Exploitation of Women in Mass Media Wikipedia

03/10/2020 Exploitation of women in mass media - Wikipedia
Exploitation of women in mass media

The exploitation of women in mass media is the use or portrayal of women in mass media (such
as television, film and advertising) to increase the appeal of media or a product to the detriment of, or
without regard to, the interests of the women portrayed, or women in general. This process includes
the presentation of women as sexual objects and the setting of standards of beauty that women are
expected to reflect.[1] Sexual exploitation of women in the media dates back to 19th century Paris, in
which ballerinas were exposed to harassment and objectification. The ballerinas in the Paris Opera
Ballet were ogled by their male audience members and often even expected to perform sexual favors
for the male subscribers behind the scenes.[2] Feminists and other advocates of women's rights have
criticized such exploitation. The most often criticized aspect of the use of women in mass media is
sexual objectification, but dismemberment can be a part of the objectification as well.
Contents
Criticisms of the media
Advertising
Film
Music
Music videos
Modeling
Pornography
Social media
Television
Video games
Effects on society
Effects on young children and adolescents
Effects on women of colour
Counter arguments
See also
References
Further reading
Criticisms of the media
Advertising
Robert Jensen, Sut Jhally and other cultural critics accuse mass media of using sex in advertising that
promotes the objectification of women to help sell their goods and services.[3][4][5]
In Gender Advertisements, Erving Goffman sought to uncover the covert ways that popular media
constructs masculinity and femininity in a detailed analysis of more than 500 advertisements. The
relationship between men and women, Goffman argued, was portrayed as a parent–child
relationship, one characterized by male power and female subordination.[6]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exploitation_of_women_in_mass_media 1/18
Many contemporary studies of gender and sexualization in popular culture take as their starting point
Goffman's analysis in Gender Advertisements. Among them, later research which expanded empirical
framework by analyzing the aspects of women's sexualization and objectification in advertisements,
M.-E Kang examined the advertisements in women's magazines between 1979 and 1991 and found out
there are still showing the same stereotyped images of women: Nude or partially nude images of
women increased nearly 30% from 1979 to 1991.[7] Lindner further developed Kang's analytical
framework in a study of women in advertisements and found out magazines rely on gender
stereotypes, but in different ways, particularly in terms of sexualization. For example, in Vogue,
sexualized images of women are the primary way of portraying women in positions of inferiority and
low social power.[8]
Research conducted by Eric Hatton and Mary Nell Trautner included a longitudinal content analysis
of images of women and men on more than four decades of Rolling Stone magazine covers (1967–
2009). It found that the frequency of sexualized images of men and women has increased, though the
intensity of sexualization between men and women is different in that women are increasingly likely
to be hypersexualized, but men are not. Researchers argue that the simple presence of images of
sexualized men does not signal equality in media representations of women and men. Sexualized
images may legitimize or exacerbate violence against women and girls, sexual harassment, and anti-
women attitudes among men. They concluded that similarly sexualized images can suggest
victimization for women but confidence for men, consider the implications when women are
sexualized at the same rate as men are not sexualized, as they were on the covers of Rolling Stone in
the 2000s.[9]
Clothing designer Calvin Klein was criticized for using images of young, sexualized girls and women in
his advertisements, having said:
"Jeans are about sex. The abundance of bare flesh is the last gasp of advertisers trying to give
redundant products a new identity."
Calvin Klein has also received media attention for its controversial advertisements in the mid-1990s.
Several of Calvin Klein's advertisements featured images of teenage models, some "who were
reportedly as young as 15" in overly sexual and provocative poses.[10]
In a recent analysis, it was found that almost 30% of the clothing items available for pre-teen girls on
the websites of 15 national stores had sexualizing characteristics. The clothing emphasized or revealed
a sexualized body part (e.g., bikinis and push-up bras), or had characteristics associated with sexiness
(e.g., red satin lingerie-like dresses). This exploitation of women is being seen in younger girls.[11]
The overt use of sexuality to promote breast cancer awareness, through fundraising campaigns like "I
Love Boobies" and "Save the Ta-tas", angers and offends breast cancer survivors and older women,
who are at higher risk of developing breast cancer. Women who have breast cancer say that these
advertising campaigns suggest that having sexy breasts is more important than saving their lives,
which devalues them as human beings.[12]
Another trend that has been studied in advertising is the victimization of women. A study conducted
in 2008 found that women were represented as victims in 9.51% of the advertisements they were
