption (Lee et al., 2015).
Suh and Han (2003) discovered that trust significantly influences behavioral intention to
adopt internet banking. Likewise, trust is linked to intention to use a vendor (Doney and
Cannon (1997). Associations between trust and behavioral intention have been validated in
e-commerce (e.g. Kim et al., 2012) as well as tourism (e.g. Ponte et al., 2015). We can foresee
that if teachers’ trust in the VLE website increases, their behavioral intention will also rise
accordingly. Therefore, we predict the hypothesis as follows:
H11. Trust in website positively influences behavioral intention to adopt c-VLE.
According to constructivism theory of learning, learning activities where students play
active roles will lead to more engagements and higher learning effectiveness than the
passive students (Liaw, 2008). Students can learn more effectively if they can learn by
themselves and control the learning pace. Hence, interactive and self-directed learning will
be able to improve learning outcomes (Liaw, 2008). Northrup (2001) asserted that student Drivers for
engagement is greater with multimedia instruction and interactive communication where cloud-based
higher interactivity will bring about higher student engagements and better learning VLE
outcomes. There is a positive correlation among behavioral intention and effectiveness of
online learning (Liaw, 2008). In view of the multimedia interactive attributes of the VLE,
we anticipate that a higher level of behavioral intention will lead to higher instructional
effectiveness. Thus, we develop the hypothesis as follows: 953
H12. Behavioral intention to adopt c-VLE has positive effect on instructional effectiveness.
Many IS-related studies (Chan et al., 2015; Shen et al., 2010; Wang et al., 2009) have engaged
gender differences to examine gender moderation effects. However, very limited attention
has been given to investigate the moderation of primary and secondary school category.
In Malaysia, the government provides two types of national school, namely, the primary
school for children aged between 7 and 12 and secondary school for children aged between
13 and 17. There are significant differences in learning environment and working culture
between these schools. In terms of school curriculum and syllabus, the primary school
follows the primary school standard curriculum (i.e. KSSR) while the secondary school
follows the secondary school standard curriculum (i.e. KSSM). There are also different
teacher training programs to cater to different school settings. The organization structures
for the primary and secondary schools also differ from each other. Most of the secondary
schools are located in more developed urban or sub-urban areas while the primary schools
are scattered in all areas (i.e. rural, sub-urban, and urban). Sulaiman et al. (2011) found that
teaching styles between secondary and primary school teachers are significantly different
whereby primary school teachers tend to focus more on naturalistic approach of the
surrounding outside the classroom as well as musical teaching styles by integrating their
musical knowledge into subject-matter teaching whereas secondary school teachers stress
primarily on interpersonal approach that entails group activity, discussion, and students
interaction. Even with the existence of these differences, so far no empirical evidence
has been gathered to validate whether there are indeed substantial variations in terms of
teachers’ acceptance toward the c-VLE. Without the empirical supports, policy makers
especially the government and education ministry are using a “one size for all” approach for
primary and secondary schools. If there are indeed significant differences then different
approaches may be applied appropriately. Hence, it is very important and significant to
study whether there are indeed substantial differences between the primary and secondary
school teachers in terms of c-VLE. Due to the substantial differences, we argue that there
will be moderating effects of category of school on the relationships in the research model.
The moderating effects mean that we expect that there will be differences between primary
and secondary school category in all the structural paths. Hence, we proposed the
subsequent hypothesis:
H13. There are differences between secondary and primary school teachers in all the
relationships in the research model.
4. Research methodology
The current study utilized a cross-sectional research design with a quantitative approach.
Next subsections elaborate the research methodology details.
4.1 Instrument development and validation

Survey instrument has been rigorously developed and validated through pre-test and pilot
test. Initially, the preliminary instrument has been reviewed by three prominent professors
in IS and three practitioners to assess face validity and content validity. A content validity
INTR index (CVI) has been deployed to measure the degree of relevancy of the indicators based on
27,4 the construct definition. The item-level CVI (I-CVI) and scale-level CVI average (S-CVI/Ave)
are computed. All items and scales were found to have I-CVI and S-CVI/Ave larger than
0.83 and 0.90 indicating sufficient content validity (Lynn, 1986). To ensure translation
equivalence, three rounds of English-Malay back-translation were performed (Brislin, 1970).
To evaluate construct validity, items were sorted based on the construct definition by using
954 two rounds of Q-sort technique (Moore and Benbasat, 1991), and the inter-rater reliability
(i.e. Cohen’s κ) improved 0.09 to 0.80 in second round, exceeding the standard
recommendation of 0.65. During the pilot test, 75 of the 100 questionnaires were usable
and all Cronbach’s α surpassed the standard criterion of 0.70 (Hair et al., 2016). Based on
comments from the respondents, minor amendments were carried out.
4.2 Scale operationalization

All indicators of the major variables have been measured by adopting seven-point Likert
scales that spans from 1 (strongly disagree) up to 7 (strongly agree). However, age and
teaching experience were gauged using a ratio scale while gender, category of school, and
teaching specialization were measured using a nominal scale. Educational level was
measured using an interval scale. The construct definitions, indicators, and their sources are
presented in Table AI.
4.3 Population, sample and data gathering procedure

As of January 31, 2016, there are 7,769 primary and 2,404 secondary schools in Malaysia and
as of June 1, 2016, the number of primary and secondary school teachers is 239,850
and 181,978, respectively. The sampling frame for this study is based on the 351 champion
schools obtained from Education Planning and Research Division in Malaysian Ministry of
Education (MoE). Champion schools are pioneer schools that are trained by FrogAsia as
benchmarks for other schools to imitate. Questionnaires were mailed to 50 randomly chosen
champion schools in two waves of survey with a gestation period of four months to reduce
common method bias (CMB). During the first wave (T1), demographic and independent
variables were gathered while during the second wave (T2), a dependent variable
(i.e. instructional effectiveness) was gathered. A combination of national identity card
and mobile phone numbers were used as tracking number. Nevertheless, because of
mismatch of reference numbers and imperfect responses, only 608 complete samples
were used for final analysis.
5. Data analysis
The demographic profiles of the 608 samples are depicted in Table I.
5.1 Non-response bias and CMB

