REVIEW

Application of expanded polystyrene (EPS) in buildings and

constructions: A review
Nor Hafizah Ramli Sulong , Siti Aisyah Syaerah Mustapa, Muhammad Khairi Abdul Rashid
Faculty of Engineering, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia
Correspondence to: N. H. R. Sulong (E-mail: hafizah_ramli@um.edu.my)

ABSTRACT: Expanded polystyrene (EPS) is one of the building material capable of enhancing the design and structural integrity of the
building. Since its recognition as conventional insulating material in 1950s, EPS has been experiencing swift progress in other new
implementations. Currently, EPS is utilized in many building structures owing to its sustainability benefit and improvement in terms of
energy efficiency, durability, and indoor environmental quality. This article provides an overview on the application of EPS as aggregates
in lightweight concrete, decorative tiles and molding, panel application (structural insulated panels (SIPs) and composite SIPs), and
embankment backfilling. Also, this article attempts to describe the properties of EPS in terms of fire behavior, mechanical properties,
chemical resistant, water and moisture absorption, and their toxicity to the human and environment. © 2019 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl.
Polym. Sci. 2019, 136, 47529.

KEYWORDS: applications; mechanical properties; polystyrene; thermal properties

Received 9 October 2018; accepted 20 December 2018

DOI: 10.1002/app.47529

INTRODUCTION out in aerated silos during the material’s intermediate maturing.

In recent years, there has been an explosive growth of interest in
the application of expanded polystyrene (EPS) for construction
industry. EPS is a well-established insulation material used for
various applications as it has a light yet rigid foam with good
thermal insulation and high impact resistance. Apart from that, it
possesses high load-bearing capacity at low weight, absolute water
and vapor barrier, air tightness for controlled environments, long
life, low maintenance, fast, and economic construction. The foam
in EPS is a lightweight cellular plastic consisting of small
spherical-shaped particles containing about 98% air. This micro-
cellular closed cell construction provides EPS with its excellent
insulating and shock absorbing characteristics.
EPS consists of small polystyrene beads that derived from styrene
via polymerization process.1 The foam quality of EPS is affected
by the size distribution of the beads. After the polymerization,
EPS is infused with blowing agent such as pentane and hexane.
The conversion of expandable polystyrene to EPS is carried out
in three stages: (1) pre-expansion, (2) intermediate maturing and
stabilization, and (3) expansion and final molding. In the first
stage, the raw material is heated in pre-expanders with steam at
temperature between 80 and 100
C to create a relatively uniform
cellular structure with small closed cells that hold air in their
interior. According to Doroudiani and Omidian,2 during this
process, the beads’ internal gas experience volume expansion that
generates air-penetrable cellular structure. This process is carried
Based on the air temperature, size, and density of the beads, the
aging time is calculated. The beads achieve greater mechanical
elasticity and improved expansion capacity. Through the expan-
sion process, the stabilized pre-expanded beads are molded and
re-exposed to steam in order to bind the beads. Blocks created
using this process is further enhanced in terms of dimensional
stability prior to separation into required shape. Figure 1 shows
the three main forms of EPS. Moreover, solid-state polystyrene
foam can be made.3–6 In extrusion process, carbon dioxide or
nitrogen is used during suspension polymerization as blowing
agent.7 Studies have shown that starch and cellulose-derived
composite EPS are more likely to substitute EPS given its envi-
ronmentally friendly characteristic.8–10
EPS starts to melt at temperature about 100
C. During flashover,
EPS self-ignites instantaneously at temperature about 490
C.12
Ignition of combustible gases released from the decomposition of
EPS may occur when they are exposed to air at these lowest initial
temperatures or due to self-heating properties of the EPS.13 The
porous structure of EPS allows vast storage of air which intensifies
the fire spread during combustion.2 In construction industry, it is
mandatory to use a flame-retardant grade of EPS to reduce the
flammability and spread of flame on the surface of EPS products.
Since EPS has restricted function in terms of fire protection, EPS is
applied in construction sector only when it is used in tandem with
other suitable material capable of resisting fire.

© 2019 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

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DR. NOR HAFIZAH is an associate professor in the Department of Civil Engineering at Universiti Malaya. Hafizah’s
field of expertise includes structural engineering, steel and composite structure, and structural fire engineering.
Her current research focuses on fire-resistant coating for steel and composite structure derived from
sustainable materials. She has published more than 60 peer-reviewed journal articles. Also, she was involved
professionally with SIRIM in the development of standards for steel structures.

