Bioresource Technology 100 (2009) 3147–3151

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Bioresource Technology
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/biortech

Short Communication

Lemon juice improves the extractability and quality characteristics of pectin

from yellow passion fruit by-product as compared with commercial
citric acid extractant
Beda M. Yapo *
UFR-Sciences et Technologie des Aliments, Abobo-Adjamé Université, 02 BP 801, Abidjan 02, Côte d’Ivoire

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: An environment-friendly procedure, allowing the extraction of safe pectin products with good functional
Received 6 November 2008 properties from yellow passion fruit by-product, was developed using two natural acid extractants,
Received in revised form 14 January 2009 namely, pure lemon juice and citric acid solvent. The results show that both of them solubilise, from cell
Accepted 25 January 2009
wall material, pectins characterised by high galacturonic acid content (64–78% w/w), degree of esterifi-
Available online 28 February 2009
cation (52–73), viscosity-average molecular weight (70–95 kDa) and capable of forming gels in the pres-
ence of high soluble solids (sucrose) content and acid. However, compared to pure citric acid solvents,
Keywords:
lemon natural juice and its concentrate isolate, under similar extraction conditions, pectins of superior
Agro-residues
Natural extractant
quality characteristics, i.e., higher galacturonic acid content, degree of esterification, viscosity-average
Gelling biopolymers molecular weight and gelling power.
Esterification Ó 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Physicochemical properties

1. Introduction their main drawback. Special treatments, able to remove poten-

Pectins are biopolymers present in all land plant cell walls and
responsible for gel formation. Commercial citrus and apple pectins
are consequently mainly utilised in the food industry, commonly
as gelling agents in jams, jellies and marmalades and sometimes
as beverage stabilisers (Kertesz, 1951). However, pectins isolated
under certain extraction conditions from some plant by-products,
such as sugar beet pulp, may also be employed as oil-in-water
emulsifying and/or emulsion-stabilising agents (Yapo et al.,
2007a). Industrially, pectins are extracted from citrus peel (lemon,
lime, orange, and grapefruit) and apple pomace using water acidi-
fied with a strong mineral acid, notably, nitric, hydrochloric or sul-
phuric acid (the so-called conventional acid extraction) under pH,
temperature, and duration conditions most often in the order of
1.4–3, 60–100 °C, and 20–360 min, respectively (Yapo, 2008). The
preferential use of these acid types lies in the fact that they are
cheaper (Kertesz, 1951). Moreover, produced pectins are generally
enriched in galacturonic acid (or homogalacturonic building
blocks) as a result of substantial hydrolysis of pectin neutral su-
gar-containing rhamnogalacturonic regions under low pH (<2)
and high temperature conditions (Yapo et al., 2007b). However,
the well-known toxicity of these strong mineral acids and the envi-
ronmentally unfriendly (corrosive) effluents they generate are
* Tel.: +225 03 12 85 71; fax: +225 20 30 43 00.
E-mail address: bedamarcel@yahoo.fr
tially toxic elements from pectin extracts, are therefore needed
for the final product to abide by the GRAS (generally recognised
as safe) status and to be accepted for consumption. A new trend
is now attempting to extract pectins with the help of microbial cel-
lulase and/or hemicellulase-rich enzymatic preparations, resulting
in the so-called ‘green labelled- or bio-pectins’. The reported non-
(or weak-) gelling ability of those enzyme-extracted pectins is,
however, their main drawback (Evageliou et al., 2005; Ptichkina
et al., 2008). Recent studies (Canteri-Schemin et al., 2005;
O’Donoghue and Somerfield, 2008; Pinheiro et al., 2008) have re-
ported that citric acid is a good pectin extracting agent with regard
to the pectin yield and main intrinsic parameters (degree of meth-
oxy-esterification and average molecular weight) governing gel
formation.
Citric acid (or 2-hydroxy-1,2,3 propane tri-carboxylic acid) is a
weak triprotic organic acid that is naturally concentrated in a great
number of plant fruits, especially in citrus ones. Among fruits, citric
acid is most concentrated in lime (Citrus aurantifolia) and lemon
(Citrus limon), accounting for 1.38 (4.87  104) and 1.44 g/oz
(5.08  104 mg/kg) of lime juice and lemon juice, respectively,
and representing as much as 8% of the dry fruit weight (Penniston
et al., 2008) and 6% of the juice weight. Citrus juice comprises dif-
ferent weak acids, notably, citric, malic, ascorbic, molonic, oxalic,
and succinic acids (Clements, 1964; Matsumoto and Shiraishi,
1981), citric acid being the predominant acid type and providing
95% of the overall acidity. Citric acid is known as a food additive