To assess CMB, both statistical and procedural approaches were used (Podsakoff et al., 2003).
Procedurally, all subjects have been acknowledged on the anonymity of identities and the
absence of correct or wrong answers and to respond honestly. Harman’s single factor was
analyzed statistically to detect CMB (Hew et al., 2016a; Wong et al., 2016). The result shows
that a single factor explains 39 percent of the total variance indicating no issue of CMB. We
assessed the non-response bias using independent t-test or χ2-test on all key constructs
amongst the late and early respondents (Hew et al., 2016b). The result implied no significant
differences in terms of attitude toward knowledge sharing (t ¼ 0.632, p ¼ 0.528), trust in
website (t ¼ −0.493, p ¼ 0.623), perceived autonomy (t ¼ −0.175, p ¼ 0.861), perceived
competence (t ¼ 0.214, p ¼ 0.831), and behavioral intention (t ¼ 0.696, p ¼ 0.487). Although
there are differences in terms of perceived relatedness (t ¼ 2.214, p ¼ 0.028) and perceived
Variables Description Frequency %
Drivers for
cloud-based
Category of school Primary school 222 36.5 VLE
Secondary school 386 63.5
Gender Male 120 19.7
Female 488 80.3
Age (years) 20-25 24 3.9
26-30 104 17.1 955
31-35 140 23.0
36-40 115 18.9
41-45 91 15.0
46-50 77 12.7
51-55 47 7.7
56-60 10 1.6
Educational level SPM (equivalent to O-level) 25 4.1
STPM (equivalent to A-level) 18 3.0
Certificate 1 0.2
Diploma 40 6.6
Advanced diploma 1 0.2
Bachelor degree 482 79.3
Master degree 40 6.6
PhD or doctoral degree 1 0.2
Teaching specialization Arts 414 68.1
Science 194 31.9
Teaching experience (years) 1-5 145 23.8
6-10 157 25.8
11-15 94 15.5
16-20 97 16.0
21-25 49 8.1
26-30 50 8.2 Table I.
31-35 13 2.1 Demographic profile
36-40 3 0.5 of the respondents
instructional effectiveness (t ¼ 2.965, p ¼ 0.003), however, further analysis using χ2-test

indicated no significant differences in perceived relatedness ( χ2 ¼ 31.705, p ¼ 0.333) and
perceived instructional effectiveness ( χ2 ¼ 39.954, p ¼ 0.158) between the early and late
participants. Conclusively, non-response bias was not detected in our study.
5.2 Testing the multivariate assumptions and sample size

We tested the multivariate assumptions of normality using the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test
and the finding shows non-normal distribution. Linearity was validated using the ANOVA
test for linearity while multicollinearity was verified based on VIF less than 10 and tolerance
greater than 0.10. Homoscedasticity was detected based on the scatter plot of dependent
variable and the regression standardized residuals. The sample size of 608 has superseded
the rule of thumb of ten times the amount of maximum indicators of a variable (6 × 10 ¼ 60)
or the maximum amount of arrows pointing to a dependent variable (5 × 10 ¼ 50). Due to the
violation of the normality assumption, the variance-based PLS analysis was chosen as it is
robust against non-normality and is able to maximize the variance explained. More
importantly, it is suitable for theory building and exploration.
5.3 Validating the measurement model

5.3.1 Convergent validity and construct reliability. Convergent validity has been verified
according to AVE greater than 0.50 (Table II). Construct reliability was corroborated based
INTR on Cronbach’s α and also composite reliability (CR) (Leong et al., 2012, 2015). Table II shows
27,4 that both are greater than 0.70 (Wu and Chen, 2015; Lin and Lu, 2015). This is further
affirmed as CR is larger than the AVE. Indicator reliability was verified as the square of
indicators’ loadings exceed 0.70 or much greater than the minimum acceptable level of 0.40
(Hulland, 1999). Convergent and construct reliability were also validated using the same
approaches for the primary and secondary subgroups.
956 5.3.2 Discriminant validity. Discriminant validity has been validated based on
Fornell-Larcker’s criterion (Cheung et al., 2008, 2015; Hew and Kadir, 2016d). Table III
indicates that square root of AVE exceeds the coefficients of correlation with
Fornell-Larcker’s ratio below 1.0. Discriminant validity is also verified since the AVE is
more than MSV and ASV and all indicators loads significantly strong to the respective
constructs and poorly to unrelated constructs (Table AII).
To confirm discriminant validity, as suggested by Henseler et al. (2015), we used
Hetero-Trait-Mono-Trait (HTMT) criterion. Table IV shows that the HTMT ratio is less
than 0.90 with no ones in the HTMT confidence interval (Table AIII). Discriminant validity
was validated for the primary and secondary subgroups using the same approaches.
5.4 Structural model and hypothesis testing

Hypothesis validation was conducted with SmartPLS 3.0 using 5,000 bootstrapping samples
with no sign changes. The percentage of variance explained for the full model, primary and
secondary schools are indicated in Table V.
AVE Composite reliability Cronbach’s α R2
AT 0.927 0.985 0.980 0.493

BI 0.935 0.977 0.965 0.583
PA 0.740 0.895 0.825
PC 0.744 0.897 0.830
PIE 0.847 0.971 0.964 0.285
PR 0.804 0.943 0.919
Table II.
Convergent validity, TW 0.938 0.978 0.967 0.388
construct reliability, Notes: AVE, average variance extracted; AT, attitude toward knowledge sharing; BI, behavioral intention;
and percentage of PA, perceived autonomy; PC, perceived competence; PIE, perceived instructional effectiveness; PR, perceived
variance explained relatedness; TW, trust in website
AT BI PA PC PIE PR TW CR AVE MSV ASV FLR
AT 0.963 0.985 0.927 0.587 0.703 0.633