SITI AISYAH SYAERAHis a research assistant in the Department of Civil Engineering at Universiti Malaya where she
recently completed her Master’s degree. Her research interest focuses on materials and fire safety engineering.
She recently published article on utilization of sustainable material such as palm oil clinker for fire intumescent
fire protective coating of steel.

MUHAMMAD KHAIRI received his B.S. degree (Applied Chemistry) from Universiti Malaya in 2018. He is currently
pursuing his Master’s degree in Engineering Science under the supervision of Dr. Nor Hafizah. His current
research project involves the usage of waste materials in fire-resistant composite coating compound for
prefabricated lightweight panel. His research interests include materials and inorganic chemistry.

APPLICATION OF EPS IN CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY
EPS as Aggregate in Lightweight Concrete
Lightweight concrete (LWC) is produced by mixing lightweight
aggregates, for example, vermiculite, pumice, clay, or by air-
entraining agent in the concrete mix.14 When EPS is utilized as the
aggregates, an LWC that is stronger and lighter than vermiculite
concrete is produced. Figure 2 shows the visual comparison
between EPS and vermiculite LWCs.14 Often, more than one type
of aggregate is used to produce LWC with better physical and
mechanical properties. For example, Demirel15 added both pumice
and EPS aggregates in the concrete mix to construct an insulation
block with lower density and thermal conductivity. Waste material
such as paper sludge ash is also added as aggregate in conjunction
with EPS aggregate to produce sustainable lightweight mortar that
adheres to EU standards for masonry, rendering, and plastering
mortars.16
The compressive strength of EPS concrete is governed by the
quantity of EPS, followed by the water to cement ratio.17 Previous
studies reported that the compressive strength of EPS concrete
increases as its density increases.17,18 Liu and Chen19 also
reported similar finding using ultrasonic testing whereby the EPS
particle size affects the mechanical properties, that is, flexural

Figure 1. Three important forms of EPS. Beads formed via expansion of Figure 2. Specimens of vermiculite and EPS LWCs.14 (Reproduced from
resin are molded into desirable shape.11 Ref. 14, with permission from Elsevier.)