present in. Separate examination by subcategory found that the highest frequency of this is in
women's fashion magazines where 16.57% of the ads featuring women present them as victims.[13]
Film
In considering the way that films are put together, many feminist film critics have pointed to the
"male gaze" that predominates in classical Hollywood film-making. Budd Boetticher summarises the
view thus: "What counts is what the heroine provokes, or rather what she represents. She is the one,
or rather the love or fear she inspires in the hero, or else the concern he feels for her, who makes him
act the way he does. In herself the woman has not the slightest
importance."[14] Laura Mulvey's germinal essay "Visual Pleasure
and Narrative Cinema" (written in 1973 and published in 1975)
expands on this conception of the passive role of women in
cinema to argue that film provides visual pleasure through
scopophilia and identification with the on-screen male actor.[14]
She states: "In their traditional exhibitionist role women are
simultaneously looked at and displayed, with their appearance
coded for strong visual and erotic impact so that they can be said The Hollywood actress Geena Davis
to connote to-be-looked-at-ness," and as a result contends that in in a speech at the Millennium
film a woman is the "bearer of meaning, not maker of meaning". Development Goals Countdown
Mulvey suggests that Lacan's psychoanalytic theory is the key to event in the Ford Foundation
understanding how film creates such a space for female sexual Building in New York, addressing
objectification and exploitation through the combination of the gender roles and issues in film (24
patriarchal order of society, and 'looking' in itself as a pleasurable September 2013)
act of voyeurism, as "the cinema satisfies a primordial wish for
pleasurable looking".[14]
Researchers have determined how sexual objectification of women in film negatively impacts the
mindset of girls and young women. Research has discovered[weasel words] that when girls have had an
extended exposure to films in which female super heroes were dressed in over-sexualized costumes,
they became more aware of their own body competence. This type of exposure can cause a
detrimental view of female roles in the film industry. Research shows that within the 56 top-grossing
films in North America, Scandinavia, Africa, Asia, Latin America and Europe, women and girls were
four times more likely than men to be shown wearing revealing clothing; nearly twice as likely to be
shown as partially nude; and four times more likely to be shown completely naked.[15] The over-
sexualization of female roles in popular Hollywood films has been found to have a negative effect on
girl's self-esteem and can cause them to want to alter their bodies to look more like the actresses in
films and movies.[16]
The Geena Davis Institute on Gender in Media an organization that has been pushing the industry for
years to expand the roles of women in film.[17] Known for her roles in movies such as Thelma and
Louise and Commander In Chief, Geena Davis founded her own nonprofit research in order to
research and change the way that young girls and women are portrayed in films. Davis has expressed
that throughout the film industry, there has been a lack of female representation and a pattern of
inaccurate portrayals of women and girls in movie roles.[18]
Research into the social implications of the presentation of women in film and its effect on the
African-American community indicates that young black girls are exposed to a stereotyped portrayal
of black females which goes beyond sexual objectification. Young black girls are presented with only
one type of depiction: an angry black woman who is obnoxious, ignorant, confrontational and
loud.[19] Not only do they struggle with internalizing these fixed notions of who they are, they are also
faced with definitions of beauty for African American girls that are measured against white standards
of what beauty should be. Film and social media reflect an idea of female beauty based on features
closely resembling those of women of European origin, which is nearly impossible for a black girl to
attain, or indeed any young girl.[19] At the same time black characters are typically depicted in films in
occupational roles such as athletes, servants, musicians and criminals, roles which hold a lower status
than the roles of white characters.[20]
Music
A survey conducted as a part of the Human Use of Music Information Retrieval Systems (HUMIRS)
project found that 73.1% of respondents identified themselves as being "avid listeners" of music.[21]
Popular music often contains messages about women that involve misogyny, sexual violence and
abuse.
Listeners are often absorbing messages exploiting women without it being obvious. There are multiple
online articles that seek to identify songs that have misogynistic undertones woven throughout
them.[22][23] For example, an article in the online US women's magazine Bustle provided a clip of
lyrics from the song "Fine China" by Chris Brown. He sings "It's alright, I'm not dangerous / When
you're mine, I'll be generous / You're irreplaceable; Collectible / Just like fine China." The article went
on to conclude that the song was demeaning to women by referring to them as objects or
possessions.[22]
Music is a key factor in the socialization of children. Children and adolescents often turn to music