BI 0.545 0.967 0.977 0.935 0.695 0.761 0.743
PA 0.449 0.632 0.860 0.895 0.740 0.656 0.734 0.886
PC 0.472 0.639 0.745 0.863 0.897 0.744 0.665 0.739 0.894
PIE 0.345 0.534 0.458 0.465 0.920 0.971 0.847 0.537 0.644 0.634
PR 0.672 0.482 0.431 0.443 0.288 0.897 0.943 0.804 0.537 0.675 0.668
TW 0.513 0.651 0.554 0.540 0.421 0.461 0.968 0.978 0.938 0.649 0.722 0.692
Notes: AT, attitude toward knowledge sharing; BI, behavioral intention; PA, perceived autonomy;
Table III. PC, perceived competence; PIE, perceived instructional effectiveness; PR, perceived relatedness; TW, trust
Fornell-Larcker’s in website; CR, composite reliability; AVE, average variance extracted; MSV, maximum shared variance;
criterion ASV, average shared variance; FLR, Fornell-Larcker’s ratio
To conduct path analysis, p-value of the respective causal relationship was examined Drivers for
(Leong et al., 2011). Tables VI-VIII show the paths analysis results for the full model, cloud-based
primary and secondary subgroups. For the full model, all paths except PA → AT and VLE
PR → BI are significant whereas for the primary school subgroup, all paths except
PA → AT, PC → AT, PC → BI, and PR → BI are significant. For the secondary school
subgroup, all paths except AT → BI, PA → AT, and PR → BI are significant.
957
5.5 Mediating effects
Mediating effects were assessed using Baron-Kenny’s (1986) approach. The significances of
mediating effects were verified using Sobel’s test. Table IX shows that attitude in
knowledge sharing and trust in VLE website partially mediates the impacts of perceived
relatedness, autonomy, and competence toward behavioral intention.
AT BI PA PC PIE PR TW
AT
BI 0.560
PA 0.499 0.705
PC 0.510 0.702 0.898
PIE 0.353 0.553 0.512 0.513
PR 0.706 0.511 0.492 0.493 0.304
TW 0.527 0.674 0.617 0.595 0.436 0.489 Table IV.
Notes: AT, attitude toward knowledge sharing; BI, behavioral intention; PA, perceived autonomy; PC, perceived Hetero-Trait-Mono-
competence; PIE, perceived instructional effectiveness; PR, perceived relatedness; TW, trust in website Trait (HTMT) ratio
Dependent variables Primary school (n ¼ 222) Secondary school (n ¼ 386) Full model (n ¼ 608)
AT 0.521 0.486 0.493

BI 0.610 0.574 0.583
PIE 0.241 0.315 0.285
TW 0.411 0.375 0.388 Table V.
Notes: AT, attitude toward knowledge sharing; BI, behavioral intention; PIE, perceived instructional R-square of
effectiveness; TW, trust in website dependent variables
Original sample (O) SE (STERR) T-statistics (|O/STERR|) P-values Remark
AT → BI 0.156 0.045 3.489 0.000*** Supported

BI → PIE 0.534 0.035 15.172 0.000*** Supported
PA → AT 0.092 0.055 1.668 0.095 Not supported
PA → BI 0.198 0.055 3.586 0.000*** Supported
PA → TW 0.285 0.054 5.234 0.000*** Supported
PC → AT 0.154 0.056 2.735 0.006** Supported
PC → BI 0.225 0.060 3.785 0.000*** Supported
PC → TW 0.221 0.058 3.815 0.000*** Supported
PR → AT 0.564 0.034 16.448 0.000*** Supported
PR → BI 0.045 0.039 1.171 0.242 Not supported
PR → TW 0.241 0.045 5.350 0.000*** Supported
TW → BI 0.319 0.052 6.123 0.000*** Supported
Table VI.
Notes: n ¼ 608. AT, attitude toward knowledge sharing; BI, behavioral intention; PA, perceived autonomy; Structural model
PC, perceived competence; PIE, perceived instructional effectiveness; PR, perceived relatedness; TW, trust in path analysis result:
website. **p o0.01; ***p o0.001 full model
INTR SE T-statistics
27,4 Original sample (O) (STERR) (|O/STERR|) P-values Remark
AT → BI 0.239 0.0726 3.286 0.001*** Supported

BI → PIE 0.491 0.0614 7.984 0.000*** Supported
PA → BI 0.240 0.0853 2.813 0.005** Supported
958 PA → TW 0.223 0.0988 2.253 0.024* Supported
PC → AT 0.188 0.1283 1.463 0.144 Not supported
PC → BI 0.168 0.0862 1.946 0.846 Not supported
PC → TW 0.253 0.1145 2.207 0.027* Supported
PR → AT 0.558 0.0521 10.703 0.000*** Supported
PR → TW 0.287 0.0687 4.169 0.000*** Supported
Table VII.
Structural model TW → BI 0.297 0.0636 4.668 0.000*** Supported
path analysis Notes: n ¼ 222. AT, attitude toward knowledge sharing; BI, behavioral intention; PA, perceived autonomy;
result: primary PC, perceived competence; PIE, perceived instructional effectiveness; PR, perceived relatedness; TW, trust in
school subgroup website. *po 0.05; **p o0.01; ***p o0.001
SE T-statistics
Original sample (O) (STERR) (|O/STERR|) P-values Remark
AT → BI 0.102 0.0547 1.872 0.061 Not supported

BI → PIE 0.561 0.0436 12.860 0.000*** Supported
PA → BI 0.174 0.0714 2.434 0.015* Supported
PA → TW 0.316 0.0656 4.817 0.000*** Supported
PC → AT 0.155 0.0562 2.755 0.006** Supported
PC → BI 0.260 0.0783 3.321 0.001*** Supported
PC → TW 0.199 0.0669 2.975 0.003** Supported
PR → AT 0.568 0.0448 12.692 0.000*** Supported
PR → TW 0.220 0.0572 3.851 0.000*** Supported
Table VIII.
Structural model TW → BI 0.331 0.0727 4.552 0.000*** Supported
path analysis Notes: n ¼ 386. AT, attitude toward knowledge sharing; BI, behavioral intention; PA, perceived autonomy;
result: secondary PC, perceived competence; PIE, perceived instructional effectiveness; PR, perceived relatedness; TW, trust in
school subgroup website. *po 0.05; **p o0.01; ***p o0.001
IV + M→DV Sobel’s test