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Figure 3. EPS LWC sample reinforced with zinc-coated steel bar.34
(Reproduced from Ref. 34, with permission from Springer Nature.) [Color
figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
strength of the EPS concrete. Sayadi et al.20 studied the effects of
EPS particles on fire resistance, thermal conductivity, and com-
pressive strength of foamed concrete. This article concludes that
based on the experiment involving foamed concrete and EPS
LWC of different densities and volumes, the volume expansion of
EPS leads to remarkable reduction in thermal conductivity, fire
endurance, and compressive strength of the concrete. Application
of LWC allows reduction in structural dead load and cross sec-
tional of elements, that is, columns, beams, braces, and plates. In
addition, LWC-derived structure is lighter thus lessen the impact
of earthquake. Moreover, by using LWC, longer spans, thinner
sections, and better cyclic load response can be obtained.21
EPS is nonpermeable, hydrophobic, and has closed-cell structure.
The hydrophobic characteristic of EPS resulted in low thermal
conductivity of polymer-calcined clay complexes.22 It was intro-
duced in 1973 by Cork to address the issue possessed by conven-
tional lightweight aggregates such as pumice, fly ash, oil palm
shell, and waste rubber whose porous structures have resulted in
high absorption value and water demand.23–28 EPS concrete has
prospective application in structural elements (e.g., cladding
panels, composite flooring systems, and load-bearing concrete
blocks), insulated concrete, and protective layer due to its above-
average energy absorption.29 For instance, EPS has cushioning
properties that allows it to be utilized as buffer layer on top of
debris dam to reduce impact force and lengthen the impact time
caused by massive stones during the event of debris flow.30
When EPS is utilized as lightweight aggregate, the beads float and
integrated poorly with the cement matrix because of their low
density and hydrophobic properties.20 Hence, the low interfacial
bonding strength and poor dispersion between the beads and
matrix are solved by using bonding additive, for example, epoxy
resin or water-emulsified epoxies. Alternatively, mineral admix-
ture such as fly ash or silica fume can also works as bonding
additive.31 In contrast to normal aggregates, concrete with EPS
aggregates has shown to have better resistant against chemical
and corrosion due to inert characteristic of EPS.20
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Based on dynamic cyclic loading carried out by Shi et al.,32 the
paper suggests that EPS concrete can be implemented in applica-
tion that requires long-term cyclic loading such as protection of
buried military structure due to its durability and energy absorb-
ing properties. Despite of being lightweight and having good
energy-absorbing property, EPS concrete suffers poor workability
and low strength as low weight EPS beads are susceptible to seg-
regation during casting process as reported by Liu and Chen.19 In
this article, sand-wrapping method was employed by partially
substituting the coarse and fine aggregates with EPS beads and
using fine silica fume as bonding additive which resulted in
improved density and compressive strength of EPS concrete.
In addition, reinforcement of EPS concrete using steel fiber has
enhanced the drying shrinkage.33 In experiment by Pecce et al.,34
corrosion-resistant internal reinforcement such as zinc-coated
steel bars are employed onto EPS concrete (see Figure 3) to
address the issue of its increased porosity that cause it to prone
to penetration. Even though this type of reinforcement increases
the bond strength, it causes the EPS concrete to be more brittle
as the failure mode changes from pull-out to splitting.
Many studies have been conducted on waste EPS-derived con-
crete. The EPS is recycled as aggregate for LWC and its proper-
ties are examined and compared with other conventional
materials in order to promote sustainability development. For
instance, Dissanayake et al.35 constructed three single storey
houses from three different materials; burnt clay brick, cement
sand block, and recycled EPS. Figure 4 shows the house’s wall
made with EPS panels. Despite their similar performances in
embodied energy, carbon emission, and cost, the paper suggests
that recycled EPS is greener alternative for conventional walling
material especially in location that has short supply of sand. Her-
nández-Zaragoza et al.36 also reported that recycled EPS aggre-
gates could replace sandy material to produce less permeable,
Figure 4. EPS wall panels arranged in staggered joint manner.35
(Reproduced from Ref. 35, with permission from Elsevier.) [Color figure
can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
J. APPL. POLYM. SCI. 2019, DOI: 10.1002/APP.47529
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more flexible, and relatively cheaper lightweight mortar that still
comply with Mexico masonry standard.
In addition, EPS waste can be recycled as resin for composite
production. Bhutta et al.18 carried out an experiment where EPS
waste is recycled into resin for production of polymer mortar
panels (PMPs) by mixing the waste in methyl methacrylate
(MMA) solution. Based on flexural behavior test, the EPS–MMA-
based PMP has better flexibility and high load-bearing capacity
than polymer-impregnated mortar panel. EPS waste can also be
dissolved into resin using solvents such as toluene and acetone to
produce polymer–cement composite that has potential as com-
mercial construction material and radioactive waste deactivator.37
Also, Kaya and Kar38 conducted an experiment involving con-
crete made from different compositions of waste EPS, cement,
and tragacanth resin. They conclude that concrete with high ratio
of EPS to cement and resin exhibits high porosity and low den-
sity, thermal conductivity, compressive, and tensile stress. The
formation of artificial pores leads to enhanced insulation proper-
ties. Hence, the paper suggests the application of EPS-aggregated
and resin-added concrete for a more sustainable approach as well
as reducing building load in construction industry. Bicer and
Kar39 mixed EPS waste with tragacanth resin to produce filling
material for gypsum plaster. This plaster has low thermal con-