lyrics as an outlet away from loneliness or as a source of advice and information. The results of a study
through A Kaiser Family Foundation Study in 2005 showed that 85% of youth ages 8–18 listen to
music each day.[24] While music is commonly thought of as only a means of entertainment, studies
have found that music is often chosen by youth because it mirrors their own feelings and the content
of the lyrics is important to them.[25] Numerous studies have been conducted to research how music
influences listeners behaviors and beliefs.[26][27][28] For example, a study featured in the Journal of
Youth and Adolescence found that when compared to adolescent males who did not like heavy metal
music, those who liked heavy metal had a higher occurrence of deviant behaviors. These behaviors
included sexual misconduct, substance abuse and family issues.[29]
Music videos
Gan, Zillmann and Mitrook found that exposure to sexually explicit rap promotes unfavorable
evaluations of black women. Following exposure to sexual rap, as compared with exposure to
romantic music or to no music, the assessment of the female performers' personality resulted in a
general downgrading of positive traits and a general upgrading of negative ones.[30] A 2008 study by
Zhang et al. showed that exposure to sexually explicit music videos was associated with stronger
endorsement of sexual double standards (e.g., belief that it is less acceptable for women to be sexually
experienced than for men). Exposure to sexual content was also associated with more permissive
attitudes toward premarital sex, regardless of gender, overall television viewing, and previous sexual
experience.[31] However, Gad Saad argues that the premise that music videos yield harmful effects
and that the harm would be sex-specific (e.g., women's self-concepts will be negatively affected) has
not been supported by research.[32]
A survey found that 72.2% of black, 68.0% of white, and 69.2% of Hispanic youths agree with the
suggestion that rap music videos contain "too many" references to sex.[33][34]
Despite the lack of adequate research linking music videos to negative self perception by young girls,
research has shown adolescents have a higher susceptibility rate than other age brackets. More
importantly, music videos are one of the many significant mediums that perpetuate sexual
objectification of females, implicitly creating fixed gender norms.[35] The perpetuation of females
being nothing more than seductive "creatures" to men can presumably lead to young girls
internalizing their self worth as nothing more than mere objects.
Modeling
In her article, "Negative effect of media on girls," Monique Smith discusses the evolution of acceptable
female figures throughout time. The transition between sexy meaning curvaceous to sexy meaning
thin made it difficult for women to keep up with the ideal feminine figure. Striving for the virtually
unattainable perfect body, women were viewed as a new way to make money. The use of size 0 in
advertisements and products of the clothing industry has been met with criticism. For example, Dawn
Porter, a reporter from the UK who had been challenged to go on an extreme celebrity 'size zero' diet
for a new BBC programme, Super Slim Me, logged her experiences about her journey to a size zero.
A study conducted in the UK found evidence that anorexia nervosa is a socially transmitted disease
and exposure to skinny models may be a contributing factor in the cause of anorexia nervosa.[36]
According to model, Sarah Ziff, stories are told in the industry about models being sexually
assaulted.[37] Fernanda Ly, a pink-haired model who has worked for designers such as Louis Vuitton
and Christian Dior, says that she was groped at a young age by a stylist while shooting a lookbook, and
the memory still haunts her.[38] In 2007 Anand Jon Alexander, a successful designer who appeared
on America's Next Top Model, was arrested on charges of rape, sexual battery and performing lewd
acts on a child, charges which in many cases concerned models who aspired to work for him.[39] He
was sentenced to 59 years in prison.[40]
Models have been denied food on shoots as they are expected to be thin, according to model Vanessa
Perron.[41] Due to the low level of regulation in the industry, modeling agencies often view their
models as independent contractors rather than employees and attempts to unionize the industry have
been largely unsuccessful. There are allegations that a fraudulent modeling agency in Florida drugged
aspirant models and used them to create pornographic films. According to former agency executive
Carolyn Kramer: "When you're a supermodel like Giselle or Christy Turlington you're treated like
royalty, but 99% of models are treated like garbage".[42] The low level of regulation makes it easy for
bad agencies to thrive and treat workers as nothing more than a source for profit. In their defence,
modeling agencies have said that models work at odd hours for different clients, which means they
cannot be considered employees. Legally speaking, models sign on to management companies and
not the other way around.[42] The Model Alliance, created by the model Sara Ziff, provides its
members with protection, advice and support. It is guided by a partnership between the American
Guild of Musical Artists and the Actors' Equity Association.[43]
Pornography
In Effects of Prolonged Consumption of Pornography, a review of pornography research conducted