IV M DV IV→DV IV→M SE IV→DV M→DV SE Mediation t-value p-value sig
PA AT BI 0.632* 0.449* 0.036 0.198* 0.156* 0.045 Partial 3.340 0.001 Yes
PC AT BI 0.639* 0.482* 0.035 0.225* 0.156* 0.045 Partial 3.362 0.001 Yes
PR AT BI 0.483* 0.672* 0.027 0.045* 0.156* 0.045 Partial 3.434 0.001 Yes
PA TW BI 0.632* 0.555* 0.035 0.198* 0.319* 0.052 Partial 5.721 0.000 Yes
PC TW BI 0.639* 0.539* 0.039 0.225* 0.319* 0.052 Partial 5.607 0.000 Yes
Table IX. PR TW BI 0.483* 0.462* 0.040 0.045* 0.319* 0.052 Partial 5.418 0.000 Yes
Mediating effect Notes: IV, independent variable; M, mediating variable; DV, dependent variable; SE, standard error; sig.,
and Sobel’s test significant mediating effect; PA, perceived autonomy; PC, perceived competence; PR, perceived relatedness;
of significance AT, attitude toward knowledge sharing; TW, trust in website; BI, behavioral Intention. *po 0.001
5.6 Indirect effects Drivers for
The indirect effects of independent predictors are illustrated in Table X. Perceived relatedness cloud-based
has the highest indirect effect on behavioral intention tailed by perceived autonomy and VLE
competence whereas perceived competence possesses the highest indirect effect on perceived
instructional effectiveness tailed by trust in website, perceived autonomy, relatedness,
and knowledge sharing attitude.
959
5.7 Effect size
Effect sizes of the dependent variables were measured using Cohen’s f 2. Cohen (2013)
asserts that an f 2 of 0.02, 0.15 and 0.35 are deemed small, medium, and large. Table XI
shows the effect sizes for the primary and secondary school subgroups.
5.8 Moderating effects of category of school

We measured the moderating effects of category of school (i.e. primary and secondary) by
first conducting the Levene’s equality of variance test to assess homogeneity of variances.
Table XII shows that there are homogeneity of variance for all the key constructs between
the two subgroups of primary and secondary schools.
Similar to Chan et al. (2015), we performed t-tests to compare the findings between the two
subgroups. The T-statistics were calculated using the subsequent equation (Chan et al., 2015):

T ¼ ðPC 1 PC 2 Þ= spooled sqrt 1=N 1 þ1=N 2 ;
where spooled is the sqrt {[(N1 − 1)/(N1 + N2 − 2)] × SE1 square + [(N2 − 1)/(N1 + N2 − 2)] × SE2
square}; PC the path coefficient; N the subgroup sample size; and SE the standard error.
Table XIII shows significant variations between the two subgroups in all paths except
the path PA → AT.
Original sample (O) Sample mean (M) SD(STDEV) T-statistics (|O/STDEV|) P-values
AT → PIE 0.083 0.083 0.024 3.416 0.001***

PA → BI 0.105 0.106 0.028 3.732 0.000***
PA → PIE 0.162 0.163 0.034 4.788 0.000***
PC → BI 0.095 0.093 0.026 3.598 0.000***
PC → PIE 0.171 0.170 0.037 4.577 0.000***
PR → BI 0.165 0.164 0.027 6.034 0.000***
PR → PIE 0.112 0.112 0.021 5.410 0.000***
TW → PIE 0.170 0.169 0.031 5.538 0.000***
Notes: AT, attitude toward knowledge sharing; BI, behavioral intention; PA, perceived autonomy;
PC, perceived competence; PIE, perceived instructional effectiveness; PR, perceived relatedness; TW, trust in Table X.
website. ***p o 0.001 Indirect effect
Construct Primary school (n ¼ 222) Secondary school (n ¼ 386)
AT 0.058 0.013
BI 0.068 0.021
PIE 0.058 0.043
TW 0.038 0.022
Notes: AT, attitude toward knowledge sharing; BI, behavioral intention; PIE, perceived instructional Table XI.
effectiveness; TW, trust in website Effect size (f 2)
INTR Levene’s statistic df1 df2 Sig. Homogeneity of variance
27,4
AT 0.510 1 606 0.475 Yes
TW 0.037 1 606 0.848 Yes
BI 0.528 1 606 0.468 Yes
PIE 0.004 1 606 0.951 Yes
PR 0.008 1 606 0.928 Yes
960 PA 2.530 1 606 0.112 Yes
Table XII. PC 3.831 1 606 0.051 Yes
Levene’s test Notes: AT, attitude toward knowledge sharing; BI, behavioral intention; PA, perceived autonomy;
for homogeneity PC, perceived competence; PIE, perceived instructional effectiveness; PR, perceived relatedness; TW, trust in
of variances website; df, degree of freedom
Full model Primary school Secondary school T-statistics (primary vs

(n ¼ 608) (n ¼ 222) (n ¼ 386) Secondary)
AT → BI 0.156* 0.239*** 0.102 26.132***

BI → PIE 0.534* 0.491*** 0.561*** −16.423***
PA → AT 0.092 0.085 0.082 0.495
PA → BI 0.198* 0.240** 0.174* 10.254***
PA → TW 0.285* 0.223* 0.316*** −13.977***
PC → AT 0.154* 0.188 0.155** 4.351***
PC → BI 0.225* 0.168 0.260*** −13.454***
PC → TW 0.221* 0.253* 0.199** 7.274***
PR → AT 0.564* 0.558*** 0.568*** −2.470*
PR → BI 0.045 0.001 0.075 −15.684***
PR → TW 0.241* 0.287*** 0.220*** 12.749***
Table XIII.
T-test on structural TW → BI 0.319* 0.297*** 0.331*** −5.806***
path differences Notes: n, sample size; AT, attitude toward knowledge sharing; BI, behavioral intention; PA, perceived
between primary and autonomy; PC, perceived competence; PIE, perceived instructional effectiveness; PR, perceived relatedness;
secondary schools TW, trust in website. *p o0.05; **p o0.01; ***p o0.001
6. Discussion and conclusions