ductivity and it is applied as inner plaster for building insulation
and decoration.
Decorative Tiles and Moldings
The purpose of decorative molding is to improve the overall
aesthetic aspects of a building by concealing transition and
gaps between surfaces. Figure 5 shows a sample of EPS decora-
tive molding and Figure 6 shows how it is applied on the
building. Currently, EPS has replaced stone as material for
decorative molding as observed in North America and other
countries where EPS is embedded with reinforcing mesh before
polyurethane (PUR) or polymer modified cement coating is
applied.40 Polymer foams are popular materials for decorative
tiles and molding.
Figure 5. A sample of decorative molding.2 (Reproduced from Ref. 2, with per-
mission from Elsevier.) [Color figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
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Figure 6. Building with EPS decorative moldings.2 (Reproduced from Ref. 2, with
permission from Elsevier.) [Color figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
Besides that, EPS is a common thermal insulator in construction
industry.2 Given its good thermal, structural strength, and water-
resistance properties, EPS is one of the plastic foams that pio-
neered the development of structural panels known as insulated
concrete foams. For example, EPS is specifically utilized in insu-
lated vinyl siding.41 Siding is the formation of the outermost layer
of a building. It offers protection against outside element as well
as for decorative purpose. EPS foamed layer is attached to the
back of regular vinyl exterior layer to improve insulation, stiff-
ness, and strength of the siding.
Despite its function as decorative molding to improve building’s
visual, Doroudiani and Omidian2 reported that EPS possesses
harmful risk in terms of health and safety when used in residen-
tial areas and it should be eliminated unless the flammability
issue was addressed. For instance, addition of diammonium
phosphate flame retardant in a wood composite product made of
wood flour and EPS waste improved the composite’s fire-resistant
properties, making it safer to be used as floor, furniture, and dec-
oration panel.42
EPS for Panel Applications
Structural Insulated Panel. Developed nearly 75 years ago,
structural insulated panel (SIP) is a sandwiched panel utilized as
structural element in concrete building, for example, wall, roof,
and floor.43 It is a high-performance three-layered composite
building panel used as elements in floors, walls, and roofs of steel
or wooden frameworks for residential and light commercial
buildings.44,45 Usually, the panel is manufactured in a factory,
and transported to a construction site to be assembled. SIP is
consisted of three-layered structures by bonding a thin layer (fac-
ing) to each side of a thick layer (core). For example, in Figure 7,
the core is made of EPS sandwiched between two oriented strand
boards (OSBs). The bending stress is supported by face sheets
that are stabilized by the core. The core counters the shear load
and elevates the structure’s stiffness by keeping apart the face
sheets at fixed distance. As a result, SIP is superior to its constitu-
ents with regards to stiffness-to-weight ratio.46
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Figure 7. SIP made of polystyrene and OSB.43 (Reproduced from Ref. 43,
with permission from Journal of Engineering, Project and Production Man-
agement.) [Color figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
Impregnation of wood-derived face sheets or facing material pro-
vides protection against water, wind borne debris, and biological
degradation, for example, mold build-ups and termite attack.
OSB is a conventional facing material in the production of SIP
with EPS as a core.44 Performance-wise, SIP is considered a key
component in modern day construction due to its high flexibility
and strength. Although EPS core with significant water adsorp-
tion is less favored as insulation material because it will reduce
the thermal efficiency of buildings.47
Generally, the thermal conductivity of EPS core decreases as its den-
sity increases.48 Sariisik and Sariisik49 experimented using pumice as
SIP’s component. The insulation block consisted of EPS foam sand-
wiched in between two layers of pumice LWC (see Figure 8) is
found to has low thermal and sound conductivity of 0.33 W mK−1
and 60 dB, respectively. Structural evaluation of SIP using computer
software is also practiced by several researchers. Bajracharya et al.50
conducted a structural analysis of EPS sandwich panels for slab
application using Strand7; a finite element-based software which
produced results that are in good agreement with the experimental
results thus expanding SIP usage in production of lighter structural
slab with better heat and sound insulation. Moreover, based on
ENISO-6946-compliance computer modeling result obtained by Ede
and Ogundiran,51 composite EPS wall panel is shown to have higher
load-bearing capacity and thermal resistance thus proven as feasible
replacement for the traditional concrete hollow brick.
Hopkin et al.52 conducted a research on full-scale natural fire tests
on gypsum-lined SIP and engineered floor joist assemblies. SIP
was made up of two OSB facing plates and a core; polymer-based
foam insulator such as EPS or PUR. The lightweight panels pro-
duced were applied in domestic building, for example, apartment
blocks, schools, and hotels as principal component for load-bearing
compression.52 In this study, the fire performance of SIP buildings
with passive fire protection (PFP) specifications was assessed. Con-
sequently, the low durability of SIPs structure is apparent regard-
less of the type of core used. There is high possibility of floor plate
to collapse when PFP is poorly fixed or defined. However, system
redundancies and alternative load paths saved the test structures
from total demolition. Poorly sealed fitting components have
allowed the fire spread mechanism to happen.
In South Korea, EPS foam is incorporated into concrete floor as
resilient material to reduce noise and preserve heat, consequently
saving more energy.53 The thermal conductivity of EPS foam
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Figure 8. The insulation block produced by sandwiching EPS foam between
pumice LWCs.49 (Reproduced from Ref. 49, with permission from Springer
