The Pure Land Teaching in India and China

Lecture 8: “Reciting the Buddha’s Name” Approach (Tanluan, Daochuo, Shandao)

[20, 23 Sep]

Part I: Introduction: “Reciting the Buddha’s Name” Approach

Part II: Tanluan (476-542): The Third Jodo Shinshu Patriarch
Part III: Daochuo (562-645): The Fourth Jodo Shinshu Patriarch
Part IV: Shandao (613-681): The Second Chinese Pure Land Patriarch/
The Fifth Jodo Shinshu Patriarch
Part V: Fazhao (fl. 785): The Fourth Chinese Pure Land Patriarch
Part VI: Shaokang (770-805): The Fifth Chinese Pure Land Patriarch
Part VII: The Gradual Spread of Pure Land Buddhism from the Fifth Century
Part VIII: Shandao (613-681) and Shinran (1173-1262): A Comparison of Their
Pure Land Teachings
Part IX: Homework & Essay 2 (Submit by 22 Oct 2021)

Part I: Introduction: “Reciting the Buddha’s Name” Approach

Besides the contemplative approach of Huiyuan, Zhiyi and Tiantai: mindfulness of the
Buddha can also refer to reciting/invoking the Buddha’s name vocally. This approach:
identified with Tanluan, Daochuo and Shandao—and put much greater emphasis on the
Eighteenth Vow, or the Original Vow, and the chanting of the name of Amitabha. By the
time of Tanluan: the Larger Sutra and the Contemplation Sutra had also been translated
and exerted important influence on the development of Pure Land Buddhism.

Besides its popularity in China: “Reciting the Buddha’s Name” approach was significant
for Japanese Pure Land Buddhism. Honen and Shinran: followed the teachings of
Tanluan and Daochuo, who advocated the reliance on Other-power. Their respective
sects, Jodoshu and Jodo Shinshu: further appealed to a distinction made by Shandao, who
assigned recitation of the name a separate and superior status among the various
practices. This recitation of Namo Amituofo (Namu Amida Butsu), a formula drawn from
the Guan Wuliangshou jing: came to eclipse all other practices within these Pure Land
traditions.

Part II: Tanluan (476-542): The Third Jodo Shinshu Patriarch

Tanluan 曇鸞 (Donran, 476–542): Great Chinese Pure Land Master and Third Patriarch
of Shin Buddhism (Shinran’s 親鸞 Jodo Shinshu 淨土真宗, True Pure Land Sect). He
was born in present Shanxi Province 山西省 in north China, and ordained at the age of
15. Well-versed in Madhyamika philosophy. When he became ill: he first turned to
Daoist texts to seek health and longevity. Later, he met the great Indian Tripitaka Master,
Bodhiruci 菩提流支: taught him that the Buddha Dharma was the true way to eternal
health and gave him Pure Land sutras. Tanluan subsequently took refuge in Buddhism.

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Tanluan spent his later years at Shibi Monastery 石壁寺, now known as Shanxi City’s
Xuanzhong 玄中寺 Monastery: where he diligently practised and propagated the Pure
Land teachings. He is most famous for his extensive commentary 往生論註 on
Vasubandhu’s Rebirth Treatise 往生論.He also wrote: Zan Amitofo ji 赞阿彌陀佛集
(Verses in Praise of Amitabha Buddha) and Lüe lun anlejingtu yi 略論安乐净土义 (An
Abridged Discourse on the Pure Land of Peace and Bliss). As a Madhyamika scholar: he
unified Madhyamika and Yogacara philosophy in Pure Land thought, and contributed
significantly to the development of Pure Land Buddhism in China and Japan.

Difficult Path versus Easy Path, Other-power versus Self-power

Tanluan accepted Nagajuna’s Dasabhumivibhasa sastra’s (Commentary on the Sutra of

Ten Stages/Grounds 十地经论) distinction that: there is a difficult path of attaining non-
retrogression through self-cultivation; and an easy path of attaining non-retrogression by
thinking of and calling upon the names of the Buddhas in ten directions. Tanluan
extended this idea: by emphasizing that calling on the name of Amitabha Buddha is the
only easy path.

Tanluan coined the term other power, meaning not relying on one’s false notion of a self
and its abilities but on the vow-power of Amitabha, a refinement of the Buddhist concept
of adhisthana 加持 jiachi, kaji (base, support, standing by, power, grace, blessing). The
vows produced the power, which in turn fulfils the vows. For Tanluan: only when blessed
by Amitabha Buddha’s vow-power, can sentient beings be born in the Pure Land. So he
stressed: reliance upon the other-power of Amitabha Buddha as opposed to reliance upon
limited self-power.

Tanluan’s emphasis on the importance of Amitabha Buddha’s vow-power: based on the

Larger Sutra. He pointed out the eighteenth, eleventh, and twenty-second vows of the
Forty-eight Vows: to verify that it is the Buddha’s vow-power that guarantees birth in the
Pure Land and then attainment of non-retrogression.

18. Sentient beings who sincerely and joyfully entrust themselves to Amitabha, desire to
be born in the Pure Land, and think of Amitabha even ten times will be born there.
Excluded are those who commit the five grave offenses and abuse the Right Dharma.
11. Humans and devas in the Pure Land dwell in the definitely assured stage and
unfailingly reach nirvana.
22. Bodhisattvas from other buddha lands who visit the Pure Land will reach the stage of
becoming a buddha after one more life. Excepted are those who wish to teach and guide
sentient beings in accordance with their original vows. They transcend the course of
practice of ordinary bodhisattvas, manifest the practices of all the bodhisattva stages, and
cultivate the virtues of Samantabhadra.

The Nature of Amitabha and the Pure Land

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Tanluan believed that Amitabha and the Pure Land: represents the realm/body of ultimate
reality, Dharmakaya. He based this on Vasubandhu’s Rebirth Treatise: after
distinguishing 29 aspects of Amitabha and the Pure Land, Vasubandhu explains that
those glorious manifestations enter into the “Nirvanic Dharma-body of true wisdom”
真实智慧无为法身. This means that: the phenomenal manifestations of Amitabha and
the Pure Land produced by Dharmakara’s vows and practices are themselves the Nirvanic
Dharma-body.