for the Surgeon General in 1986, Dolf Zillmann noted that some inconsistencies in the literature on
pornography exist, but overall concluded that extensive viewing of pornographic material may
produce some negative sociological effects, including a decreased respect for long-term, monogamous
relationships, and an attenuated desire for procreation.[44] He describes the theoretical basis for these
conclusions stating:
The values expressed in pornography clash so obviously with the family concept, and they
potentially undermine the traditional values that favor marriage, family, and children...
Pornographic scripts dwell on sexual engagements of parties who have just met, who are
in no way attached or committed to each other, and who will part shortly, never to meet
again... Sexual gratification in pornography is not a function of emotional attachment, of
kindness, of caring, and especially not of continuance of the relationship, as such
continuance would translate into responsibilities, curtailments, and costs...[45]
Another study conducted by Svedin, Åkermana, and Priebe concluded that male partners' use of
pornography might be integrated within the objectification theory framework for women, considering
that pornography is a socialization agent for sexual attitudes and behavior. It often portrays men
objectifying women via gazing at women's breasts and/or labia, non-permitted aggressive and
sexualized touching of women's body parts, making sexual and derogatory remarks about women's
body parts, and engaging in forceful oral and anal sex despite women gagging and crying. As
pornography portrays women succumbing to this objectification, male viewers may internalize a view
that these behaviors are acceptable.[46] According to the tenets of social learning theory, men who
view pornography may learn and transfer the objectifying behaviors they view in pornography to
sexual encounters with their female partners. Men's pornography use may correspond to higher levels
of experienced sexual objectification by their female partners. Pornography usage may also enable
men to treat their female partners in objectifying ways and believe that it is acceptable to do so.
Partner's use of pornography can also be negatively linked to women's well-being. Qualitative studies
of women whose male partners heavily use pornography have revealed that these women reported
lower relational and psychological well-being. The women perceived that their partner's pornography
use was connected to their inability to be intimately and authentically open and vulnerable within
their relationships. Women from this qualitative research also reported a personal struggle regarding
the implications of their male partners pornography use for their own self-worth and value. These
women were feeling less attractive and desirable after becoming aware of their male partner's
pornography use.[47] Similarly, women view their partners in a new way. The general conclusion that
women feel is that their partner is not who they originally thought he/she was. The mate is seen as a
sexually questionable and degraded being since the partner seeks sexual fulfilment through the
objectification and sometimes degradation of women.[48]
Social media
Social media has a prominent effect on people's lives, especially those who use social media platforms
more frequently than others. A study conducted in 2006 found inverse relationships between the
frequency of social media usage and the relationships adolescents formed with the impact it had on
their sense of self.[49] When social media usage increased, adolescents began to form stronger
relationships online while their sense of self was impacted negatively. According to a study conducted
by Xinyan Zhao, Mengqi Zhan, and Brooke F. Liu, social media content that weaves emotional
components in a positive manner appears to have the benefit of also increasing one's online
influence.[50] Positive social media content results in increased presence on networking sites among
adolescent users.