Nature.)
decreases as its density increases. Park et al.54 constructed a study
in vibroacoustic application of graphite-embedded EPS foam
sandwiched between floors. Addition of graphite flakes into poly-
styrene matrix increases the thermal insulation since the graphite
particles reflect radiant energy. The foam becomes stiffer as a
result of change in morphology that restricting foam expansion.
These improvements led to production of thinner and stronger
insulation panel that diminishes the low frequency (below
100 Hz) floor impact noises. Despite the vibroacoustic properties
of graphite EPS foam, the core-softening leads to decoupled
behavior in sandwich floor which affects the insulation properties
at certain frequencies.55 The reduction in dynamic stiffness of
graphite-EPS causes the decrease in the degree of coupling between
mortar bed and base slab as well as shifting of both coupled and
decoupled mode to lower frequencies.
Composite SIP. Traditional SIP is consisted of foam core and
wood-based facing. It is easily penetrated by wind borne debris and
prone to biological degradation, for example, thermite attack and
mold build-ups. The search for more effective alternative to over-
come this problem has led to the use of composites panel. Chen
and Hao56 propose that composite SIP (CSIP) with EPS foam core
is applied as load-bearing elements in building, for example, roof,
floor, and wall in order to protect the building envelope from being
damaged by windborne debris during the event of natural disaster.
CSIP is made by replacing OSB face sheets of SIP with thermoplas-
tic composite face sheets to produce lighter and sustainable panel
that are more resistant toward windborne debris and mold build-
up.57 The CSIP is capable to be utilized as external wall given that
the experimental results obtained by Vaidya et al.57 show that CSIP
wall can support the wall loads and resisting windborne missile
impact up to 2600 J.
Mousa and Uddin58 studied on the structural behavior and
modeling of full-scale composite structural insulated wall panels.
This article attempts to show that CSIP is a great candidate to
replace the traditional SIP for housing applications. Thick and
lightweight EPS core is sandwiched in between thinner face
sheets made up of polypropylene (glass PP) laminate. This
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arrangement allows better transfer of bending stress and shear
loads by face sheets and core, respectively. The core helps pre-
serving faces from wrinkling or bulking.59 Also, the face sheets
are kept apart by the core, which strengthen the structure.
In designing CSIP, factors such as deflection and debonding are
heavily assessed in addition to the high strength resulted from
face sheets and core combination. A full-scale experimental test-
ing was conducted by Mousa and Uddin58 to study the behavior
of CSIP walls under eccentric load. The pull-off strength test
revealed that face sheets-core debonding was the main mode of
failure. In this study, interfacial tensile stress between face
sheets and core and the reaction of CSIPs wall under in-plane
loading were predicted based on analytical model and finite ele-
ment model, respectively. The results from both models were
consistent with the experimental results. Moreover, the para-
metric finite element study showed that the structural integrity
of CSIP wall panel was influenced by span-to-depth ratio and
core density.
Many researches have analyzed the development of composite
panels for building applications using rigid and soft cores with
thermoset and thermoplastic face sheets.60–65 Compared to CSIP
constructed using typical sandwich method, the developed CSIP
boosts better strength and creep resistance due to 12.5 times
more face sheets-to-core moduli ratio.59 CSIP is implemented as
components in both structural (e.g., loadbearing walls, floors, and
roofs) and nonstructural (e.g., nonload-bearing walls, lintels, and
partitions) thanks to its low cost, high strength-to-weight ratio,
and ease of assembly.
Furthermore, Smakosz and Tejchman46 investigated the strength,
deformability, and failure mode of CSIP. This article assessed the
mechanical performance of CSIP produced using EPS core and
face sheets that were made from glass-fiber reinforced magnesia
cement boards based on quasi-static full-scale and model tests
under monotonic loading. The overall results indicate that CSIP
is better than SIP in terms of mechanical and insulating proper-
ties. CSIP has higher strength which allows it to be applied as
load-bearing components in building. Moreover, curtain wall or
building envelope constructed using SIP is more energy efficient
compared to timber framing.66 SIP insulation capability can be
modified by changing the foam’s type and thickness. Despite its
advantages, addition of SIPs into a structure requires thorough
planning and use of costly construction crane or lift truck to han-
dle big-sized panels.
Vacuum Insulated Panel. Vacuum insulated panel (VIP) is an
evacuated open porous material inserted within multilayer enve-
lope. VIP consists of inner core, barrier envelope, and desiccant
as shown in Figure 9.67 The envelope protects the panel against
external stress. VIP is categorized based on the type of material
used as envelope; either thick metal sheet or metallized polymer
film. EPS foam is used as core to maintain the vacuum condition
as well as to provide support for the envelope. The desiccant is
placed in the core as adsorbent in order to avoid infiltration by
external gas or water vapor. Therefore, VIP is an alternative to
conventional building insulation material. It creates vacuum
inside the core which is effective in inhibiting the heat transfer.
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Figure 9. Schematic of a VIP.67 (Reproduced from Ref. 67, with permission
from Elsevier.) [Color figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
Additionally, the thermal conductivity of VIP can be reduced by
decreasing the pore of open cell foam such as EPS.
Backfilling
Construction of embankment using heavy filling material resulted
in several problems such as bearing failure and slope instability.
Commonly, EPS geofoam is used as backfilling to reduce the
weight of embankment especially when it is erected on top of soft
soil.68
