Forced Harmonic Oscillation

Notes for

B.Tech Physics Course

(PH-1007)

2020-21

Department of Physics

School of Applied Sciences

Kalinga Institute of Industrial Technology

Bhubaneswar, India
 Forced Oscillation
Have you ever been on a swing, or helped someone swing by periodically tapping on the
moving swing? Have you noticed how a regular tap after each cycle keeps the motion on for
a long time without much effect on the amplitude? Also, the moment the periodic tapping is
stopped, the swing gradually slows down and eventually stops. We have already seen that
the presence of resistive forces reduce the amplitude of oscillation with time as energy is
dissipated. In fact, the only way of maintaining the amplitude of a damped oscillator is to
continuously feed energy into the system in such a manner so as to compensate the losses.
A steady (i.e., constant amplitude) oscillation of this type is called driven damped harmonic
oscillation. Consider the mass-spring system discussed in damped harmonic oscillator to
which we now apply a periodic force externally. We will soon see that when a periodic
external force is applied to an oscillating object, with time the natural oscillation frequency
and amplitude of the oscillating system dies out. Eventually, the system starts to oscillate with
the frequency of the applied force or the driving force.

Forced Harmonic Oscillation: an analytical treatment

Let us consider an oscillator ( a simple mass spring system with some damping) of mass ‘m’
undergoing oscillation. In the absence of any damping factor, the equation of motion of the
oscillator as we know is given by,
d 2x
ma = −kx  a = 2
= − 2 x …………(1)
dt
where, ‘a’ is the acceleration, ‘x’ is the instantaneous displacement at any given instant, ‘k’
is the force constant, and ‘  = k
m ’ is the natural angular frequency of oscillation.
Let us now consider the same oscillator undergoing oscillatory motion in the presence of an
external periodic force (F= F0 sin 𝑝t). The equation of motion would now be changed to
incorporate the cumulative effects of periodic external applied force, damping and inertia of
motion. Let us look at the various forces acting on the oscillating system.

i. Restoring Force: The oscillating mass would experience a restoring force

proportional to the displacement (x) of the system from its equilibrium position at
any given instant, such that
𝐹𝑅 = −𝑘 𝑥 ………(2)
ii. Damping Force: Assuming a velocity dependent damping force with a damping
constant ‘b’ is acting on the system, the damping force can be given as,
FD = – b v (b > 0) ………..(3)
iii. Driving force: Driving force is the external periodic force acting on the system i.e.
F = F0 sin pt , ….…. (4)
where ‘p’ is the frequency of external force acting on the oscillator.
 iv. Force of Inertia: The resultant force acting on the system allowing it to execute the
motion.
ⅆ2 𝑥
𝐹𝐼 = 𝑚𝑎 = 𝑚 ….…..(5)
ⅆ𝑡 2
The resultant equation of motion can then be obtained as follows.

FI = FR + FD + F0 sin 𝑝t ……..……... (6)

d 2x dx
m 2
= −b − kx + F0 sin pt …….(7)
dt dt
d 2x b dx k F
 2
=− − x + 0 sin pt ….(8)
dt m dt m m
d 2x dx F
 2
+ 2r +  2 x = 0 sin pt ….(9)
dt dt m
where, ω, is the natural frequency of oscillation in the absence of damping, and r = b/2m is
the damping coefficient (note b is the damping constant).
Thus, the equation of motion for forced oscillator or an oscillator driven by a periodic external
force is,

d 2x dx F
+ 2r +  x = 0 sin pt ..….(10)
2
2
dt dt m

Solution to equation of motion of forced oscillator:

The equation mentioned above is an in-homogeneous, linear second order differential

equation with constant coefficients ω2 and r. You will soon learn (in mathematics) that the
general solution to this equation would have two parts to it viz. complementary solution (𝑥𝐶 (t))
and particular integral (𝑥𝑃 (t)).

i.e. x(t) = 𝑥𝑃 (t) + 𝑥𝐶 (t)