Tanluan then presents his theory of two aspects/kinds of Dharmakaya: (1) the
Dharmakaya of Dharma-nature 法性法身 Dharmata-dharmakaya, or the body of reality
实相身; and (2) the Dharmakaya of expediency 方便法身 Upaya-dharmakaya, or the
bodies for the sake of sentient beings 为物身.

From the Dharmakaya of Dharma-nature originates the Dharmakaya of expediency;

through the Dharmakaya of expediency the Dharmakaya of Dharma-nature is revealed.
These two aspects of Dharmakaya are different but inseparable: they are one but not the
same. Because the Dharmakaya of Dharma-nature is Emptiness (Nirvana), there is no
form which it cannot manifest; hence, the form of the Dharmakaya of expediency is itself
the Dharmakaya of Dharma-nature.

Some characteristics of Amitabha and the Pure Land in comparison:

Dharmakaya of Dharma-nature Dharmakaya of expediency

Emptiness Manifesting glorious physical characteristics

Omnipresent Dwelling in the Pure Land
Timeless and transcendent Exist as the reward of vows and practice
Cannot be perceived as an object Can be perceived in samadhi or a dream-like state
or by the naked eye

Reciting the Name of Amitabha Eliminates Unwholesome Karma

Based upon the eighteenth vow in the Larger Sutra and the description of the lowest rank
of the lowest grade of rebirth in the Contemplation Sutra: Tanluan taught that ten
continuous recitations of the name of Amitabha Buddha (十念相续 shinian xiangxu)
would cause rebirth in the Pure Land.

Why is this so? Also presented as Question 8 in Zhiyi’s Discourse on the Ten Doubts
Concerning the Pure Land Birth: How could the karmic evils committed from the
beginningless past be cancelled by ten recitations at the time of death? Tanluan gave
three reasons:

1. Unwholesome karma are committed as the result of delusory and false views, while
nianfo 念佛 buddhanusmrti comes from the law of True Suchness. Just as light instantly
dispels darkness in a room that has been locked for a thousand years, the light of the
ultimate truth removes even the gravest unwholesome karma.

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2. The evildoer’s karma arise from a delusory state of mind, while the ten recitations are
firmly based on the mind of faith in Amitabha and on his Name of immeasurable true and
pure merit.
3. The ten recitations are based on a concentrated state of mind on one’s deathbed,
compared to unwholesome karma committed in less urgent situations. Hence, the
recitations induce stronger karma and so overpower the unwholesome karma that one has
committed in the past.

As such, Tanluan emphasizes that one’s mental state determines the effectiveness of
one’s recitations: true practice of nianfo requires a mind of true faith. Hence: (1) ones’s
faith must be sincere and single-minded; and (2) one should understand that Amitabha
represents both the Dharmakaya of Dharma-nature and the Dharmakaya of expediency.
Otherwise, the effectiveness of one’s recitations may be compromised.

Two Phases of Merit-transference

Tanluan explains that: bodhisattvas do various meritorious acts in order to benefit

sentient beings. Hence, merit-transference (parinama) is important in the bodhisattva
path. The merits accumulated by a bodhisattva can be shared by anyone who trusts him
and calls his name with a sincere mind. When the bodhisattva becomes a Buddha: his
infinite merits are freely shared by all sentient beings for their spiritual advancement.

Tanluan distinguishes two phases of merit-transference: “going forth” 往相 and

“returning” 还相. “Going forth”: to attain birth in the Pure Land together all sentient
beings by endowing them with one’s merits. “Returning”: to re-enter the worlds of
samsara to lead sentient beings on the Buddhist path.

Tanluan and the Five Contemplative Gates of Vasubandhu’s Rebirth Treatise

Based on Vasubandhu’s Rebirth Treatise: Tanluan stressed the necessity of the five
contemplative gates or five religious practices—prostrations, singing praises, making
vows, insight meditation, and transfer of merit—in order to attain rebirth. He interpreted
the five practices as:

(1) One should always think of rebirth in the Pure Land and make prostrations to
Amitabha Buddha;
(2) One should recite the name of Amitabha Buddha with a single-pointed mind and
definitive faith;
(3) One should vow to be born in the Pure Land and stop doing evil deeds;
(4) One should visualize the adornments and marks of Amitabha Buddha with right
thought; and
(5) One should dedicate one’s merit accumulated through these practices to all beings and
bring all sentient beings to the Pure Land.

Moreover, Tanluan taught that: one must generate the “unsurpassed awakening (菩提心
bodhicitta)” in order to attain rebirth in the Pure Land. For Tanluan: the name of

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Amitabha Buddha constitutes the essence (ti 体) of the Larger Sutra and contains
myriads of merit, which fulfil the five practices. For Tanluan, nian, means: mindfulness
of the Buddha Amitabha, not just oral invocation of the name (Shinko Mochizuki).

Part III: Daochuo (562-645): The Fourth Jodo Shinshu Patriarch

Daochuo 道绰 (Dokusho, 562-645): Great Chinese Pure Land Master and Fourth
Patriarch of Shin Buddhism. He was born in present Shanxi Province 山西省 in north
China, and ordained at the age of 14. Well-versed in Mahaparinirvana Sutra 大涅磐经.
At the age of 48: inspired by Tanluan’s admonition that trying to become a Buddha in
this world by self-power would be futile, he turned to Pure Land teachings. He
considered himself a disciple of Tanluan: even though Tanluan had passed away long
before Daochuo was even born.

Daochuo was said to have practised: nianfo recitations 70,000 times daily (a day has
86,400 seconds), and continually offered incense before an image of Amitabha. He was
especially devoted to: the Contemplation Sutra, which he lectured about 200 times. He
spread the nianfo practice among the populace: urging them to count the number of
recitations with red beans, later with beads/rosaries. His teaching was so widely accepted
that it was said that: there was no one who did not practise nianfo in the Shanxi valley.