EPS geofoam is also used as backfilling material for bridge abut-
ment and road widening.69 As lightweight fill, EPS is suitable for
construction of ground embankment with low-bearing capability.
Furthermore, it reduces the lateral forces on the back of bridge
abutment’s structure. In a case study conducted in Thanet Way,
England, EPS lightweight blocks were used to eliminate the lateral
loading on bridge abutment and stabilized the weak foundation
formed on chalk ground. The lightweight property of EPS block
allows it to be carried and positioned easily without requiring
any lifting equipment thus reducing transportation cost. The
blocks were arranged in staggered conformation and steel bars
were embedded to further strengthen the structure. Figure 10
shows the construction of Grimsøyvegen Bridge that utilizes EPS
as the bridge abutment.
EPS is lightweight, waterproof and has good cushioning ability
as well as ease of application. In Norway, usage of EPS geofoam
as backfilling has prevented the gradual sinking of bridge deck
by reducing the load applied to the weak foundation.71 More-
over, the road constructed using lightweight fill costs less than
using traditional backfilling despite their comparable perfor-
mances.72 Beju and Mandal73 found that the EPS geofoam with
higher density has higher compressive strength and modulus
values but lower absorption capacity compared to the lower
density geofoam.
Besides its usage on embankment, EPS geofoam is also applied
for slope stabilization of mountainous terrain as practiced by
countries such as Norway and Japan.70,74 Study by Arellano
et al.75 shows that the lightweight fill stabilizes the slope by
reducing weight and driving force of sliding mass. It increases the
structural strength as the block is more resistant toward force by
the landslide material. Additionally, Özer et al.76 propose that all
slope stabilization application that involves EPS geofoam as
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Figure 10. EPS as bridge abutment in construction of Grimsøyvegen Bridge, Norway.70 (Reproduced from Ref. 70, with permission from Mr. Roald Aabøe.)
[Color figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
backfilling must incorporated permanent drainage system to pre-
vent foam’s instability due to hydrostatic and seepage pressure.
As mentioned before, EPS is suitable as backfilling material
because it is lightweight, stronger and has good chemical, mechani-
cal, and water stability. However, a cheaper alternative than EPS
geofoam is proposed by Miao et al.68 that involves the mixture of
EPS beads, soil, and binder for embankment backfilling. Based on
the sand cone test and California bearing ratio test, the lightweight
fill passed the specification for usage in bridge abutment and high-
way embankment.
Also, EPS is employed as base material in combine optic fiber
transducer for landslide monitoring especially when it involves
sandy clay slope.77
Properties of EPS
Fire Behavior and Thermal Insulation Properties of EPS.
Polystyrene foam has similar fire behavior to most organic mate-
rials where both are easily combustible. Thus, tiny amount (<1%)
of fire-retardant material is added to the EPS insulation product
in order to enhance the fire retardancy of EPS. Besides fillers such
as SiO2, Fe2O3, and clay, waste such as fly ash can also be used as
Figure 11. Photos of EPS samples before and after LOI test. Samples with fire-
retardant additives (middle and right) have greater fire resistance thus burned
less compared to neat EPS (left).78 (Reproduced from Ref. 78, with permission
from Elsevier.) [Color figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
47529 (7 of 11)
cheaper alternative to increase the flame retardant of EPS foams.
Wang et al.78 introduced fly ash into phenolic resin-hydrated alu-
minum hydroxide binder which is the incorporated into EPS
foam. This insulation material is reported to increase the loss on
ignition (LOI) value of EPS foam up to 29.6% and acquired the
V-0 rating. Figure 11 shows that EPS foam sample treated with
hydrated aluminum hydroxide and thermosetting phenolic resin
has greater fire resistance during LOI test compared to other
untreated samples. The leaching of fire-retardant material into
environment is prevented since it is polymerized into the molecu-
lar structure of EPS.
The fire behavior of fire-retarded EPS is significantly different
from nonfire retarded EPS. When exposed to heat, fire-retarded
EPS shrinks away from the heat source. The probability of igni-
tion of the material is reduced and welding sparks or cigarettes
normally will not ignite it. However, in the construction industry,
it is mandatory to use a flame-retardant grade of EPS to reduce
the flammability and spread of flame on the surface of EPS prod-
ucts. The application of EPS in compartmentalization or fire pro-
tection of structure is restricted without incorporation of other
fire-resistant material. This case was observed from previous
studies where EPS was covered with gypsum and steel in order to
address its fire behavior.79 The EPS was evaluated according to
EN 13501-1 and categorized as “difficult to ignite.” The test also
indicated that EPS gave out minimal smoke production.
According to Yucel et al.,80 studies were conducted on thermal
insulation properties of EPS as construction and insulating mate-
rials. Thermal conductivity test provides information that deter-
mines the performance and suitable application for the insulating
material. As construction equipment, insulation material has to
comply with parameters such as temperature, humidity, and over-
all assembly condition. The laboratory test results are vital factor
in characterization of structure and selection of total insulation-
building assembly. The framework of the insulating material is
evaluated based on its class, thermal conductivity, density, and
mechanical properties. Using the plate method with thermal con-
ductivity detection between 0.036 and 0.046 W mK−1, the EPSs
with densities between 10 and 30 kg m−3 were tested for its
construction-grade insulating performance. The results conclude
that the insulating performance of EPS is influenced by material
composition in cell, that is, homogenous, porous, or multilayer.
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Table I. Mechanical Properties by EPS Type92 (Adapted from Ref. 92)