0960-8524/$ - see front matter Ó 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.biortech.2009.01.039
3148 B.M. Yapo / Bioresource Technology 100 (2009) 3147–3151
and frequently used for preserving, flavouring, or adding acidity
and sour taste to food and beverages. It is recognised as safe for
use in food by all major national and international food regulatory
agencies.
By comparing citric acid to a conventional (nitric or sulphuric)
acid extraction of pectin from yellow passion fruit (Passiflora edulis
flavicarpa) rind, it has been observed that the yield of citric acid-
extracted pectin is significantly lower, but the latter has better de-
gree of methoxy-esterification (DE), macromolecular and gelling
properties (Yapo, 2008). Within the goal of establishing not only
an environmentally friendly extraction procedure but also to im-
prove extraction yield and possibly quality characteristics of pectin
from yellow passion fruit (YPF) rind, lemon juice is compared with
a ‘pure’ citric acid extractant prepared from commercial (Aspergil-
lus niger mould-produced) citric acid.
2. Methods
2.1. Raw materials and production of lemon juice and cell wall
materials
Fifty to 75 kg bagful of mature fresh lemon fruits (Citrus limon)
and YPFs (Passiflora edulis f. flavicarpa Degener) were purchased
from a local market producer (Bacon city, Ivory Coast) and fruits
were cleaned, dipped in 2% aqueous sodium hypochlorite, air dried,
and ripened at ambient temperature (25 ± 2 °C) and 85% relative
humidity (RH) until full ripeness, which was evaluated by simple
methods of visual inspection of skin colour change, at day inter-
vals, and texture measurement in terms of entire peeled fruit
(mesocarp) firmness as they became completely yellow and
assessment of the ratio of total soluble solids (TSS; expressed as
°Brix) to titratable acidity (TA; expressed as citric acid, mg/kg) of
pressed juice until a nearly constant ratio was obtained. Fruit firm-
ness was evaluated using a TMS-Pro Texture Analyser (Food Tech-
Lemon fruits
Peeling/cutting
Skin (flavedo)
discarded
Filtrate, pH 2.39
Mixing with absolute
ethanol (1:2, v/v)
Centrifugation/filtration
Filtrate
Ethanol rotary-evaporation (40 °C)
Purified juice, pH adjustment to
2.39 if necessary
Rotary-concentration (40 °C)
Natural juice, pH 2.39, Concentrate, pH 1.62,
kept at -20 °C kept at -20 °C
Fig. 1. Scheme of production of lemon juice and cell wall material.
nology Corp., Sterling, VA) fitted with a 5/16-in. (7.9 mm) diameter
stainless steel traditional Magness Taylor probe for fruit punctur-
ing, which travelled 30 mm through the fruit from its surface at a
penetrating speed of 10 mm/min. TSS and pH of pressed lemon
juice were determined using a 10450 AO Abbe Mark II benchtop
Refractometer (Reichert-Leica Inc., Scientific Instrument Division,
Buffalo, NY) and with a 510 Oakton benchtop pH/ion/mV meter
(Oakton Instruments., Vernon Hills, IL), respectively. TA was deter-
mined by titration of tenfold diluted juice samples with a 0.2 mol/L
NaOH solution in the presence of two drops of phenolphthalein
indicator (Yapo, 2008). Lemon fruit reaching of full ripeness stage
was necessary for optimisation of the juice extractability. Part of
extracted lemon natural juice was concentrated in order to study
the effect of its acid concentration on pectin extraction. The raw
material used for pectin production, namely, YPF rind was
blanched and alcohol-treated to inactivate possible endogenous
enzymes and to remove alcohol-soluble solids, especially free sug-
ars and pigments to some extent as described previously (Yapo and
Koffi, 2006, 2008a). The remaining insoluble, referred to as cell wall
material (CWM), was oven-dried at 35 °C for 24 h and kept at room
temperature in a desiccator until use. The scheme of production of
lemon juice and CWM is shown in Fig. 1.
2.2. Production of pectins
Pectins were extracted from purified YPF rind CWM with lemon
juice, its concentrate or citric acid solvents under similar extraction
conditions: dry CWM to extractant weight ratio of 1:25, tempera-
ture of 80 °C, extraction duration of 90 min, and number of extrac-
tion of two. At the end of each extraction, the slurry was
centrifuged and filtered on G-3 sintered glass, and then the ob-
tained pectin solution was rapidly brought to pH 3 using a
0.2 mol/L sodium citrate solution for the sake of its stability. Ex-
tracts were concentrated and dialysed against water in
Peeled/cut fruits
Juice extraction with a
Kenwood extractor
Centrifugation/filtration
Insoluble
Water washing/blanching
Blanched peeled (albedo)
Ethanol boiling/washing
Purified peel
Precipitate
discarded Oven-drying (35 °C/24 h)
Cell wall material (CWM)
kept at 23 °C in a dessicator
 B.M. Yapo / Bioresource Technology 100 (2009) 3147–3151 3149