Daochuo’s teaching was satisfying to his contemporaries because it “provided continuity

with the old Buddhism without the burden of trying to measure up to its demands, while
giving the Chinese Buddhists a sense that they were living a new Buddhism which was
designed for their own times and their own abilities” (Chappell).

Daochuo passed away at the Xuanzhong Temple at the age of 84. His Pure Land thought
and practice are extensively discussed in his: Anle ji 安乐集 (A Collection of Passages
on the Land of Peace and Bliss), written in the first half of the seventh century. He
promoted the ideas of: (1) the age of decline of the Dharma; (2) the nianfo samadhi as the
highest/best samadhi; and (3) the Pure Land as the land of the Buddha of
Recompensed/Reward Body.

The Age of Decline of the Dharma

Daochuo distinguishes two Buddhist approaches: Path of Sages 圣道门 and Path to Birth
in the Pure Land 净土门, based on Tanluan’s difficult path versus easy path and self-
power versus other-power.

He was the first Pure Land thinker to proclaim the times to be the period of
decline/degeneration and extinction of the Dharma (pascima-dharma-kala 末法 mofa,
mappo), and he advocated that Buddhist practice should correspond to different temporal
conditions. The Path of Sages: difficult to follow because we are far removed from the
time of the Buddha and so our understanding of the Buddha Dharma is very slight.

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The Great Collection Sutra 大集经 presents the theory of “five 500-year periods,”
according to which the history of Buddhism can be divided into five periods, each lasting
for 500 years: (1) practitioners are intent on attaining emancipation 解脱坚固; (2) they
are intent on practising meditation 禅定坚固; (3) they are firmly set on hearing the
Buddha teaching 多闻坚固; (4) they are intent on building temples 造寺坚固; and (5)
they are intent on doctrinal disputes 斗争坚固.

Based on the Great Collection Sutra: Daochuo asserts that the last age of the Dharma has
set in and the world is filled with the five defilements (panca kasayah 五浊恶世: the
corruptions of the times, of sentient beings, of life, of blind passion, and of views 劫浊、
众生浊、命浊、烦恼浊、见浊), and Buddhists are no longer able to cultivate wisdom
or practise meditation successfully on their own. Hence, only through the Pure Land
Path: by practising nianfo with the mind of repentance, can Buddhists attain salvation.

Nianfo Samadhi as the Highest/Best Samadhi

According to Daochuo: the central theme of the Contemplation Sutra is the samadhi of
visualizing Amitabha, which he interprets as nianfo samadhi 念佛三昧. He further
quotes from the Avatamsaka (华严经,Flower Garland/Adornment/ Ornament Sutra)
Sutra: nianfo can destroy all evil passions and hindrances and so the nianfo samadhi is
called the king of samadhis.

Similar to Tanluan: Daochuo stressed that bodhicitta is the original source of the Pure
Land, and nianfo samadhi is the key practice for attaining rebirth in the Pure Land. He
emphasized that the nianfo samadhi can remove: the three poisons of desire, anger and
ignorance, and all obstacles in the past, present and future. Therefore, he advocated it
exclusively. His nianfo samadhi consisted of: both oral invocation and visualization
practice (Shinko Mochizuki).

The Pure Land as the Land of the Buddha of Recompensed/Reward Body

Daochuo considered the Pure Land as: a land of recompense/reward originating from
Amitabha’s vows. There are three Buddha-bodies: Dharma-body 法身 Dharmakaya;
Recompensed/Reward body 报身 Sambhogakaya, e.g. Amitabha; and Transformed body
化身 Nirmanakaya, e.g. Sakyamuni.

Since the Dharma-body is emptiness, there is no corresponding Buddha-land. The

Buddha of a Recompensed Body has two kinds of land: Land of non-form 无相土; and
Land of form 相土. Sentient beings of superior capacity, e.g. those who have realized
non-form or non-arising of all existences but still seek birth in the Pure Land in terms of
cause-condition/dependent origination relationship 缘起 (pratityasamutpada), will be
born in the Land of non-form. Sentient beings of inferior capacity, e.g. those who attain
birth in the lower grades/levels, will be born in the Land of form.

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Part IV: Shandao (613-681): The Second Chinese Pure Land Patriarch/The Fifth
Jodo Shinshu Patriarch

Shandao 善導 (Zendo, 613-681): The Second Chinese Pure Land Patriarch and Fifth
Patriarch of Shin Buddhism.

Master Shandao (Good-Guide) of the Bright Light Temple, Chang’an, capital of seven-
century China in the Tang Dynasty: a native of Linzi, Shandong Province. His personal
name: Pure Karma. He was well known as a strict and rigorous upholder of precepts,
without the slightest breach. Ordained as a monk at an early age and during his over 30
years of sojourn in Chang’an: he was always diligent and vigorous in practising the
Buddha Recitation Method and spreading the Pure Land teachings far and wide.

He wrote Commentaries on all the Three Pure Land Sutras, copied in handwriting more
than 100,000 scrolls of the Amitabha Sutra (Smaller Sutra), and produced more than 300
magnificent mural paintings on the Pure Land. When he recited Amituofo: there was
always a ray of bright light emitting from his mouth. Thus, he was called the “Monk of
Bright Light.” In the Pure Land Sect of Japan: he was further honoured as “the Eminent
Patriarch.”

唐朝长安光明寺善导大师山东临淄人,字净业，一生精苦勤笃，严持律仪，丝毫不
犯。少年出家，居长安三十余载,精勤念佛,广弘净土。为净土三经注疏，写《阿弥
陀经》十万余卷，画<<西方净土圣相>>三百余壁。师因念佛口出光明故,世人尊为
"光明和尚"。日本净土宗更奉为高祖。

Shandao (613–681): the most influential and esteemed master in this lineage. At first: he
studied on Mount Lu and achieved some success practising according to the
Pratyutpanna Samadhi Sutra. He later became Daochuo’s disciple and was able to attain
the nianfo samadhi. Shandao reaffirmed the positions of Tanluan and Daochuo while
developing further the overall Pure Land doctrine. He wrote the Commentary on the
Contemplation Sutra: which would have an enormous impact on Pure Land Buddhism
and reflect the fundamentals of Shandao’s Pure Land thought.