Digital social media platforms such as Twitter, Instagram, and Snapchat allow individuals to establish
their influence through sharing opinions, insights, experiences and perspectives with others.[51] In the
2000s, these platforms have emerged as integral communities for publics to voice their opinions,
resulting in a changed online behavior associated largely with misinformation.[52] One example of
these behaviors is displayed in a 2017 Dutch study conducted by Johanna M. F. van Oosten. This
study found that adolescents play out stereotypical gender roles in their self-presentations in social
media. Results of this study show that it is predominantly women that feel pressured to conform to
hyper femininity and stereotypical gender roles online, including personality traits, domestic
behaviors, occupations, and physical appearances.[53]
The prevalence of social media and its influence on self-perception among adolescents, especially
young girls, is undeniable. Research has shown a significant scientific link between social media and
depression among young girls.[54] In addition, this link between depression and social media
perceptions has been connected to obesity among young girls.[54] The negative implications social
media poses on women associated with their appearance or how they carry themselves reveals a chain
reaction; the depression related to negative social media experiences can manifest itself in the form of
poor academic performance and further mental and physical health issues.[54]
Such evidence of substantial mental and physical harm suggests that the root of the problem can be
found not only within social media advertising and usage, but in the way young girls are taught to
internalized responses on various social media platforms.
Television
Television is often subject to criticism for the sexual exploitation of women on screen, particularly
when teenagers are involved. In 2013, the Parents Television Council released a report that found that
it was increasingly more likely for a scene to be exploitative when a teenage girl was involved. The
report also found that 43 percent of teen girls on television are the targets of sexually exploitative
jokes compared to 33 percent of adult women. Rev. Delman Coates, a PTC board member said,
"young people are having difficulty managing the distinction between appropriate and inappropriate
sexual conduct". This report is of a series that's about media sexualization of young girls.[55]
The researchers from the study claim that "[i]f media images communicate that sexual exploitation is
neither serious nor harmful, the environment is being set for sexual exploitation to be viewed as
trivial and acceptable. As long as there are media producers who continue to find the degradation of
women to be humorous, and media outlets that will air the content, the impact and seriousness of
sexual exploitation will continue to be understated and not meaningfully addressed in our society."[56]
A 2012 study led by sociologist Stacy L. Smith found that in both prime-time television and family
films, women were highly likely to be depicted as thin and scantily clad. They were also vastly
underrepresented in STEM fields when compared to their male counterparts, and had less speaking
roles. According to this study, only 28.3 percent of characters in family films, 30.8 percent of
characters in children's shows, and 38.9 percent of characters on prime time television were
women.[57]
According to a report by the Women's Media Center (WMC), it found that the gender gap has not
declined and that in some industries it has gotten worse. In television, it found the percentage of
female TV characters has decreased and that the ones who make it on-screen are not likely to get the
lead roles compared to the male characters. "According to the Center for the Study of Women in
Television & Film's 'Boxed In' report, CW Television Network[58] is the only TV network where
women can be seen in accurate proportion to their representation in the U.S. population".[59]
Video games
According to a report done by the Entertainment Software