12,000 Mw cut-off membrane (Fisher Scientific., Pittsburgh, PA),
prior to pectin precipitation in 3 volumes of 95% (v/v) ethanol at
5 °C for 2 h. Pectin precipitate was washed twice with 70% (v/v)
ethanol followed by 95% (v/v) ethanol and kept under a fume
extractor for a while, and then oven-dried at 35 °C for 24 h and
weighed. Pectin extraction was carried out in triplicate for each
type of process.
2.3. Pectin characterisation
Pectin samples were first acid-alcohol purified and then ana-
lysed for their galacturonic acid (GalA) and neutral sugar contents,
DE, viscosity-average molecular weight (Mv), gelling velocity (ex-
pressed as setting time), and gelling power (expressed as °sag) as
fully described previously (Yapo, 2008; Yapo and Koffi, 2006). Pec-
tin gel preparations contained 65.0% soluble solids (sucrose), 0.70%
wt pectin at pH 2.3 (fine-tuned with a citric acid solution).
2.4. Statistical analysis
The collected data were statistically evaluated by the global test
of a single factor analysis of variance (ANOVA), followed by the
Bonferroni’s post-hoc test for multiple comparisons whenever
applicable using a GraphPad Prism V.3 software (GraphPad soft-
ware Inc., San Diego, CA). Differences in the means of treatments
were evaluated at a significant level of 0.05.
3. Results
(Matsumoto and Shiraishi, 1981) and/or in fruit origin. The mea-
sured initial pH-values of produced lemon natural juice and its
concentrate are 2.39 and 1.62, respectively (Table 1). Therefore,
starting pH-values of pure citric acid solvents are fine-tuned to
2.4 (solvent A) and 1.6 (solvent B) so as to extract pectins under
similar (acidic) conditions.
3.2. Yields of extracted pectins
The yields of pectins extracted with lemon juice at pH 2.39, its
concentrate at pH 1.62 and pure citric acid solvents at pH 2.4 and
1.6 are 6.4%, 10.8%, 3.9%, and 8.4% (w/w), respectively (Table 1).
The yield of extracted pectin is significantly (p < 0.05) higher with
lemon juice than with pure citric acid. The yields of pectins are
greater when they are extracted at lower pH than at higher pH-val-
ues irrespective of extractants (lemon juice or pure citric acid sol-
vent). The yield of pectin extracted with lemon juice concentrate is
close to the reported 11.21% pectin yield, from lemon by-products,
using a date juice extractant (Masmoudi et al., 2008) even though,
in their case, the fruit natural juice has first been diluted (to pH
5.62) with water used for its extraction from date paste and subse-
quently brought to pH 2.8 with citric acid in the extracting mixture
containing lemon by-products. Furthermore, extraction of pectin
with filtered lemon juice at pH 2.39 (without alcohol-purification
beforehand) does not significantly affect the yield of extracted pec-
tin from YPF rind CWM (results not shown); implying that only a
negligible amount of pectin is co-extracted with juice from peeled
lemon fruits.