According to the commentary: Vaidehï’s story inspired him to realize that the desire to be
released from samsara and be reborn in the Pure Land is the fundamental core of
bodhicitta. In addition, Shandao claimed that: all beings born in the nine grades were
common people 凡夫, not saints and sages, and they were reborn in the Pure Land based
upon the power of the Buddha. That the recitations of Amitabha’s name could be
undertaken by all people, learned and ignorant alike, with equal ease: central to
Shandao’s belief in the universality of Amitabha’s vow to save all sentient beings.

Nianfo is the Sufficient Cause of Birth

One of the greatest contributions which Shandao made to the development of Pure Land
Buddhism: his clarification of the soteriological meaning of nianfo. Some masters of the
Path of Sages, based on Asanga’s Mahayanasamgraha (Compendium of the Mahayana):

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held the view that ten recitations of Amitabha could become only a remote cause of birth
in the Pure Land, and considered nianfo as a mere act of aspiration lacking in practice.

In the Mahayanasamgraha: Asanga criticizes Pure Land doctrine as an expedient

teaching solely to lure spiritually inferior and morally indolent people. In a doctrine
called “intended for another time” (kalantarabhipraya; bieshiyi 别时意), he argues that
although Pure Land teaching encourages rebirth in the Pure Land and enlightenment as
benefits to be attained in the immediate future: in actuality, enlightenment is only realized
in the distant future after one consummates long and arduous practice. This doctrine had
a lasting impact and became a standard criticism of Pure Land Buddhism by Yogacara
advocates in India and China.

Shandao refuted such criticisms, contending that: The ten times nianfo taught in the
Contemplation Sutra contains ten aspirations and ten practices. How? Namo 南无 means
“taking refuge in”; it also means “aspiring (for birth in the Pure Land) and transferring
(the merit of practice towards it).” Amituofo 阿弥陀佛 is the “practice” (to be transferred
for birth). For this reason, one can surely attain Birth.

Shandao’s promotion of recitation as an easy and direct practice: made Pure Land the
most popular belief and made Namo Amituofo a symbol of Chinese Buddhism (Shinko
Mochizuki).

Amitabha is a Sambhogakaya Buddha

Many masters considered Amitabha to be a Nirmanakaya Buddha since: Amitabha can be

perceived even by ordinary beings and Sravakayana practitioners. Shandao refuted this
by saying that Amitabha is a Sambhogakaya Buddha manifested as a reward for his
vows. As such, Amitabha’s Pure Land is the land of a Sambhogakaya Buddha.
Nonetheless, those masters found it hard to accept that ordinary beings could be born in
such a superior Buddha-land. Shandao made it clear that they could attain birth because
of the power of Amitabha’s vows.

The Five Right Acts

Shandao divided the whole Buddhist practice into two categories: right acts and
miscellaneous acts. The right acts accord with the teachings of Pure Land sutras and
would bring about rebirth in the Pure Land; the miscellaneous ones do not. There are five
right acts:

1. Chanting sutra 读誦: single-mindedly chanting the three Pure Land sutras.
2. Contemplation 观察: single-mindedly contemplating on Amitabha and the Pure Land.
3. Worshipping 礼拜: single-mindedly worshipping Amitabha.
4. Recitation 称名: single-mindedly reciting Amitabha’s name.
5. Praising and making offerings 赞叹供养: single-mindedly praising Amitabha and
making offerings to him.

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Of the five right acts: the fourth is the most important and is called the “act of right
assurance” (primary/essential act) 正定业—because it accords with Amitabha’s vow.
This is to recite Amitabha with singleness of mind: whether one is walking, standing,
sitting or lying, without interruption and irrespective of the duration of the practice. The
other four right acts are called the “auxiliary/secondary acts” 助业.

Shandao’s Five Right Acts are similar to the Five Contemplative Gates of Vasubandhu’s
Rebirth Treatise, except that: he removes the acts of making a vow and transferring
merits, and includes them under his description of the three types of faith/mind.

The Three Types of Faith/Mind and the Importance of Repentance

Shandao expounded the three types of faith/mind mentioned in the Contemplation Sutra
as essential for rebirth: the mind of sincere faith 至诚心, the mind of deep faith 深心, and
the mind of the faith with which one aspires to be reborn in the Pure Land by transferring
to the Pure Land the merit acquired 回响发愿心. Shandao affirmed that these three types
of faith/mind are the correct causes 正因 for birth in the Pure Land. He emphasized that
they are the most important and that—practitioners should be sincere, exclusively do
Pure Land practices, and keep practising their whole lifetime.

Sincere faith refers to a genuine and true mind. When we worship, exalt, or meditate on
Amitabha, these practices must spring from within. In explaining deep faith, Shandao
distinguishes two aspects which serve as the two poles that create the tension and
dynamics of faith:

1. To accept with deep faith that we are ordinary beings of karmic evils who have been
transmigrating since beginningless past without a chance to escape; and
2. To accept in deep faith that Amitabha’s forty-eight vows embrace us and we shall
definitely attain birth through the power of his vows.

Repentance is also an important part of Shandao’s Pure Land theory and practice.
Shandao considered it an effective way of expiating/eliminating unwholesome karma and
assuring one’s birth in the Pure Land. The methods are: one can confess one’s
unwholesome acts to other Buddhists, all Buddhas of the ten directions, sages, or images
of them, or to oneself.

Method of Contemplation/Visualization

Shandao begins his exposition of the thirteen contemplations/visualizations by presenting

a practical method. First, adopt the right sitting lotus posture. Second, contemplate the
four elements of the body (earth, water, wind, fire) until they are empty, inside and
outside, and nothing exists—with consciousness existing as the sole pervasive entity, like
a round mirror, lucid, brilliant and clear. When one accomplishes this, all delusory
thoughts are removed and the mind attains a state of deep contemplation.

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One can then proceed to do visualization of the sun. Those with superior capacity can in
one sitting visualize a clear image, like a coin or a mirror in size. On its bright surface
one sees one’s light or heavy karmic hindrances: (1) a black hindrance like a dark cloud
obstructing the sun; (2) a yellow hindrance like a yellow cloud obscuring the sunlight;
and (3) a white hindrance like a white cloud veiling the sun.