Association in 2013, 55% of game players are male and 45% are
female.[47] Women's roles in many modern games usually are less
important to the game and rely heavily on stereotypes.[61] Video
games' female characters also tend be lighter skinned individuals,
as are their male counterparts. Furthermore, many of the female
characters found in video games intentionally depict woman to be
sultry and enhance the body form of females in an effort to appeal
to men's desires[62] Although not demonstrating blatantly racist
stereotypes, many games practice racism through omission of
racially diverse characters.[63]
Video games have been found to offer a smaller range of roles to

female characters compared to male characters, and these roles The video game heroine Lara Croft
tend to involve being victims or prizes to be won. The majority of (here portrayed by Alison Carroll) is
female characters are also not playable. These roles for women often cited as an example for the
have been found to have a negative impact on the perception of sexual objectification of women in
women in gaming and even main playable female characters are video games.[60]
found to be unrealistically proportioned with revealing clothing.
If a sexualized female character is the main protagonist and
portrayed in a positive light, studies have shown a potential negative effect if the character is hyper-
sexualized in a stereotypical manner.[64] A recent Ohio State University Study has found that sexist
and violent content in games cause male gamers to identify with the male lead, and find less empathy
with female victims of violence,[65] although a 2017 review of this paper suggested several flaws and a
reanalysis of the dataset using different statistical methods found no sexist effect, concluding "These
results call into question whether use of “sexist” video games is a causal factor in the development of
reduced empathy toward girls and women among adolescents".[66] Similarly, the results of a 2015
study suggested that "sexist video game play is related to men perceiving women in a stereotypic and
sexist way", but found that the same correlation did not occur with female players.[67]
A German longitudinal study from 2011 to 2015 explored the connection between gaming and sexist
attitudes. The results of this study concluded both that playing video games was not predictive of
sexist beliefs and that sexist beliefs were not predicative of video game play. The researchers stressed,
however, that the study did not, nor was intended to, disprove the existence of sexist attitudes in
general.[68] A 2012 study also raised concerns about the correlation between video games and
individual attitudes. Focusing on the Singaporean subjects playing the game Grand Theft Auto, the
study found some evidence of "first order cultivation effects" – which relate to the perceptions of
situations and issues – but found that second order effects, relating to beliefs and issues, were
provided with only limited support by the study. This led the authors to conclude that previous
studies on cultivation effects from television may not directly relate to effects from video game
playing.[69]
The trend of portraying sex-typed images of women and violence against women in popular video
games continues to proliferate and promulgate in video games. Video games depicting sexual
objectification of women and violence against women resulted in statistically significant increased
rape myths acceptance for male study participants but not for female participants.[61][70] A 2016
study by Fox and Potocki had similar findings, in which they ran a survey which found that "video
game consumption throughout the life span is associated with interpersonal aggression, hostile
sexism, and RMA [Rape Myth Acceptance]".[71]
Out of the top 10 video games listed midyear 2010 (New Super Mario Brothers; Call Of Duty: Modern
Warfare; Battlefield: Bad Company 2; Final Fantasy XIII; Wii Fit Plus; God of War III; Pokémon
SoulSilver; Wii Sports Resort, Mass Effect 2, Pokémon HeartGold Version; Morris, 2010), most have
violent content, including violence against women, and some contain sexual objectification of women.
Not only are gamers increasingly being exposed to video games containing sexual objectification of
and violence against women, but research also indicates that such exposure can be excessive.[61] A
national sample of youth aged 8 to 18 found that "8.5 percent of video game players exhibited
pathological patterns of play," which is "very similar to the prevalence demonstrated in many other
studies of this age group, including across nations".[72]
Effects on society
Critics of the prevalent portrayals of women in the mass media observe possible negative
consequences for various segments of the population, such as:[73][74][75]
Women self-objectify in terms of body surveillance by adopting a form of self-consciousness in