3.1. Total acidity, citric acid content and pH of produced lemon juice
The acid concentration of produced lemon natural juice is
0.73 mol/L (Table 1). On the basis of this total acidity, it is calcu-
lated that the citric acid content of juice is 4.45  104 mg/kg,
assuming that citric acid accounts for 95% of the titratable acid-
ity. The citric acid content of extracted lemon juice is lower than
the reported value of 1.44 g/oz (5.08  104 mg/kg) of squeezed
lemon juice (Penniston et al., 2008), probably due to existing dif-
ferences in the methods of assessment of citric acid concentration
(ion chromatography in their study), in ripening stage of lemon
fruits (full ripeness in this study) as had been shown by others
3.3. Sugar composition and physicochemical characteristics of
extracted pectins
The GalA content of pectins ranges from 63.8% to 78.3% (Table
1). The GalA contents of pectins extracted with lemon juice at pH
2.39 and citric acid at pH 2.4 are similar. In contrast, pectin solubi-
lised with lemon juice concentrate at pH 1.62 has a higher GalA
content than pectin extracted with citric acid at pH 1.6. At lower
starting pH, either of them extracts pectin with a higher GalA con-
tent. The neutral sugar contents of all the extracted pectins are sig-
nificantly (p < 0.05) different, ranging from 9.9% to 17.9% (Table 1).
Pectins extracted at lower pH-values have lower neutral sugar con-

Table 1
Yield and physicochemical characteristics of pectins extracted from yellow passion fruit rind cell wall material with lemon juice or citric acid extractant.

Lemon juice Citric acid

Natural Concentrate Solvent A Solvent B
Titratable acidity (mol/L) 0.73 ± 0.02 ND ND ND
Starting pH pH 2.39 ± 0.05a pH 1.62 ± 0.03b pH 2.4 pH 1.6
Pectin yield (g/100 g DM) 6.4 ± 0.4a 10.8 ± 0.9b 3.9 ± 0.3c 8.4 ± 0.4d
Sugar composition (%, w/w)
Galacturonic acid 67.9 ± 1.4ac 78.3 ± 1.4b 63.8 ± 2.9a 71.2 ± 3.1c
Rhamnose 3.2 ± 0.1a 1.8 ± 0.1b 3.5 ± 0.2c 2.2 ± 0.1d
Arabinose 4.8 ± 0.2a 3.1 ± 0.3b 6.1 ± 0.4c 3.9 ± 0.4d
Galactose 4.3 ± 0.3a 3.7 ± 0.2b 5.2 ± 0.2c 4.1 ± 0.3ab
Xylose 1.9 ± 0.2ac 1.2 ± 0.1b 2.3 ± 0.2a 1.5 ± 0.3bc
Glucose 0.5 ± 0.1 <0.5 0.7 ± 0.1 <0.5
Neutral sugar 14.6 ± 0.7a 9.9 ± 0.6b 17.9 ± 0.8c 12.0 ± 0.9d
Degree of esterification 73 ± 2a 65 ± 3b 67 ± 2b 52 ± 1c
Mv (kDa) 95 ± 1a 86 ± 1b 89 ± 3b 70 ± 2c
Gelling velocity (s) 892 ± 3a 935 ± 5b 917 ± 5c 1108 ± 7d
Gelling power (°sag) 178 ± 0.9a 164 ± 0.7b 167 ± 0.5c 145 ± 0.7d