From the perspective of the full model, we found that all hypotheses have been supported
empirically with exceptions for H1: PA → AT and H8: PR → BI. PR is the strongest
predictor for AT followed by PC. On the other hand, PA is the strongest determinant of TW
tailed by PR and PC. Among the predictors for BI, TW is the strongest followed by PC, PA,
and AT. As theorized, BI has a direct significant effect on instructional effectiveness.
The unsupported hypothesis H1 contradicts to the finding by Park et al. (2004) as teachers
have been given sufficient freedom and autonomy in deciding how to use the VLE
and therefore they do not contemplate autonomy as a determinant in determining whether
to share knowledge or not. Similarly, the unsupported H8 is in contrary to the work by Roca
and Gagné (2008) as a result of the proliferation of social media, e.g. Facebook, Instagram,
Twitter, etc. which have enabled teachers to get connected easily. Teachers do not
contemplate relatedness as a determinant in determining whether to adopt the VLE or not.
From the viewpoint of primary school, all hypotheses are supported except
H1: PA → AT, H4: PC → AT, H5: PC → BI, and H8: PR → BI. H1 and H8 are
unsupported due to the same justifications explained in the full model. The insignificance
of H4 contradicts to the works by Sheng-Yi et al. (2012) and Sadi and Al-Khalifah (2012) due
to which higher competence among teachers may lead to resistance and reluctance for
teachers to share their knowledge as they have substantial knowledge about the safety risk Drivers for
of sharing information over the internet. The higher their competence, the more they are cloud-based
worried about the security and safety of sharing knowledge over the VLE platform. VLE
Likewise, H5 is not supported and contradicts the findings by Zhang et al. (2012) and
Tsai and Pai (2014) due to the different contexts of study. Besides that, since teachers have
been trained on ICT competences either through pre-service or on-service trainings and
have received trainings on VLE from FrogAsia, their levels of competence seem to be 961
irrelevant in deciding whether to use the VLE or not as they have already possess the
necessary competences required in operating the VLE.
Finally, from the perspective of secondary school, all hypotheses are supported except,
H1: PA → AT, H8: PR → BI, and H10: AT → BI. Basically, the unsupported H1 and H8 are
justified as elucidated in the full model. However, the insignificant H10 contradicts to the
finding by Chen and Chen (2009), Hung et al. (2011), Cheng and Chen (2011), and Gang and
Ravichandran (2011). This is a surprising finding and it provides empirical evidence to
support that teachers’ behavioral intentions are not influenced by their attitudes toward
knowledge sharing. This may be attributed to the high degree of openness among teachers in
sharing knowledge and thus do not consider attitude in sharing knowledge as a factor in
determining whether to use the VLE or not. Majority of the teachers are willing to share their
knowledge and this does not affect the behavioral intentions. Generally, we can see that both
H1 and H8 are not supported across the full model and the primary and secondary subgroups.
In terms of mediating effects, the mediators (i.e. knowledge sharing attitude and trust in
website) have demonstrated partial mediation effect on the relationships between SDT
constructs (i.e. PA, PC, and PR) and behavioral intention as supported by the indirect effects
(Table X). Interestingly, we also found indirect effects of AT, TW, PA, PC, and PR on
behavioral intention and instructional effectiveness. PR has the strong indirect effect on
behavioral intention tailed by PA and PC whereas PC possesses the highest indirect effect
on instructional effectiveness trailed by TW, PA, PR, and AT.
The main findings are the significant moderating effects of category of school.
Surprisingly, the result reveals that there are substantial differences in all the causal
relationships except the PA → AT relationship. Basically, primary schools are more
dominant in the AT → BI, PA → BI, PC → AT, PC → TW, and PR → TW relationships
whereas secondary schools are more dominant in the BI → PIE, PA → TW, PR → AT,
PC → BI, PR → BI, and TW → BI relationships (Table XIII). In general, the results showed
that in terms of behavioral intention, primary school teachers are more likely to be
influenced by attitude toward knowledge sharing and perceived autonomy while secondary
school teachers are more affected by trust in website, perceived competence and relatedness.
However, in terms of trust in website, primary school teachers tend to be driven by
perceived relatedness and competence whereas secondary school teachers have higher
tendency to be driven by perceived autonomy. Finally, in the terms of attitude toward
knowledge sharing, primary school teachers have higher propensity to be affected by
perceived competence whereas secondary school teachers tend to be more influenced
by perceived relatedness. Therefore, we will use these results to help us understand what
different methods can be used to facilitate the formation of autonomous motivations of
primary and secondary school teachers to use c-VLE which we will elaborate further in the
subsequent practical implications.
6.1 Theoretical implications

There are some theoretical implications. First, the current study is among the first to study
the moderating effects of category school which is significantly different from the other
online learning studies that engaged moderating effects of gender (i.e. gender differences).
The study has empirically validated the significant differences between primary and
INTR secondary schools in all the structural paths except for the PA → AT path. Hence, the
27,4 findings will provide novel understandings to scholars and researchers in understandings
from a new perspective of primary and secondary schools instead of the gender perspective.
Second, the study examined the effects of SDT on attitude in sharing knowledge,
trust in VLE website and behavioral intention from the perspective of primary and
secondary schools. Several new hypotheses were developed and validated empirically.
962 These include the PA → AT, PA → TW, PC → AT, and PR → TW relationships. These
findings may contribute in advancing the literature of SDT and VLE and provide new
foundation and research direction for scholars and researchers to further extend the
existing body of knowledge.
Third, unlike previous studies that investigate moderating effects using portion of a
research model, this study explored the moderating effects of school categories using the full
research model. With this approach, scholars and researchers can have a holistic picture,
and comprehensive understandings and insights on the differences between primary and
secondary schools.
Finally, the full model is capable of predicting attitude in sharing knowledge, trust in
VLE website, behavioral intention and instructional effectiveness with percentage of
variance explained of 49.3, 38.8, 58.3, and 28.5 percent, respectively. Interestingly, the
primary school subgroup is able to explain 52.1, 41.1, 61.0, and 24.1 percent whereas
the secondary school subgroup is able to provide 48.6, 37.5, 57.4, and 31.5 percent
of variance explained in attitude, trust, behavioral intention, and instructional effectiveness.
6.2 Practical implications