Complementary solution

The complementary solution is obtained by solving the homogeneous part of the equation or
using,

d 2x dx
+ 2r +  x = 0 .….(11)
2
2
dt dt

which is same as that of a damped harmonic oscillator. For an under damped oscillator (r <
ω), the solution is given by

xc = Ce− rt sin(1t +  ) …(12)

where, the constant C corresponds to the amplitude of oscillation in the absence of external
driving force, and ‘ω1’ is the frequency of damped oscillation. Here, 𝑥𝐶 decays exponentially
with time and dies out (𝑥𝐶 →0) at sufficiently long time (rt >>1). Thus, 𝑥𝐶 represents a
transient solution.

Particular integral (The steady state solution)

At sufficiently long time i.e. t >>1/r, the complementary solution (𝑥𝐶 (t)) vanishes, and the
general solution reduces to a steady-state solution given by particular integral (𝑥𝑃 (t)).While
the complementary solution (𝑥𝐶 ) is the transient solution, the particular integral (𝑥𝑃 ) yields
the steady state solution to the equation of motion of the forced/driven oscillator

The particular integral (𝑥𝑃 ) may be obtained by using a trial function, x = x p (t ) = A sin( pt −  )
as the solution to the equation of motion in steady state. Here A is the amplitude of oscillation
in the presence of the applied force and  is the phase difference between the driving force
and displacement of the oscillator.

When we use x = A sin( pt −  ) in the steady state equation, we must substitute,

dx d 2x
= pA cos( pt −  ),& 2 = − p 2 A sin( pt −  )
dt dt

in the steady state equation of motion [i.e. eqn(10)]. The equation then yields,

F0 F
− p 2 A sin( pt −  ) + 2 prA cos( pt −  ) +  2 A sin( pt −  ) = sin pt = f 0 sin pt , where f 0 = 0
m m

− p 2 A sin( pt −  ) + 2 prA cos( pt −  ) +  2 A sin( pt −  ) = f 0 sin[( pt −  ) +  ]

 A( 2 − p 2 )sin( pt −  ) + 2rpA cos( pt −  ) = f 0 sin( pt −  ) cos  + f 0 cos( pt −  )sin  .........(13)

For the above relation to hold good for all values of t, the coefficient of sin( pt −  ) and
cos( pt −  ) on both sides of the equation must be equal i.e., by comparison of the coefficient
of sin( pt −  ) and cos( pt −  ) on both sides, we obtain

A( 2 − p 2 ) = f 0 cos  …….(14)

2rpA = f 0 sin  …….(15)

Squaring and then adding (14) & (15) one can obtain the amplitude, A of the forced vibration
as follows
 f 0 2 =  f 0 cos   +  f 0 sin  
2 2

 f 0 2 = A2 {( 2 − p 2 ) 2 + 4 p 2 r 2 }
f0
 A=
( 2 − p 2 ) 2 + 4 p 2 r 2
f0
 A= .. (16 )
( − p ) + 4 p 2 r 2
2 2 2

The amplitude of forced/driven oscillations thus depends on the natural angular frequency of
oscillation ω, the damping coefficient, r and the periodicity of the external force, p.

The phase difference () between the driving force and the driven system may be obtained
as tangent of the angle , by dividing equation (15) by (14)

 2rp   2rp 
tan  =  2    = tan −1  2
2 
 …………….(17)
2 
 − p   − p 

Thus, for a given oscillator  depends on the frequency of the external force. The particular
integral or the steady state solution is therefore given as,

f0
 x p (t ) = sin( pt −  ) …(18)
( 2 − p 2 ) 2 + 4 p 2 r 2

Therefore, the complete solution to the equation of motion of a forced oscillator driven by an
external periodic force F0 sin 𝑝t, may be obtained as
f0
 x(t ) = x p (t ) + xc (t ) = sin( pt −  ) + Ce− rt sin(1t +  ) ….(19)
( − p ) + 4 p r
2 2 2 2 2

Note that both parts of the solution contribute at the beginning, however, the first part of the
solution quickly dies out depending on the degree of damping. Ultimately, once the transient
part of the solution vanishes the oscillator attains a steady state and oscillates with the
frequency of the external force.