Just as the sun covered by clouds does not shine brightly, karmic hindrances of sentient
beings cover their pure mind and keep it from shining. If the meditator sees such a
hindrance, he should adorn the room, set up a Buddha image, and make a confession (of
his unwholesome karma) to all Buddhas and sages. If he does so, shedding tears of
sorrow like rain, as deep repentance arises in his mind, it penetrates to the core and
torments him as if his bones were cut to pieces.

After this he should resume his sitting position, and visualize with a peaceful mind. If a
clear image appears without any hindrances, this is called “abrupt expiation of karmic
hindrances.” Those who destroy all hindrances by a single act of repentance are called
“men of superior capacity.” If only some of the hindrances are removed, such acts are
called “gradual removal,” not “abrupt destruction.” He should then diligently repent.

If the meditator has not yet visualized the light of the Pure Land, he should gaze at the
brilliant image of the sun. If he worships and remembers Amitabha and the Pure Land
while constantly keeping in mind the image of the sun, he will attain concentration, in
which he will visualize pleasant adornments of the Pure Land. For these reasons, the
World-Honoured One first taught the method of visualizing the sun.

Parable of Two Rivers and a White Path

To illustrate how an aspirant, full of evil passions, awakens faith and attains birth in the
Pure Land, Shandao uses: the famous parable of the two rivers (fire-anger and water-
greed) and the white path (the aspiration for rebirth in the Pure Land to lead one from
samsara to nirvana) over the rivers 二河白道. On the near/eastern bank Sakyamuni
stands, indicating that we should cross. On the far/western bank (Pure Land), Amitabha
stands, indicating that we should come. The bandits and wild animals chasing the aspirant
represent one’s six senses of attachment.

This parable became very popular and, together with the painting which depicts it: has
been widely used to explain the Pure Land teachings.

Part V: Fazhao (fl. 785): The Fourth Chinese Pure Land Patriarch

Master Fazhao (Dharma-Illuminating) of Mountain Wutai (Pancasikha, Five-Terraced),

in the Tang Dynasty of ninth-century China: also known as the Venerable of Five Ways
of Intoning the Buddha Recitation. Ordained as a monk at an early age: he aspired toward
the teachings of Master Huiyuan and was totally committed to the Buddha Recitation

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Method. Once, in deep meditation: he was granted an interview with the Second
Patriarch, by whom he was officially authenticated for transmission.

He resided in the Yunfeng (Clouds-Peak) Temple, Heng-zhou, Hunan, for diligent

cultivation and vigorous practice, to the effect that: in his mendicant bowl, he saw
reflections of the idyllic beauty of Mountain Wutai, which he later personally visited.
There he had the honour of meeting with Manjusri Bodhisattva: who instructed him to
follow the Buddha Recitation Method.

In the fourth year of the Reign of Dali (769), at the East Lake Temple, he implemented a
new Method of Five Ways of Intoning the Buddha Recitation. Marvellous spiritual
responses were felt from royalties at the palace to the commoners on the streets.
Eventually, he built the Bamboo Forest Temple to enhance the spread of this unique Pure
Land Method. Emperor Dai at the Capital, so impressed with the Master’s sound of
Buddha Recitation at Mountain Wutai, had reverentially invited him to the palace and
conferred upon him the supreme distinction as Imperial Preceptor (Spiritual Advisor).

唐朝五台法照大师又称五会法师,少年为僧,仰慕东林远公遗教,至心念佛,定中得见
二祖授真传.居衡洲云峰寺精勤修行。于钵内见五台圣境，后诣五台，亲见文殊，
为说念佛法门。大历四年，于湖东寺开设<五会念佛>道场，从宫廷至蔗民感应殊胜。
遂于五台山建竹林寺广弘净土法门，唐代宗于京城感应师于五台念佛之声,礼请入
宫尊称为国师,教导五会念佛法,故又称五会法师.

Part VI: Shaokang (770-805): The Fifth Chinese Pure Land Patriarch

Master Shaokang (Junior-Prosperity) of the New Tranquillity Temple, in the Tang

Dynasty of ninth-century China: a native of Jinyun (now Zhejiang Province) and
ordained as a monk at an early age. Had extensive studies of the Sūtras and Sāstras
(Treatises), but he was intent upon the Pure Land and specialized in the Buddha
Recitation Method.

As an expedient means to spread the Buddha’s Teachings: he would throw his alms
money to the children on the streets, to encourage them to chant “Amituofo” and to teach
sentient beings to accept with faith the Buddha Recitation Method. When the Master
recited “Amituofo”: bright rays of light emitted from his mouth in the form of Amitabha
image. Later, he built the Pure Land Temple at Mountain Dark Dragon, Luzhou, Zhejiang
Province: as a Dharma Centre for Buddha Recitation to spread Pure Land Teachings.

唐朝新定少康大师缙云(浙江)人。少年出家,博通经论，志心净土,专修念佛。曾为
方便施教故,将乞食钱散诱小儿念佛，接引群生信受念佛法门。师念佛时，口出光
明现阿弥陀佛像。后于睦州乌龙山建净土道场，集众念佛,大弘净土。

Part VII: The Gradual Spread of Pure Land Buddhism from the Fifth Century

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In the fifth century, Pure Land Buddhism spread mainly in southern China, as seen in the
presence of eight images of Amitabha found there. It disseminated to northern China in
the sixth century, evident by an image of Amitabha found at Longmen (Caves) in 519.
Throughout the sixth century, there were only nine images of Amitabha at Longmen,
compared to fifty images of Sakyamuni and thirty-five images of Maitreya.

However, by the eighth century, Pure Land Buddhism had become more popular:
between 640 and 710, there were 118 images of Amitabha at Longmen, compared to ten
images of Sakyamuni and twelve of Maitreya. Shandao had spread Pure Land teachings
to Chang’an and Fazhao subsequently introduced Pure Land services into the Tang court
from the 770s.