Apart from the theoretical implications, this study also provides pertinent implications to
MoE, Malaysia, YTL Communications, FrogAsia, teacher training institutes (i.e. IPG),
principals, headmasters, teachers, and all stakeholders. First of all, MoE and FrogAsia may
take into consideration the differences among the primary and secondary schools and thus a
“one size for all” policy should be avoided.
Second, since behavioral intention significantly influences instructional effectiveness in
primary and secondary schools, efforts should be taken to further promote teachers in these
schools to use the VLE. For instance, MoE and FrogAsia may provide some incentives
(e.g. monetary or job promotion) or recognition (e.g. certificate of achievement) to teachers
who manage to record a high level of VLE usage or who are able to improve students’
academic performances significantly through the use of the VLE.
Third, as perceived autonomy has direct impact on behavioral intention and trust in
website for both subgroups, more measures may be taken by the Ministry to instill
autonomy among teachers. For example, teachers may be provided with Chrome Book and
dongle so that they can have the freedom to use the VLE at home. Besides that, principals
and headmasters may reduce the workload and responsibilities of the teachers so that they
will have more time to create sites and instructional materials for their classroom teachings.
Fourth, since perceived competence has a significant positive impact on trust in website
for both categories of schools, the Ministry, FrogAsia and teacher training institutes may
provide more trainings and workshops to equip teachers with the necessary competences in
operating the VLE. Besides that, online tests may be held to evaluate the level of competence
among teachers so that teachers who do not possess adequate competence can be called for
immersion or refreshment trainings.
Fifth, since relatedness has a positive impact on attitude in sharing knowledge and
trust in website in both categories, we propose that the Ministry and FrogAsia may further
foster the sense of relatedness among teachers. For example, they may engage social media
like Facebook, Twitter, or even over the VLE platform itself by creating fan pages which
can connect teachers across the country. To promote relatedness, conferences, seminars,
or gatherings may be held from time to time so that teachers will have a common platform to Drivers for
communicate and connect to each other. cloud-based
Sixth, both subgroups show significant influence of trust in website on behavioral VLE
intention imply that efforts may be taken by the relevant authorities and stakeholders to
build and strengthen the extent of teachers’ trust toward VLE website. For instance,
FrogAsia may establish smart partnership with renowned antivirus software giant such as
Norton, and Kaspersky to ensure that the Frog VLE platform possesses the highest possible 963
degree of protection.
Additionally, since only primary school shows significant effect of knowledge sharing
attitude on behavioral intention, explicit programs and policies may be used to encourage
primary teachers to share knowledge over the VLE. For example, due recognition may be
given for primary teachers who have successfully shared their knowledge in classroom
teachings by rewarding them with certificate of recognition or by appointing them as
master trainers.
Using an approach similar to Chan et al. (2015), in order to further promote autonomous
motivations in behavioral intention, more focus may be given on enhancing attitude
toward knowledge sharing and autonomy among primary school teachers whereas for
secondary school teachers, efforts should be focused on strengthening teachers’ trust in
website, competence, and relatedness. For example, since primary school teachers tend to
use naturalistic and musical teaching styles, MoE may consider more outdoor knowledge
sharing events while FrogAsia may incorporate more musical tools (widgets) in the Frog
VLE so that primary school teachers will have more freedom and autonomy in developing
various musical teaching materials. However, to facilitate autonomous motivations in
secondary teachers’ trust in website, FrogAsia may incorporate more safety features
for interpersonal teaching activities using various widgets such as Forum, Assignment,
Sites, Wall, The Pond, Sharable Content Object Reference Model, etc. Besides that,
MoE may provide more guidance and assistance to enhance teachers’ competencies in
applying the c-VLE for interpersonal teaching style and finally more encouragements
should be given to enable more teachers to get connected via the FrogCommunity portal
(www.frogcommunity.com/app/os#!/home) so that they may foster closer relationships
especially in sharing ideas and approaches in using the interpersonal teaching style via
the Frog VLE.
Besides that, to further facilitate the formation of autonomous motivations for primary
teachers’ trust in website, measures should be taken to raise the competence and
relatedness whereas, for secondary teachers, steps should be taken to increase their
autonomy. For examples, FrogAsia may conduct workshops to raise primary teachers’
competence in using Frog VLE for naturalistic and musical teaching styles by
emphasizing the trustworthiness of the Frog VLE website. Microteachings may be used to
demonstrate how the c-VLE can be trusted for outdoor and musical teaching activities.
Besides that, incentives such as a certificate of appreciation, Yes Credit points, etc. may be
given to teachers who are willing get connected and share their experience on how
trustable is the c-VLE through the FrogCommunity portal. However, for secondary school
teachers, MoE may consider giving more autonomy for them to build up their trust in
website. For example, autonomy may be given for these teachers to request for more or
higher levels of security features for websites that they created so that they may build up
their trust.
Finally, to promote the formation of autonomous motivations in facilitating primary
teachers’ attitude toward knowledge sharing, attentions should be given in raising the level
of competence whereas for secondary teachers, considerations should be given in increasing
the degree of relatedness among them. For example, immersive trainings on the competency
to use Frog VLE in sharing ideas on naturalistic and musical teaching styles may be
INTR provided for primary school teachers. However, for secondary school teachers, monetary or
27,4 non-monetary incentives as well as other recognitions may be given to teachers who are
willing to get connected and share their ideas and experiences on using the Frog VLE for
interpersonal teaching style via FrogCommunity portal.
6.3 Limitations and forthcoming research direction