Variation of Amplitude of Forced Vibration & Amplitude Resonance

As evident from equation (16), amplitude of forced vibration depends on the difference
between the driving frequency, p and the natural frequency, ω. Thus, not only the driving
frequency but also how far the driving frequency is from the natural frequency (i.e. the
undamped oscillator) is crucial in determining fate of a driven oscillator and so is the damping
coefficient. While, frequency of undamped oscillator (ω) is constant, the driving frequency, p
can be tuned to match the oscillatory frequency. Such situation where both the frequencies
nearly match each other; amplitude and energy of the oscillator system increases
dramatically. This phenomenon is called resonance. We will soon see that if the damping b
is small the amplitude A gets very large when the frequency of the driver approaches the
natural frequency of the oscillator and it can sometimes lead to catastrophes such as
collapse of the Tacoma Narrows Bridge. This bridge was destroyed as the wind (driving
force) was at the same as the natural frequency. The bridge vibrated and shook itself apart
It is for this same reason a marching troop is asked to break their rhythm if they have to cross
a narrow bridge. Of course, it has its positive aspects, from getting a swing going to tuning
a radio. We now discuss in details how the amplitude changes as we drive the oscillator with
frequency near and far from the frequency of the undamped oscillator.

Case I: p << ω (when the driving frequency is lower than natural frequency)

f0
A …….. (20)
2
Since p << ω, here we have neglected the terms containing p2.

This shows that the amplitude of vibration is independent of the frequency of driving force.

Case II: p >> ω (when the driving frequency is greater than natural frequency)

f0
i.e.,  2  p 2 , A =
( 2 − p 2 )2 + 4 p 2 r 2
f0 f0 f0
or , A = = =
 2 
2
p + 4p r
4 2 2
 4r 2 
p 4  2 − 1 + 4 p 2 r 2 p 4 1 + 2 
p   p 
2 r2
for ,   p & small r , 0 & 0
p2 p2
f0
A ..............(21)
p2

Thus, the amplitude A goes on decreasing with the increase in the driving force frequency.

Case III: p ≈ ω or Resonance (when the driving frequency is nearly same as natural
frequency)

f0 f0 f0 F
A= = = 0
( 2 − p 2 ) 2 + 4 p 2 r 2 4 p2r 2 2 pr b
F0 b
[ f0 = ,r = and p =  ]
m 2m
Thus, the amplitude is governed by the damping constant and is inversely proportional to it.
For small damping, the amplitude of vibration will be quite large. Thus, a weakly damped
oscillator can be driven to large amplitude by the application of a relatively small amplitude
external driving force that oscillates at a frequency close to the resonant frequency. If you
vary the driver frequency (variable p) for a given oscillator (fixed ω), what is the value of p for
which A is maximum? This is the condition for amplitude resonance.

Amplitude Resonance

Looking at eqn (16), the amplitude is maximum when ( 2 − p 2 )2 + 4 p 2 r 2 is minimum, i.e.

d 
( 2 − p 2 ) 2 + 4 p 2 r 2  = 0
dp  
2(−2 p)( 2 − p 2 ) + 4(2 p) r 2
 =0
2 ( 2 − p 2 ) 2 + 4 p 2 r 2
 − p( 2 − p 2 ) + 2 pr 2 = 0
 ( 2 − p 2 ) + 2r 2 = 0
 p 2 =  2 − 2r 2
 p =  2 − 2r 2

 At resonance, p = R =  2 − 2r 2 ………(22)

Here driving frequency, p = ωR i.e. the resonant frequency, and is not equal to ω but slightly
lesser than it.