which they habitually monitor their own body's outward appearance and spend significant
amounts of attention on how others may perceive their physical appearance[76]
Unrealistic expectations held of how women should look or behave.
Stereotyping of women who are positively portrayed by or sexualized in the media, such as the
theme of a "dumb blonde" or "blonde bimbo", limiting the societal and career opportunities for
people who fit these stereotypes.[77]
Psychological/psychiatric disorders such as body dysmorphic disorder, anorexia nervosa, and
bulimia nervosa.
The excessively coercive nature of appeal to strong sexual instincts to sell products or promote
media.
Increase in the likelihood and acceptance of sexual violence.[78]
According to Muehlenkamp and Saris–Baglama, self-objectification of women can lead to depression,

noting that "the relationship between self-objectification and depression can be explained by the
anxiety and powerlessness women may experience as a result of not knowing when or where they will
encounter objectification. These feelings may increase women's vulnerability to depressive symptoms.
Once a woman starts to self-objectify and compare her body to others, it may be a risk factor for
holistic human functioning, and may also lead to impairment in multiple life tasks, such as forming
meaningful interpersonal relationships and achieving academic success."[79]
In addition, it can lead to sexual dysfunction. Engaging in sexual activity involves another person
focusing attention on one's body and during sexual relations a woman can be distracted by thoughts
about her body rather than experiencing sexual pleasure.[80]
Many studies have shown the negative effects that this exploitation of women in the media has on the
mental health of young women, but recently the studies have focused on aging women in western
societies. It has been observed that the exploitation of young attractive women in the media causes
aging women to feel a variety of emotions including sadness, anger, concern, envy, desensitization,
marginalization, and discomfort that their appearance was being judged by others.[81]
A study done in 1994 about the effects of media on young and middle-aged women found that of
adolescent girls aged 11–17, the primary desire was to "lose weight and keep it off." The results were
not different for older women. When asked what they'd most like to change about their lives, the
answer for over half of them was their body and weight.[82]
A recent study done by Vanderbilt University illustrated how sexist commercials have a greater
impact on wellbeing than commercials that do not exploit women. The study was designed with three
different groups: one was exposed to sexist media, one was exposed to neutral media, and the control
group was not exposed to media at all. Of the women exposed to sexist advertising, there was a
substantial difference. The women in this group expressed having a body larger than it was in
actuality and expressed feeling a greater disparity between their own body and the "ideal body."
Following exposure to this kind of media, there was an immediate negative effect on their mood. It
was also concluded that adolescent girls exposed to sexist media are the most highly impacted
demographic.[82]
A study reported in 2018 demonstrated the effects of showing a group of women, aged from 18 to 41,
images of thin and overweight (or plus size) female models. The researchers measured the change in
the subjects' views of their body image and their overall anxiety levels. The results of the research
showed that the social comparison effects of viewing images of thin women can worsen body image
and increase anxiety.[83]
Effects on young children and adolescents
Statistically, a significant number of young children are exposed to sexualized media forms from early
within their childhood: influence upon girls' self-image has been reported within girls as young as 5 or
6.[84] According to the social cognitive theory, modeling such behaviors outlined within popular
media have long-lasting effects upon the self-awareness and self-identity of young girls.
In a study on the sexualization of women in media, by the American Psychological Association, it was
found that women or girls are, statistically speaking, more likely to be dressed provocatively and
forced into poses that suggest sexuality. Another study, on print media, completed by psychology
researchers at Wesleyan University found that 51.8% of the time, women are objectified in
advertisements. This number changes when the study was narrowed to men's print, where women
were objectified in an increased 76% of advertisements.[85]
A common problem seen among young girls is any number of afflictions directly attributed to a
negative body image, caused by these objectified ads. The APA is aware of this situation and put
together a task force to complete a study across all major advertising and media platforms. What they
found was numerous problems being found in young women can be traced back to these displays of
women as sexual objects. The affects span a wide range of disorders and illnesses, from anxiety, to
eating disorders, to depression, and even prevent young girls from creating a healthy sexual life. This
task force is reaching out to both the media and families with young children in an attempt to
properly inform all people on the negative impacts of the way media is used nowadays.[86]
A study conducted by the Department of Psychology at Knox College provided insight into risk factors
such as media consumption hours, maternal self-objectification, maternal religiosity, and television