Data are means ± standard deviations (n = 5, except the pectin yield where n = 3). Mean values in the same line with different letters are significantly different (p < 0.05) using
the Bonferroni’s post-hoc test for multiple comparisons.
ND, not determined.
Traces (<0.5%).
3150 B.M. Yapo / Bioresource Technology 100 (2009) 3147–3151
tents than pectins extracted at higher pH-values, which could be
explained by the fact that at low pH-values (<2), neutral sugar link-
ages are very sensitive to acid-hydrolysis (Yapo et al., 2007b,c).
Lemon juice-extracted pectin contains less neutral sugar than citric
acid-extracted pectin. These differences can be ascribed to signifi-
cant differences in the amounts of individual neutral sugar constit-
uents, namely, rhamnose (1.8–3.5%), arabinose (3.1–6.1%),
galactose (3.7–5.2%), and to a lesser extent xylose (1.2–2.3%). The
DE and Mv of isolated pectins range from 52 to 73 and from 70
to 95 kDa, respectively (Table 1). Lemon juice extracts pectin of a
significantly (p < 0.05) higher DE as well as Mv than a pure citric
acid solvent, and both DE and Mv of pectin are greater at higher
pH than at lower pH-values. The setting time of pectin gel prepara-
tions and the gelling power of pectins vary from 892 to 1108 s and
from 145 to 178 °sag, respectively (Table 1). Lemon juice-extracted
pectin is superior to pure citric acid-extracted pectin in terms of
gelling power. By extracting pectin from lemon peel with produced
lemon juice or pure citric acid, a trend similar to that of YPF rind
was observed (data not shown).
4. Discussion
It has recently been shown that citric acid can extract, from
different plant CWMs, pectins of better DE, macromolecular char-
acteristics or gelling properties, but with a significantly lower
yield than a conventional acid extractant can do (O’Donoghue
and Somerfield, 2008; Yapo, 2008). Moreover, being a natural
food additive, citric acid is more attractive, for consumers, than
commonly used strong mineral acids (hydrochloric, nitric, or sul-
phuric acid) for extraction of commercial pectins, and also from
an economic as well as an environmental point of view (Cante-
ri-Schemin et al., 2005; Pinheiro et al., 2008). In order to amelio-
rate the yield and possibly quality characteristics of pectin
extraction from YPF rind under environment-friendly conditions,
lemon juice and pure citric acid are comparatively utilised as
extractants. It is observed that lemon juice extracts a significantly
(p < 0.05) higher amount of pectin than a pure citric acid solvent
under similar extraction conditions, showing that an improve-
ment of the extractability of pectin occurs with the former
extractant. The ability of lemon juice to solubilise a higher quan-
tity of pectin is probably due to its well-known comprising of
other weak acids in addition to predominating citric acid as had
been shown by others (Clements, 1964; Matsumoto and Shiraishi,
1981). With either extractant, decreasing the starting pH results
in a significant (p < 0.05) increase in the amount of extracted pec-
tin, probably as a consequence of higher efficacy and diffusion of
extracting agent in the pectin-containing cell walls (Yapo and
Koffi, 2008b). This indicates that initial acid strength of extractant
influences the pectin yield, in corroboration with previous studies
(Kalapathy and Proctor, 2001; Yapo et al., 2007b). The GalA con-
tent, DE, and Mv of lemon juice-extracted pectin are significantly
(p < 0.05) higher than those of citric acid-extracted pectin, indi-
cating that lemon juice exerts less de-esterifying and depolyme-
rising effects on extracted pectins than pure citric acid.
Furthermore, this suggests that either pectin methylesterase
(PME) and polygalacturonase in lemon peel cell wall are not co-
extracted with lemon juice or their different activities are inhib-
ited (if not substantially reduced) under the used rather low pH
(1.62–2.39) and high temperature (80 °C) conditions for extrac-
tion of pectins. By contrast, Kurita et al. (2008) have recently ob-
served under neutral pH and high temperature (50–80 °C)
conditions, a remaining activity of isolated citrus peel PME caus-
ing substantial de-esterification of pectin extracted from citrus
peel in the presence of citric acid. Based on the results obtained,
it is likely that lemon juice extracts pectins which are richer in
homogalacturonan building blocks and in a state closer to their
native DE in the cell wall than pure citric acid. This trend could
stem from the fact that citric acid and the other weak acids con-
tained in lemon juice are partly tempered with their conjugate
bases in the form of buffer salts such as sodium citrate as has
been reported by others (Haleblian et al., 2008), and thus sup-
pressing, through compensation of the actual acid value, a poten-