Thus, substituting equation (22) in (16) we can obtain the maximum amplitude at resonance
as,

f0 f0
Amax = =
( − p ) + 4 p r
2 2 2 2 2
(−2r ) + 4 p 2 r 2
2 2

f0 f0
 Amax = =
4r 2 ( r 2 + p 2 ) 4r 2 ( r 2 + p 2 )
f0
 Amax = ................(23)
2r r 2 + p 2

Thus, for low/weak damping it reduces to

f0
 Amax =
2rp
When, ω ≈ p, the amplitude becomes maximum, and this condition is known as resonance.
At resonance,

F0 F
 A= = 0 …..(24)
2mr  b

Thus, the smaller the b, the larger is the resonance amplitude. In principle for b = 0, A= ∞,
though it is practically unattainable as in a real system there will always be dissipative forces
leading to nonzero damping.

Figure -2 Amplitude Resonance

Figure 2 shows the variation of amplitude with frequency of the external periodic force.
Following points can be noted.

• Resonance occurs when driving frequency is nearly equal to the natural frequency
• The amplitude increases with decreased damping
• The curve broadens as the damping increases
• The shape of the resonance curve depends on damping constant b
• Amplitude & energy of oscillator decreases rapidly as the frequency increases or
decreases from either side of the resonant frequency (ωR).
 • The rate of decrease of amplitude/energy on either side of resonant frequency defines
the sharpness of resonance
• Smaller the r, or weaker damping, sharper is the resonance & larger the damping
flatter is the resonance.

Sharpness of Resonance & width of resonance curve

As we move away from the resonance frequency ωR i.e. ωR ≈ ω, the amplitude and thus the
energy of oscillator decreases rapidly as the frequency increases or decreases from
resonance frequency. The sharpness of resonance is defined as the rate of decrease of
amplitude/energy on either side of resonant frequency. Using (22) & (23) one can show that
A
for p = ωR ± r, the amplitude reduces from A= Amax to A=Amax/√2 i.e. A| = A| = max The
R + r R − r
2
width of resonance curve can thus be estimated from the range of frequency for which A >
Amax/√2 or which corresponds to full width at half maximum (FWHM).

 Width of resonance curve spanning over all frequencies for which A > Amax/√2, is
∆ω = (ω + r) – (ω -r) = 2r
Thus, smaller the r, or weaker damping, sharper is the resonance & larger the damping flatter
is the resonance.

R
R - r R + r
Phase of a forced harmonic oscillator and Power Resonance

The displacement (x) of the oscillator and the driving force (F) have the same frequency, but
 2rp 
differ by a constant phase θ as expressed in equation (17) i.e.  = tan −1  2  . Thus, the
2 
 − p 
phase is completely determined by the
frequency together with the physical
constants of the undriven oscillator: the mass,
spring constant, and damping strength. So,
when the driving force generates the motion,
the phase angle θ is independent of the
strength of the driving force: a stronger force
p
doesn’t get the oscillator more in sync, it just
increases the amplitude of the oscillations.
Depending on the variation of r, p & (ω - p), θ

can take up values between 0 to π. A variation
of the phase with respect to the driving
frequency p shows that with increasing p, θ
increases from 0 to π. When p << ω, θ → 0, on
the other hand for p >> ω, θ → π, and for p ≈ ω, θ → π/2. the phase angle θ is independent
of the strength of the driving force: a stronger force doesn’t get the oscillator more in sync, it
just increases the amplitude of the oscillations. While the phase slowly increases form 0 and
also slowly approaches π, the rate of change is significantly high around θ ≈ π/2. The phase
difference of π/2 happening at p ≈ ω is thus a crucial factor in forced oscillation. As indicated
in the top figure for amplitude (A) variation as a function of driving frequency (p), A is
maximum for p ≈ ω for which phase is π/2. The phase of a driven oscillator always lags behind
the phase of the driving force, however, for θ ≈ π/2 the velocity of the oscillating object in the
steady state will be in the same phase as the driving force (as shown below)

dx
V| = = pA cos( pt − 90) = pA sin pt
p =
dt
This shows that when the driving force (F = F0 sin pt) is in phase with the velocity i.e. at p ≈
ω, the driving force pushes the mass in the direction it is already moving adding energy to
the system. At resonance, as the object is moving in the direction of the driving force. Thus
the power/energy transferred to the oscillator is a maximum as P = F .V . Such a situation is
A
called Power Resonance. As we have seen, A| = A| = max i.e. the amplitude falls from
R + r R − r
2
A= Amax to A=Amax/√2, the energy/power being proportional to square of the amplitude, the
P
power will fall by half P| = P| = max . The width of power resonance curve can thus be
R + r R − r 2
estimated from the range of frequency for which P > Pmax/2 which corresponds to full width
at half maximum (FWHM) which is same as the bandwidth of amplitude resonance.