Mechanical strength (kPa) EPS 70 EPS 100 EPS 150 EPS 200 EPS 250
Compressive strength @ 10% compression 70 100 150 200 250
Compressive strength @ 10% nominal strain 20 45 70 90 100
Bending strength 115 150 200 250 350

Production of Smoke. Smoke is described as visible suspension
of solid or liquid particles in the gas as product of combustion
and pyrolysis.81 Production of smoke can be suppressed by
restricting the ability of material to ignite and reducing the flame
spread and heat released.82
The surface area of EPS insulation must be protected using non-
combustible material in order to minimize smoke production
during event of fire.83 EPS begins to soften at temperature above
100
C and upon further heat exposure, it will shrink, melt, and
decompose to produce flammable gases which ignitable by spark
or flame at certain condition and temperature.
Mechanical Strength of EPS. Studies were conducted to under-
stand how grain size of EPS and additives such as fly ash and
silica fume can enhance the mechanical properties of EPS-
aggregated concrete.24,84,85 Ferrándiz-Mas and García-Alcocel86
performed a research on the durability of EPS mortar. In this
article, several methods were used to observe microstructure in
order to analyze the effect of EPS type and concentration on the
strength of Portland cement mortars. Methods employed were
capillary absorption of water, mercury intrusion porosimetry,
impendence spectroscopy, and open porosity. The first method
showed that EPS decreases the capillary absorption coefficient
while the rest of the methods demonstrate inadequacy in eluci-
dating the microstructure of EPS in mortar due to polymeric
and spongy nature of EPS. Furthermore, both heat cycles and
freeze–thaw cycles showed that EPS’s insulator property
increases the compressive strength of the mortar. The workabil-
ity of mortar is increased by adding air-entraining agent, water
retainer, and superplasticizer additive. Hence, the paper con-
cludes that EPS-aggregated mortar has enhanced durability and
is feasible for more sustainable usage in masonry, stucco, and
plaster mortar.
Several studies on characterization of EPS concrete using simulta-
neous optimization of both mechanical and thermal properties with
respect to EPS parameters were performed.86 Recent articles have
demonstrated the capability of self-compacting lightweight structure
produced from nano-SiO2 and EPS.87 Other studies have attempted
to combine EPS beads as filler with foamed cement paste matrix in
order to synthesize thermal insulator composite. Additives are added
to increase adhesiveness and reduce segregation of EPS beads from
concrete matrix.88 EPS is utilized in the production of gypsum and
plaster plates and panels.89 Fillers such as PP fiber and mixture of
fly ash and metakaolinite are added to strengthen the plastic matrix
as seen in the production of industrial components and lightweight
inorganic polymer.90,91
The EPS product is classified based on compressive strength and
compressive stress. Compressive strength is maximum uniaxial
compressive stress that material can bear before fracturing. Num-
ber is assigned to EPS product based on its compressive stress at
10% compression as shown in Table I. Jablite is one of the many
brands of EPS.
Water and Moisture Absorption. EPS has very poor water
absorption which decreases as density increases as shown in
Table II. EPS with 9–12 years of usage period has 8–9% of its
volume filled under groundwater table.93 The cellular structure of
EPS is water resistant, vapor permeable, and possesses zero capil-
larity though neither liquid water nor water vapor influences its
mechanical properties. However, absorption of moisture is still
possible upon complete immersion of EPS due to fine interstitial
channels between molded beads.
EPS geofoam is prone to moisture absorption which causes dete-
rioration of thermal properties. Less than 10% volume of
lightweight-fill geofoam is absorbed during its lifetime usage.94
Also, high density EPS possesses high water vapor diffusion resis-
tance factor due to better moisture properties. Table III shows
moisture properties of EPS of different numbers.
Chemical Resistance. Chemical resistance of EPS is affected by
the reaction time, temperature, and applied stress. It has iden-
tical resistance to general polystyrene. EPS is sensitive toward
solvent attack which leads to softening and cracking of itself
due to its thin cell walls and large exposed surface. Table IV
summarizes the chemical resistance of EPS with respect to the
common reagents and solvents.
EPS does not react with water, salt, or alkali solution. The
insolubility of EPS in most organic solvent influences the
selection of adhesive, label, and coating of EPS product. In
general, substance is tested for its compatibility with EPS by
exposing molded polystyrene to it at 120–140
F. Despite the
ultraviolet radiation resulted in superficial yellowing and fria-
bility on molded polystyrene, its physical properties remain
unaltered.
Table II. Percentage (%) Volume of Water Absorption93 Adapted from
Ref. 93
Density (kg m−3) After 7 days After 1 year
15 3.0 5.0
20 2.3 4.0
25 2.2 3.8
30 2.0 3.5
35 1.9 3.3