tial impact of a large pH modification of the extracting medium.
The gelling power of lemon juice-extracted pectin is also signifi-
cantly (p < 0.05) higher than that of citric acid-extracted pectin
and reflects its quality characteristics, i.e., higher DE and Mv,
which favoured a faster gel formation (setting) and a higher gel
strength (Yapo, 2008).
5. Conclusions
Lemon juice as well as pure citric acid can be utilised as pectin
natural extractants inasmuch as they are capable of extracting gel-
ling pectin fractions from agro-industrial residues. A greater
amount of pectin with a higher gelling power is, however, ex-
tracted with lemon juice. Extraction of lemon juice under condi-
tions co-releasing active de-esterifying enzymes (pectin
methylesterases) could be an added advantage considering that
pectins of various degrees of esterification can be produced for dif-
ferent functional applications.
Acknowledgement
Special thanks to V. Besson for invaluable assistance.
References
Canteri-Schemin, M.H., Fertonani, H.C.R., Waszczynskyj, N., Wosiacki, G., 2005.
Extraction of pectin from apple pomace. Braz. Arch. Biol. Technol. 48, 259–
266.
Clements, R.L., 1964. Organic acids in citrus fruits. I. Varietal differences. J. Food Sci.
29, 276–280.
Evageliou, V., Ptitchkina, N.M., Morris, E.R., 2005. Solution viscosity and structural
modification of pumpkin biopectin. Food Hydrocolloid. 19, 1032–1036.
Haleblian, G.E., Leitao, V.A., Pierre, S.A., Robinson, M.R., Albala, D.M., Ribeiro, A.A.,
Preminger, G.M., 2008. Assessment of citrate concentrations in citrus fruit-
based juices and beverages: Implications for management of hypocitraturic
nephrolithiasis. J. Endourol. 22, 1359–1366.
Kalapathy, U., Proctor, A., 2001. Effect of acid extraction and alcohol precipitation
conditions on the yield and purity of soy hull pectin. Food Chem. 73, 393–
396.
Kertesz, Z.I., 1951. The Pectic Substances. Wiley Interscience Publishers, New York.
Kurita, O., Fujiwara, T., Yamazaki, E., 2008. Characterization of the pectin extracted
from citrus peel in the presence of citric acid. Carbohydr. Polym. 74, 725–
730.
Masmoudi, M., Besbes, S., Chaabouni, M., Robert, C., Paquot, M., Blecker, C., Attia, H.,
2008. Optimization of pectin extraction from lemon by-product with acidified
date juice using response surface methodology. Carbohydr. Polym. 74, 185–
192.
Matsumoto, A., Shiraishi, S., 1981. Seasonal changes in organic acid levels in
satsuma mandarin fruit. J. Jpn. Soc. Hort. Sci. 49, 519–522.
O’Donoghue, E.M., Somerfield, S.D., 2008. Biochemical and rheological properties of
gelling pectic isolates from buttercup squash fruit. Food Hydrocolloid. 22,
1326–1336.
Penniston, K.L., Nakada, S.Y., Holmes, R.P., Assimos, D.G., 2008. Quantitative
assessment of citric acid in lemon juice, lime juice, and commercially-
available fruit juice products. J. Endourol. 22, 567–570.
Pinheiro, E.R., Silva, I.M.D.A., Gonzaga, L.V., Amante, E.R., Teófilo, R.F., Ferreira,
M.M.C., Amboni, R.D.M.C., 2008. Optimization of extraction of high-ester pectin
from passion fruit peel (Passiflora edulis flavicarpa) with citric acid by using
response surface methodology. Biores. Technol. 99, 5561–5566.
Ptichkina, N.M., Markina, O.A., Rumyantseva, G.N., 2008. Pectin extraction from
pumpkin with the aid of microbial enzymes. Food Hydrocolloid. 22, 192–
195.
Yapo, B.M., 2008. Biochemical characteristics and gelling capacity of pectin from
yellow passion fruit rind as affected by acid extractant nature. J. Agric. Food
Chem.. doi:10.1021/jf802969m.
Yapo, B.M., Koffi, K.L., 2006. Yellow passion fruit rind – A potential source of low-
methoxyl pectin. J. Agric. Food Chem. 54, 2738–2744.
 B.M. Yapo / Bioresource Technology 100 (2009) 3147–3151 3151

Yapo, B.M., Koffi, K.L., 2008a. Dietary fiber components in yellow passion fruit rind –
A potential fiber source. J. Agric. Food Chem. 56, 5880–5883.
Yapo, B.M., Koffi, K.L., 2008b. The polysaccharide composition of yellow passion
fruit rind cell wall: chemical and macromolecular features of extracted pectins
and hemicellulosic polysaccharides. J. Sci. Food Agric. 88, 2125–2133.
Yapo, B.M., Wathelet, B., Paquot, M., 2007a. Comparison of alcohol precipitation and
membrane filtration effects on sugar beet pulp pectin chemical features and
surface properties. Food Hydrocolloid. 21, 245–255.
Yapo, B.M., Robert, C., Etienne, I., Wathelet, B., Paquot, M., 2007b. Effect of extraction
conditions on the yield, purity and surface properties of sugar beet pulp pectin
extracts. Food Chem. 100, 1356–1364.
Yapo, B.M., Lerouge, P., Thibault, J.-F., Ralet, M.-C., 2007c. Pectins from citrus peel
cell walls contain homogalacturonans homogenous with respect to molar mass,
rhamnogalacturonan I and rhamnogalacturonan II. Carbohydr. Polym. 69, 426–
435.