 Width of resonance curve spanning over all frequencies for which P > Pmax/2, is again
∆ω = (ω + r) – (ω -r) = 2r
Some applications of resonance:
Starting from producing music, to tuning to a specific radio station broadcasting at a
particular frequency, or heating food inside a microwave oven or MRI images being taken in
the hospitals, resonance effects play a crucial role. Few examples are discussed briefly.
1. Quartz Oscillators: A quartz feels a force if placed in an electric field and will oscillate when
removed. Appropriate electronics are added to generate an oscillating voltage from the
mechanical movements of the crystal and this is used to drive the crystal at its own natural
frequency. These devices provide accurate clocks for microprocessor systems.
2. The loudness of music produced by musical instruments such as the trumpet and flute is
the result of resonance in the air.
3. Tuning of an electrical radio.
It is the same effect one may have observed during tuning a radio, trying to reach a particular
radio frequency with the best sound quality. In this example from electricity and electronics,
tuning a radio is an example where one experiences forced oscillation of electrical
components while tuning the radio. The natural frequency of the radio circuit is made equal
to the incoming electromagnetic wave by changing its capacitance. The electrons in the
circuit will oscillate with the incoming electromagnetic wave. The electric current will oscillate
and this can be turned into sound, through a speaker.

A Driving force at resonance increases the oscillations, sometimes this is unwanted. Few
unwanted resonance effects would be:
1. Tower blocks, the same effect as the bridge & the wind, or earthquakes, can cause
vibrations to destroy the buildings
2. Vibrations in machinery, if the driving force equals the natural frequency the amplitude
may get dangerously high. Ex. At a particular speed in a truck’s rear-view mirror can be seen
to vibrate
Such effects can be managed by designing the building with heavy damping.
Quality factor:
There is a quantitative measure of how sharp the resonance is. This is done by the quality
factor, or Q, a dimensionless quantity. It measures the strength of response of the oscillator

to an external driver at the resonant frequency. Instead of using r = b/2m and 𝜔 = √𝑘⁄𝑚, it
is convenient to describe the shape of the resonance curve using these variables 𝜔 and Q
= 𝜔 /2r.
Written in terms 𝜔 & Q, the amplitude (A) of eqn (16) is
F0  p
A( ) =
k  p 
2
1
 p −   + Q2
 

The above expression can be easily verified to be the same expression of amplitude given in
eqn (16).
This is a very convenient form of amplitude as dimensionless quantities are easier to analyze.
The scale of the amplitude is determined by F0/k and the shape of the curve is determined
𝑝
by the dimensionless quantities 𝜔 & Q. From the figure below, it can be seen that the
𝑝
normalized height is approximately Q. The maximum occurs when 𝜔 ≈ 1, i.e. at resonance,
the motion is amplified by the factor Q.

𝑝/𝜔
The bandwidth (∆ω) of the resonance curve which amounts to 2r can be expressed in terms
of Q as ∆ω = 𝜔 /Q. It is quite evident now that he quality factor (Q-value) of the forced
oscillator is an indicator of sharpness of resonance Larger the Q-value, sharper is the
resonance. In the case of a pendulum, which you might think is a good resonator (keeps
good time), the Q might be about 100. For a quartz clock, on the other hand, Q may reach
10000. Q value can also be calculated as a ratio of average energy stored per cycle to
energy dissipated per cycle, which signifies the importance of the quantity in various
resonator designs.