964 This study is constrained by the Malaysian geographic area and future studies may
consider cross-country comparative study. Even though the percentage of variance
explained in behavioral intention is around 60 percent, we propose that future studies
may incorporate other theories and constructs to further improve the predictive power.
For examples, future studies may examine the effects of diffusion of innovations theory,
technology-organizational-environment framework, or expectation confirmation theory on
teachers’ acceptance of c-VLE. Besides that, we would also like to suggest the application of
Relative Autonomy Index to represent the degree of autonomous motivation among
teachers in future c-VLE studies. Finally, a gender differences study based on the same level
of schools as comparing groups may be conducted in future studies.
6.4 Conclusions
This study has successfully compared the differences between primary and secondary
schools in terms of the effects of SDT on trust in VLE website, attitude in sharing
knowledge as well as behavioral intention and its impact on instructional effectiveness.
In comparison to the popular gender differences studies, the moderating effects of category
of school (i.e. primary and secondary) may provide a new research paradigm for scholars
and researchers of online and/or VL. For example, researchers may investigate whether
there are substantial variances in terms of the determinants that enhance the adoption
and/or effectiveness of e-learning among primary and secondary school students or among
private and public university students.
Acknowledgments
This research is fully funded by the University of Malaya under the research Grant Number
of PG037-2014B with the project entitled “Understanding the virtual learning environment”.
The authors would like to thank the Educational Research and Planning Division (ERPD),
Ministry of Education, Malaysia and all State Education Departments and to all panel
experts, practitioners, judges and translators for their efforts in validating the survey
instrument. Finally, heartfelt appreciation to Associate Professor Dr Christy M.K. Cheung,
the Editor of Internet Research and the two anonymous reviewers for their insightful
comments, suggestions which have enabled the authors to further improve the quality of the
research paper.
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970
sources
INTR
Table AI.
Items and their
Construct and definition Items Source
Perceived relatedness (PR) PR1: I really like the people I work with Sørebø et al. (2009)
The degree of the desire to feel connected PR2: I get along with people at work
Appendix 1
to others PR3_R: I pretty much keep to myself when I am at work

PR4: I consider the people I work with to be my friends
PR5: people at work care about me
PR6_R: there are not many people at work whom I am close to
PR7_R: the people I work with do not seem to like me much
PR8: people at work are pretty friendly toward me
Perceived autonomy (PA) PA1: I feel like I can make a lot of inputs in deciding how I use VLE in my Sørebø et al. (2009)
The degree of the desire to self-initiate and teaching profession
self-regulate own behavior PA2_R: I feel pressured at using VLE in my teaching profession
PA3: I am free to express my ideas and opinions on using VLE in my teaching
profession
PA4_R: when I am using VLE, I have ;to do what I am told
PA5: my feelings toward VLE are taken into consideration at work
PA6: I feel like I can pretty much use VLE as I want to at work
PA7_R: there is not much opportunity for me to decide for myself how to use VLE
in my teaching profession
Perceived competence (PC) PC1_R: I do not feel very competent when I use VLE in my teaching profession Sørebø et al. (2009)
The degree of the desire to feel effective in PC2: the other colleagues tell me I am good at using VLE in my teaching profession
attaining valued outcomes PC3: I have been able to learn interesting new skills in VLE through my profession
PC4: most days I feel a sense of accomplishment from working with VLE
PC5_R: as a teacher I do not get much of a chance to show how capable I am in VLE
PC6_R: when I am using VLE I often do not feel very capable
Attitude toward knowledge sharing (AT) AT1: sharing of my knowledge with other teachers is always good Chow and Chan (2008)
The degree of a teacher having positive feelings AT2: sharing of my knowledge with other teachers is always beneficial
about sharing ideas and resources with those AT3: sharing of my knowledge with other teachers is always an enjoyable
with whom they have developed a close experience
relationship AT4: sharing of my knowledge with other teachers is always valuable to me
AT5: sharing of my knowledge with other teachers is always a wise move
Trust in website (TW) TW1: I think the VLE website is secure Hsu et al. (2014)
The degree of the belief resulting from the TW2: I think the VLE website is reliable
reliability and reliance of the VLE website TW3: I think the VLE website is trustworthy
(continued )
Construct and definition Items Source
Behavioral intention (BI) BI1: I intend to use VLE in the coming months Venkatesh et al. (2003)
The degree to which a teacher has formulated BI2: I predict I would use VLE in the future
conscious plans to perform or not perform some BI3: I plan to use VLE in the future
specified future behavior
Perceived instructional PIE1: I believe that I could improve my teaching by using the VLE Limniou and Smith
effectiveness (PIE) PIE2: I believe that I could improve students’ performance by using the VLE (2010)
The level to which a teacher perceives that PIE3: I believe that the students could better understand the content of their
he/she is able to enhance his/her instructional subjects through the use of VLE
effectiveness such as improvements in students’ PIE4: I believe that I have control of teaching by using the VLE
performances and understanding of subject PIE5: I believe that the VLE is the best way for teaching and learning.
content, students’ self-motivations and control of PIE6: Overall, I believe that students will be more self-motivated if they have access
the teaching to the VLE
cloud-based
971
Drivers for
VLE
Table AI.
INTR Appendix 2
27,4
AT BI PA PC PIE PR TW
AT1 0.951 0.496 0.422 0.436 0.320 0.624 0.483