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Table III. Moisture Properties of Jablite EPS92 (Adapted from Ref. 92)

Moisture properties EPS 70 EPS 100 EPS 150 EPS 200 EPS 250
Water vapor diffusion resistance factor, μ 20–40 30–70 30–70 40–100 40–100
−1 −1 −1
Water vapor permeability, δ mg Pa h m 0.015–0.030 0.009–0.020 0.009–0.020 0.006–0.015 0.006–0.015
Vapor resistivity (MNs/g) 145 200 238 238 238

Table IV. Selected EPS Resistant Behavior93 (Adapted from Ref. 93)
produces significantly less toxic fumes as compared to natural
material, for example, wood, wool, or cork.95
Source of attack Resistant behavior
CONCLUSIONS
Salt water (sea water) Resistant
Alkali solutions Resistant
EPS is a well-established insulation material that is used for var-
ious applications such as LWC, decorative molding, backfilling,
Soaps Resistant
and as a core in panel application for buildings. EPS is used for
Caustic soda solutions Resistant applications over a range of both combustible and noncombus-
Bitumen (air blown) Resistant tible materials. EPS is a light yet rigid foam with good thermal
Silicon oils Resistant insulation, impact resistance, load-bearing capacity at low
Alcohol Resistant weight, absolute water and vapor barrier, air tightness for con-
Micro-organisms Resistant trolled environments, long life, low maintenance, fast, and eco-
Paraffin oil, Vaseline, diesel oil Limited resistance nomic construction. This article establishes the feasibility and
benefit of EPS as insulator that satisfies all insulation require-
Petrol (super grade) Nonresistant
ments in building design process, including fire safety. Flame
Strong oxidizing acids Nonresistant
retardant grade EPS is imperative in order to oblige with the fire
Fuming sulfuric acid Nonresistant safety regulation and addressing the flammability and flame
Organic solvents Nonresistant spread on the surface of EPS product. Consequently, EPS is
Saturated aliphatic hydrocarbon Nonresistant implemented in building design in collaboration with other
material capable of resisting fire.
Toxicity and Environmental Effect
EPS is a polymer derived from styrene monomer, a hydrocarbon ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
with molecular compound of C8H8 that burns completely in the This work was supported by the Ministry of Education, Malaysia
presence of excess oxygen to produce carbon dioxide, CO2, and under FRGS Grant FP050-2017A.
water as shown in eq. (1).
CONFLICT OF INTERESTS
C8 H8 + 10O2 ! 8CO2 + 4H2 O ð1Þ
The authors declared that there is no conflict of interests regard-
ing the publication of this article.
As reported by Doroudiani and Omidian,2 the amount of oxygen
available during combustion affects the volume of soot and car-
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