mediation; each has been shown to affect rates of media influence and rates of self-internalization of
their potential negative influence.[87]
Effects on women of colour
Support has shown that the effects of media exploitation vary for women of different ethnicities.
Research has depicted that these implications often resonate beyond cultural boundaries, to cause
significant differences among African American, Latina, and Asian American women.
According to the American Psychological Association, when comparing one's body to the sexualized
cultural ideals, this significantly impaired the ability for women of these ethnicities to regulate
cognitive functions, including logical reasoning and spatial skills.[74]
Spanish-language TV in the United States statistically projects more stereotypical roles for Latina
women, often portraying them as 'exoticized' and 'overly sexual'; meanwhile, more Latina youth, on
average, watch more television than that of the standard caucasian American child.[84] This
combination projects increased rates of the acceptance of the negative effects within minority women
within the US, leading to a greater acceptance of standard gender roles and negative stereotypes
projected by Latina characters. However, studies have shown that Latina women who watch more
black-oriented television shows see a general increase of body acceptance over time.
Counter arguments
Gallup & Robinson, an advertising and marketing research firm, has reported that in more than 50
years of testing advertising effectiveness, it has found the use of the erotic to be a significantly above-
average technique in communicating with the marketplace, "...although one of the more dangerous
for the advertiser. Weighted down with taboos and volatile attitudes, sex is a Code Red advertising
technique ... handle with care ... seller beware; all of which makes it even more intriguing." This
research has led to the popular idea that "sex sells".
Camille Paglia holds that "Turning people into sex objects is one of the specialties of our species." In
her view, objectification is closely tied to (and may even be identical with) the highest human faculties
toward conceptualization and aesthetics.[88]
Danish criminologist Berl Kutchinsky's Studies on Pornography and sex crimes in Denmark (1970), a
scientific report ordered by the Presidential Commission on Obscenity and Pornography, found that
the legalizing of pornography in Denmark had not (as expected) resulted in an increase of sex
crimes.[89] Since then, many other experiments have been conducted, either supporting or opposing
the findings of Berl Kutchinsky, who would continue his study into the social effects of pornography
until his death in 1995. His life's work was summed up in the publication Law, Pornography, and
Crime: The Danish Experience (1999).[90] Milton Diamond from the University of Hawaii found that
the number of reported cases of child sex abuse dropped markedly immediately after the ban on
sexually explicit materials was lifted in 1989.[91]
Some researchers, such as Susan Bordo and Rosalind Gill, argue against using the phrase "sexual
objectification" to describe such images because they often depict women as active, confident, and/or
sexually desirous.[92][93] For this argument, there have been several refutations that intensity of
women's sexualization suggests that "sexual object" may indeed be the only appropriate label. The
accumulation of sexualized attributes in these images leaves little room for observers to interpret
them in any way other than as instruments of sexual pleasure and visual possession for a heterosexual
male audience.[47] Yet, some scholars have criticized such statements as overly homogenizing because
they render invisible differences in this process of sexualization.[94]
Some social conservatives have agreed with aspects of the feminist critique of sexual objectification.
In their view however, the increase in the sexual objectification of both sexes in Western culture is one
of the negative legacies of the sexual revolution.[95][96][97][98][99] These critics, notably Wendy Shalit,
advocate a return to pre-sexual revolution standards of sexual morality, which Shalit refers to as a
"return to modesty", as an antidote to sexual objectification.[96][100]
See also
Bechdel test Sex in advertising
Dehumanization Sex in film
Gender advertisement Sexual objectification
Gender role Sexual revolution
Killing Us Softly Sexuality in music videos
Media and gender Sex in video games
Misogyny and mass media Sexualization
Rape culture
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Further reading
Heldman, Caroline (2 July 2012). "Sexual Objectification (Part 1): What is It? - Sociological
Images" (https://thesocietypages.org/socimages/2012/07/02/sexual-objectification-part-1-what-is-i
t/comment-page-3/). thesocietypages.org.
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03/10/2020 Exploitation of women in mass media - Wikipedia

Exploitation of women in mass media

Criticisms of the media

In Effects of Prolonged Consumption of Pornography, a review of pornography research conducted

According to a report done by the Entertainment Software

Video games have been found to offer a smaller range of roles to

Women self-objectify in terms of body surveillance by adopting a form of self-consciousness in

Increase in the likelihood and acceptance of sexual violence.[78]

According to Muehlenkamp and Saris–Baglama, self-objectification of women can lead to depression,

Effects on young children and adolescents

Effects on women of colour

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