Pure Land Buddhism (and Chan) survived the anti-Buddhist persecution of 845 and
expanded thereafter: being less vulnerable to the dismantlement of monasteries,
confiscation of property, laicization of clergy, destruction of images, and loss of
commentaries than did the other major doctrinal schools—together with its simple
message to the common people that Amitabha would respond to all who recited his name.

If Tanluan is the first systematizer of Pure Land Buddhism and Daochuo is the Pure Land
pioneer who offered both clergy and laity a way out of desperate times: Shandao is the
apex since he expressed the Pure Land vision in its fullest and most impassioned form.
Shandao appears as the complete leader: offering a rich tapestry of doctrine, meditation
technique, liturgical practices, vivid sermons and even paintings, laced together by
personal persuasiveness and confidence. This mixture was sufficient to attract and
challenge the cultured elite, but was also geared to offer a secure and accessible means of
salvation to the humblest person.

By the start of the eighth century: the struggle of the Chinese Pure Land movement to
develop, integrate and popularize a new programme of salvation had been accomplished.
One could safely live and die within a world of writings and practices devoted only to
Amitabha, and exclusive devotion to Amitabha was trumpeted as the only guaranteed
method of salvation for the weak. However: the other forms of Chinese Buddhist practice
had never been rejected, only de-emphasized as supplementary or too difficult.

From the ninth century onward: the norm of later Chinese Buddhism has not been the
competing voices of early Tang, but a choir of distinct and harmonized parts in which
Pure Land plays a major role. Why has Pure Land devotionalism endured and spread?

The Pure Land devotional movement expanded the possibilities of salvation beyond
monastic and academic Buddhism. It had no programme for changing the world but
offered relief from it by allowing clergy and laity to continue their usual existence
supported by a simple recitative practice and a new dream: nianfo wangsheng 念佛往生
—“recite the Buddha’s name and be reborn in the Pure Land.” Arising in the
desperation of sixth-century China: this message has struck a responsive chord
throughout East Asia and suggests a theme of human experience that may be universal.

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Part VIII: Shandao (613-681) and Shinran (1173-1262): A Comparison of Their
Pure Land Teachings

Shandao inspired the teachings of the three most famous Pure land propagators in Japan:
Genshin (942-1017), Honen (1133-1212), and Shinran (1173-1262). Genshin was
regarded as the first systematizer of Pure Land thought in Japan; his teaching was close to
Shandao’s. Honen’s contributions were: (1) rediscovery of Shandao’s thought; (2)
establishment of the invocation of Amitabha’s name as the single/sole/exclusive practice
(senju nembutsu 専修念仏), and (3) transforming the Pure Land doctrines into an
independent Pure Land sect.

Genshin and Honen are respectively the Sixth and Seventh Patriarchs of Jodo Shinshu.
As for Shinran, he did not simply follow the Pure Land teachings of Shandao but has
given Pure Land Buddhism a new form in many respects. The approaches of Shandao
and Shinran in relation to the concepts of the threefold faith/mind, oral invocation, and no
awaiting death, will be compared here.

Threefold Faith/Mind

The threefold faith/mind refers to the mind of sincere faith, the mind of deep faith, and
the mind of the faith with which one aspires to be reborn in the Pure Land by transferring
to the Pure Land the merit acquired. Shandao considered the threefold faith/mind as the
prerequisites to realize rebirth in the Pure Land. Faith is seen as a product of the human
resolution or will to direct his trust towards Amitabha Buddha.

Shinran shifted Shandao’s disciplinary-focused threefold faith/mind to a spiritually

focused three spiritual attitudes, which were given through the compassion of Amitabha.
It is Amitabha’s sincere mind—true and real mind—characterized by compassionate
intention, which is given to humans to arouse their faith and their aspirations to direct all
actions toward birth in the Pure Land. The most sincere mind is the seed from which the
mind of deep faith and the mind that produces the vow to direct all actions toward birth
arise. Hence, Shinran sees faith as a “reflection of the very spirit of Amitabha Buddha
himself” and “not a contrivance of man” (Alfred Bloom).

This is similar to the idea in Christianity that one does not earn salvation through one’s
good deeds. Faith is given as a result of the grace of God. One will perform good deeds
naturally after receiving faith from God. Shinran hence posits that all people should
eliminate self-power; in Shinran’s understanding, self-power includes doubt and
calculation/judgment (hakarai 計). Shinran uses hakarai to refer to “the self-defeating
effort to break the bonds of ignorance arising from delusional attachment to one’s own
imagined religious goodness.” In faith, there should be no doubt and no calculation.

To Shinran, this approach opens a new perspective in life, called “naturalism” (jinen 自
然): the practitioner with such faith will transform naturally and spontaneously, “just as
all water, upon entering the great ocean, immediately become ocean water.” Shinran thus

13
identifies the practitioner with “nature”: to respond naturally and do according to the
effortless activity of nature in which nothing is done yet everything happens. This is
similar to the Dao 道 of Daoism, the metaphysical characteristic of “no way as way.”
This perspective suggests that we should live a normal life without religious airs and
affectation.

This idea of “no way as way” explains the way of giving up of oneself to the natural
power of Amitabha’s vow. When one is aware of one’s sins and awakes to the
impossibility of one’s own ability to achieve salvation, the other-power emerges, which is
likened to the entrance into the ocean of Amitabha’s vow. The total dissolution of self-
power and the emergence of other-power is the realization of faith in human beings. In
other words, it is the awareness that if Amitabha does not save us, there is no hope of
salvation anywhere. This is an expression of total reliance on the vow of Amitabha.

Shandao’s interpretation of oral invocation also involves the element of repentance:

sinners should repent, and it is accomplished by the oral invocation of the name. For
Shinran, repentance is a profound sense of shame that surpasses moral and legalistic
judgments and goes to the heart of the individual’s personal existence by realizing his
great faith given by Amitabha. There is no repentance or forgiveness, we are accepted the
way are, all that is needed is the awareness of our sins and the faith we receive from
Amitabha, and salvation is thus guaranteed.