AT2 0.969 0.526 0.442 0.449 0.335 0.661 0.512
AT3 0.964 0.519 0.444 0.467 0.336 0.641 0.496
972 AT4 0.975 0.545 0.431 0.458 0.332 0.670 0.494
AT5 0.955 0.539 0.424 0.463 0.338 0.637 0.485
BI1 0.518 0.953 0.608 0.614 0.534 0.454 0.611
BI2 0.528 0.977 0.609 0.620 0.513 0.464 0.634
BI3 0.537 0.971 0.615 0.618 0.501 0.481 0.644
PA1 0.389 0.528 0.866 0.619 0.371 0.412 0.447
PA3 0.372 0.511 0.852 0.602 0.387 0.344 0.443
PA6 0.397 0.586 0.864 0.696 0.421 0.356 0.531
PC2 0.283 0.431 0.618 0.794 0.330 0.263 0.376
PC3 0.517 0.578 0.646 0.887 0.430 0.480 0.493
PC4 0.391 0.619 0.669 0.903 0.429 0.373 0.512
PIE1 0.376 0.513 0.423 0.437 0.911 0.311 0.380
PIE2 0.334 0.522 0.430 0.431 0.943 0.278 0.393
PIE3 0.335 0.498 0.419 0.415 0.931 0.271 0.380
PIE4 0.298 0.477 0.433 0.436 0.915 0.251 0.404
PIE5 0.259 0.460 0.408 0.422 0.904 0.217 0.365
PIE6 0.294 0.473 0.417 0.424 0.919 0.258 0.402
PR2 0.635 0.469 0.436 0.432 0.282 0.899 0.418
PR4 0.646 0.427 0.383 0.382 0.259 0.926 0.413
PR5 0.566 0.441 0.416 0.405 0.259 0.892 0.440
PR8 0.557 0.389 0.301 0.366 0.231 0.869 0.382
TW1 0.510 0.610 0.531 0.513 0.385 0.441 0.957
TW2 0.482 0.637 0.536 0.532 0.407 0.433 0.970
TW3 0.498 0.644 0.541 0.524 0.430 0.466 0.978
Table AII. Note: Items PR1, PR3_R, PR6_R, PR7_R, PA2_R, PA4_R, PA5, PA7_R, PC1_R, PC5_R, and PC6_R were
Cross-loadings dropped due to poor factor loadings
Appendix 3 Drivers for
cloud-based
Original sample (O) Sample mean (M) 2.5% 97.5% VLE
BI → AT 0.560 0.559 0.487 0.628
PA → AT 0.499 0.498 0.418 0.572
PA → BI 0.705 0.706 0.636 0.768
PC → AT 0.510 0.508 0.430 0.585
973
PC → BI 0.702 0.701 0.625 0.768
PC → PA 0.898 0.898 0.841 0.952
PIE → AT 0.353 0.352 0.273 0.425
PIE → BI 0.553 0.551 0.477 0.619
PIE → PA 0.512 0.512 0.431 0.584
PIE → PC 0.513 0.513 0.435 0.585
PR → AT 0.706 0.705 0.649 0.758
PR → BI 0.511 0.510 0.430 0.585
PR → PA 0.492 0.492 0.410 0.569
PR → PC 0.493 0.491 0.407 0.568
PR → PIE 0.304 0.303 0.214 0.387
TW → AT 0.527 0.527 0.448 0.602
TW → BI 0.674 0.673 0.605 0.734
TW → PA 0.617 0.617 0.538 0.688
TW → PC 0.595 0.595 0.509 0.676
TW → PIE 0.436 0.434 0.353 0.510
TW → PR 0.489 0.489 0.404 0.570
Notes: AT, attitude toward knowledge sharing; BI, behavioral intention; PA, perceived autonomy; Table AIII.
PC, perceived competence; PIE, perceived instructional effectiveness; PR, perceived relatedness; TW, trust in HTMT confidence
website; df, degree of freedom intervals
About the authors

Hew Teck Soon holds a Master’s Degree in IT (Distinction) from the Faculty of Information
Technology and Multimedia Communications, Open University Malaysia (OUM). He graduated with a
First-class Honors Degree in Educational Science from the University of Technology Malaysia and
received the OUM Chancellor Foundation Award in 2010 as well as Excellence Service Award from the
Ministry of Education, Malaysia, in 2007. Currently, he is a PhD Scholar at the Faculty of Business and
Accountancy, University of Malaya. His research interests include virtual learning environment (VLE),
technology adoption, mobile applications, applied statistics, and artificial neural networks.
Dr Sharifah Latifah Syed A. Kadir received her PhD Degree from the National University of Malaysia
in 2001 and MSc Degree from Cardiff University, UK, in 1988. She graduated with a BSc Degree from the
University of Malaya in 1984. She was the Former Deputy Dean and Head of Department of Operation
and Management Information Systems, Faculty of Business and Accountancy, University of Malaya.
She has published numerous book chapters and journal papers and presented her research findings in
international conferences. Her areas of interest include applied statistics, total quality management,
customer and employee satisfaction and service quality. Dr Sharifah Latifah Syed A. Kadir is the
corresponding author and can be contacted at: slhadad@um.edu.my
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(i.e. wide-ranging network access, measured services, on-demand self-services, quick

Patch Mgmt. Content Filtering

Data Center and Hosting Platform

Support Platform Figure 3.

3. Research model and hypotheses

Motivation A motivation Extrinsic Motivation Intrinsic Motivation

Regulatory External Introjected Identified Integrated

4.1 Instrument development and validation

4.2 Scale operationalization

4.3 Population, sample and data gathering procedure

5.1 Non-response bias and CMB

instructional effectiveness (t ¼ 2.965, p ¼ 0.003), however, further analysis using χ2-test

5.2 Testing the multivariate assumptions and sample size

5.3 Validating the measurement model

5.4 Structural model and hypothesis testing

AVE Composite reliability Cronbach’s α R2

AT 0.927 0.985 0.980 0.493

AT BI PA PC PIE PR TW CR AVE MSV ASV FLR

AT 0.963 0.985 0.927 0.587 0.703 0.633

AT 0.521 0.486 0.493

Original sample (O) SE (STERR) T-statistics (|O/STERR|) P-values Remark

AT → BI 0.156 0.045 3.489 0.000*** Supported

AT → BI 0.239 0.0726 3.286 0.001*** Supported

AT → BI 0.102 0.0547 1.872 0.061 Not supported

IV + M→DV Sobel’s test

5.8 Moderating effects of category of school

AT → PIE 0.083 0.083 0.024 3.416 0.001***

Construct Primary school (n ¼ 222) Secondary school (n ¼ 386)

Full model Primary school Secondary school T-statistics (primary vs

AT → BI 0.156* 0.239*** 0.102 26.132***

6. Discussion and conclusions

6.1 Theoretical implications

6.2 Practical implications

6.3 Limitations and forthcoming research direction

to others PR3_R: I pretty much keep to myself when I am at work

AT1 0.951 0.496 0.422 0.436 0.320 0.624 0.483

About the authors

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AT → BI 0.156* 0.239* 0.102 26.132*