Oral Invocation

Shandao had transformed the meaning of nianfo to emphasize oral invocation of the
name of Amitabha. For Shinran, oral invocation was the activity of Amitabha at work
instead of that of the practitioner. Shinran’s interpretation eradicated the element of self-
power that was found in Shandao’s emphasis on oral invocation as the primary act to
attain rebirth. For Shinran, invocation is not an act performed by the invoker; it is
Amitabha who makes the invoker invoke his name and this invocation is the voice of
Amitabha coming out through the mouth of the invoker. For Shinran, oral invocation is
the highest form of expression of joy and gratitude to Amitabha: “Only by constantly
invoking the name of Amitabha can we repay the grace of the vow of great compassion.”

Shinran wrote: “How joyous I am, my heart and mind being rooted in the Buddha ground
of the Primal Vow and my thoughts and feelings flowing within the dharma-ocean, which
is beyond comprehension! I am deeply aware of the Tathagata’s immense compassion,
and I sincerely revere the benevolent care behind the master’s teaching activity. My joy
grows ever fuller, my gratitude and indebtedness ever more compelling…. Mindful solely
of the profundity of the Buddha’s benevolence, I pay no heed to the ridicule of others.”

No Awaiting Death

Shinran put forth the idea of immediate and total salvation in the present world instead of
at deathbed, which was traditionally held by Pure Land masters (including Shandao)
before Shinran. To Shinran, the very moment when one entrusts his life to or has great

14
faith (shinjin 信心) in Amitabha’s Primal Vow, salvation is immediately given and
guaranteed. Once faith has arisen, one is immediately born in the Pure Land, to dwell in
the stage of non-retrogression. However, we are not actually ourselves perfectly
enlightened. We are assured now of that ultimate status in the future. It is now, but not
yet. Shinran thus asserts that the Pure Land doctrine is the ultimate of Mahayana doctrine,
for it promises the sudden, instantaneous, complete and perfect salvation which is the
ideal of the Buddhist tradition.

With respect to birth in the Pure Land, the traditional view is that the Pure Land is a place
where the environment is perfect for attaining enlightenment, and that being born in the
Pure Land assures enlightenment. Hence, there is an important difference between being
born into the Pure Land and attaining enlightenment. Likewise, Shandao sees the Pure
Land as a stage leading toward Buddhahood. Shinran, on the other hand, considers the
realization of faith as equivalent to birth in the Pure Land, and birth in the Pure Land as
equivalent to becoming Buddha. No interval would elapse between birth in the Pure Land
and becoming Buddha: Pure Land to Shinran is nirvana.

Different Personalities and Religious Experiences

The idea of the end of the dharma and the concept of human predicaments set the
backdrop of the religious insights in both Shandao and Shinran. However, their different
personalities and religious experiences had led to their different religious approaches.
Shandao had a more positive view of human nature while Shinran was convinced of the
absolute fallibility of sentient beings. Therefore, there was still the element of self-power
in Shandao’s perception of oral invocation as a means of salvation, while total
dependence on the other-power was shown in Shinran’s attributing oral invocation to the
working of Amitabha. Both masters acknowledged gratitude to Amitabha, but it was
more explicitly stated by Shinran, who viewed oral invocation as an expression of
gratitude to Amitabha.

Although Shandao recognized the dark side of human nature, he was a conscientious
person and followed monastic discipline strictly, emphasizing monastic and meditative
training. Shinran’s case was different. He experienced religious failures during his 20
years of monkhood at Enryakuji in Mount Hiei, disillusioned also by the worldly
corruption that permeated this Tendai monastery. He also suffered from being exiled,
during which he was forced to disrobe. He then married and had five children, instead of
following the monastic rule to remain single. He felt that human beings were unable to do
anything to help themselves. In other words, Shinran’s religious insights stemmed from
the awareness of his own limitations and fallibility. He had been disappointed by his own
incapability and was very sympathetic to other sentient beings whom he believed to be all
passion-ridden like himself. This explained why all the teachings Shinran offered were
oriented to the idea of total reliance on Amitabha.

In the teaching of Shinran, all aspects of self-power were eliminated. He turned Pure
Land Buddhism to a totally other-power religion catered for evildoers. Not only was faith
a gift from Amitabha, oral invocation was also the activity of Amitabha, to whom one

15
should be grateful. He taught that salvation was assured in the present world and
evildoers were the objects of Amitabha’s salvation.

According to Shinran, the Pure Land path is an easy path because it is open to anyone
who turns away from his self-power to gain salvation and entrusts wholeheartedly to the
Primal Vow of Amitabha. But at the same time, it is a difficult path because human
beings are always tempted to strive for their own salvation, which is virtually impossible
since they are, by nature, passion-ridden and sinful. Hence, Shinran wrote: “More
difficult even than trust in the teachings of Sakyamuni’s lifetime, Is the true entrusting of
the Primal Vow; The sutra teaches that it is ‘the most difficult of all difficulties,’ That
there is ‘nothing more difficult than this’.”

Part IX: Homework & Essay 2 (Submit by 22 Oct 2021)

Read:

Jones, Charles B. “Foundations of Ethics and Practice in Chinese Pure Land Buddhism,”
Journal of Buddhist Ethics 10 (2003), pp. 2-20.

Jones, Charles B. “Toward a Typology of Nien-fo: A Study in Methods of Buddha-

Invocation in Chinese Pure Land Buddhism,” Pacific World: Journal of the Institute of
Buddhist Studies 3: 3 (2001), pp. 219-239.

Watch the video:

“淨土信仰 [Pure Land Teachings; with English subtitles].”

<https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_R_0J74zKog&list=PL-
GJOa1YN5K8oCJKiGe64I_Kg_uMNhiS_&index=30>, 1:07:08 hour, 2013.

Part 1 (0:00-33:07): narrates the life of Master Huiyuan, the Chinese Pure Land First
Patriarch, and the Donglin Temple he founded in Mount Lu, Jiangxi Province.
Part 2 (34:01-1:07:08): traces the development of Pure Land Buddhism by: highlighting
the lives of Masters Tanluan, Daochuo and Shandao (Second Patriarch) and their
Xuanzhong Temple, Shanxi Province; briefly mentioning the Third Patriarch to the
Twelfth Patriarch; and offering a longer account about Master Yinguang, the Thirteenth
Patriarch.

Essay 2 (20% of total course grade): Compare and contrast the two articles of
Charles B. Jones and the video.

Length of essay (typed): 1,400-1,700 words in double spacing (state word count).
Deadline of essay submission: 22 Oct 2021.
When writing your essay, make sure you do not commit plagiarism.

Recommended Readings

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Tao Wei. “Pure Mind, Pure Land: A Brief Study of Pure Land Thought and Movements.”
MA thesis in Religious Studies, McGill University, 2007, pp. 19-22.

Kenneth K. Tanaka. The Dawn of Chinese Pure Land Doctrine: Ching-ying Hui-yuan’s
Commentary on the Visualization Sutra. New York: State University of New York, 1990.
First edition: Delhi, 1995. Chapter 6: Impact on the Shan-tao Commentary, pp. 93-107.

Inagaki Hisao, trans., in collaboration with Harold Stewart. The Three Pure Land Sutras:
A Study and Translation. 3rd ed. revised. Kyoto: Nagata Bunshodo, 2000.

Shinko Mochizuki. Trans., Leo M. Pruden. Edited by Richard K. Payne and Natalie F.F.
Quli. Pure Land Buddhism in China: A Doctrinal History. Vol I: Translations. Vol. II:
Supplementary Essays and Appendices. Berkeley: Institute of Buddhist Studies, 2017.
Distributed by University of Hawai’i Press.

Stanley Weinstein. Buddhism under the T’ang (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
1987), pp. 66-74, 149-150.

Sundhara-Nanda and Sandra A.Wawrytko. “Highlights of the Thirteen Pure Land

Patriarchs.” Kumārajīva Project, Thomé H. Fang Institute, USA, 2003.
<http://www.thomehfang.com/kumarajiva/13Patriarchs/13Patriarchs_20Nov2003.htm>

Purelanders. “Category - Biographies.” Read biographies of Tanluan, Daochuo, Shandao,

Fazhao, Shaokang. <https://purelanders.com/category/biographies/>

Corless, Roger J. “The Brilliance of Emptiness: T’an-luan as a Mystic of Light,” Pacific

World: Journal of the Institute of Buddhist Studies, New Series: 5 (1989), pp. 13-19.

Corless, Roger J. “T’an-luan: The First Systematizer of Pure Land Buddhism.” In The
Pure Land Tradition, edited by James Foard, et. al., 107-137. Jain Publishing Company,
2006. (Berkeley Buddhist Studies series. Freemont, CA: Asian Humanities Press, 1996.)

Special issue: T’an-luan and the Development of Shin Buddhist Thought. In Pacific
World: Journal of the Institute of Buddhist Studies, 3: 2 (2000). Ten articles.

Four articles about Tanluan and Vasubhandu’s Rebirth Treatise. In Pacific World:
Journal of the Institute of Buddhist Studies, 3: 17 (2015). Special issue: Fiftieth
anniversary of the Bukkyo Dendo Kyokai.

Hisao Inagaki. Ojoronchu: T’an-luan’s Commentary on Vasabandhu’s Discourse on the

Pure Land: A Study and Translation. Kyoto: Nagata Bunshodo, 1998.

Shoji Matsumoto. “The Modern Relevance of Donran’s Pure Land Buddhist Thought,”
Pacific World: Journal of the Institute of Buddhist Studies, New Series: 2 (1986), pp. 36-
41.

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Chappell, David. “The Formation of the Pure Land Movement in China: Tao-ch’o and
Shan-tao.” In The Pure Land Tradition, edited by James Foard, et. al., 139-171. Jain
Publishing Company, 2006. (Berkeley Buddhist Studies series. Freemont, CA: Asian
Humanities Press, 1996.)

Tao-ch’o. Collection of Passages on the Land of Peace and Bliss, An Le Chi. Translated
by Zuio Hisao Inagaki. Tokyo: Horai Association International, 2014.

Katherine K. Velasco. “The Transformation of the Pure Land in the Development of Lay
Buddhist Practice in China,” Pacific World: Journal of the Institute of Buddhist Studies,
New Series: 11 & 12 (1995 & 1996), pp. 226-279.

Pas, Julian F. Visions of Sukhavati: Shan-tao’s Commentary on the Kuan wu-liang shou-
fo ching. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1995.

Hisao Inagaki. “Shan-tao’s Exposition of the Method of Contemplation on Amida

Butsu.” Part 1, Pacific World: Journal of the Institute of Buddhist Studies, 3: 1 (1999),
pp. 77-89; Part 2, Pacific World: Journal of the Institute of Buddhist Studies, 3: 2 (2000),
pp. 207-228; Part 3, Pacific World: Journal of the Institute of Buddhist Studies, 3: 3
(2001), pp. 277-288.

Cheung, Tak-ching, Neky. “A Comparative Study of the Pure Land Teachings of

Shandao (613-681) and Shinran (1173-1262).” MA thesis in Asian Studies, University of
Hong Kong, 2001.

Hisao Inagaki. “The Easy Method of Entering the Stage of Non-Regression,” Pacific
World: Journal of the Institute of Buddhist Studies, New Series: 3 (1987), pp. 24-28.

Keenan, John P. “Nien-Fo (Buddha-Anusmrti): The Shifting Structure of Remembrance,”

Pacific World: Journal of the Institute of Buddhist Studies, New Series: 5 (1989), pp. 40-
52.

Harrison, Paul. “Buddhanusmrti (Recollection of the Buddha).” In Encyclopedia of

Buddhism. Vol. 1. Edited by Robert E. Buswell Jr., p. 93. New York: Macmillan, 2004.

Dobbins, James. “Nenbutsu (Chinese, Nianfo; Korean, Yombul).” In Encyclopedia

of Buddhism. Vol. 2. Edited by Robert E. Buswell Jr., pp. 587–588. New York:
Macmillan, 2004.

Tanabe, George J., Jr. “Chanting and Liturgy.” In Encyclopedia of Buddhism. Vol. 1.
Edited by Robert E. Buswell Jr., pp. 137–139. New York: Macmillan, 2004.

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