UNIT 2: SOLUTIONS
OUTLINE
At the end of the Chapter, you should be able to:
1. Discuss the different colligative properties
2. Solve problems sets related to the colligative properties
of solutions
CHAPTER 2: COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES
 COLLIGATIVE PROPERTY of solutions depends on
the concentration of solute particles dissolved in the
solution (not the identity). The colligative properties
of solutions include lowering vapor pressure, the
elevation of boiling point, the depression of freezing
point, and osmotic pressure.
 Vapor pressure lowering
When a solute is added to the solvent then vapor
pressure of the solvent reduces compared to the
pure solvent. Generally, the solute is nonvolatile
which is dissolved in the solution. Addition of a
nonvolatile solute to a solution lowers the vapor
pressure of the solution. The partial vapor pressure
of each volatile component in a solution is equal to
the product of the mole fraction of the component in
the solution and the VP of the pure component.
 Boiling point elevation
Boiling-point elevation describes the phenomenon
that the boiling point of a liquid (a solvent) will be
higher when another compound is added, meaning
that a solution has a higher boiling point than a pure
solvent. This happens whenever a non-volatile
solute, such as a salt, is added to a pure solvent,
such as water. It is the boiling point at which the
vapor pressure of a liquid equals the external
pressure of 760mmHg (1 atm).
 Freezing point depression
Freezing point depression is the decrease of the
freezing point of a solvent on addition of a non-
volatile solute. The freezing point or melting point of
a pure compound is the temperature at which the
solid and the liquid phases are in equilibrium under a
pressure of 1 atm. The freezing point of a solution is
the temperature at which the solid phase of the pure
solvent and the liquid phase of the solution are in
equilibrium under a pressure of 1 atm.
 Osmotic pressure
Osmosis is the process in which a liquid pass
through a membrane whose pores permit the
passage of solvent molecules but are too small for
the larger solute molecules to pass through.
Osmotic pressure is the pressure that must be
applied to the solution to prevent the flow of pure
solvent into the concentrated solution
Sample problem
Task 3.1 APPLICATION
UNIT 3: SOLUTIONS
OUTLINE
At the end of the Chapter, you should be able to:
1. Analyze the different types of reaction
2. Apply the different concepts to problem sets.
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
 Chemical equilibrium - refers to the state
wherein both the reactants and the products
present in the concentration do not tend to
change with time during a chemical reaction. A
chemical reaction achieves chemical equilibrium
when the rate of forward reaction and that of the
reverse reaction is the same. Also, since the
rates are equal and there is no net change in the
concentrations of the reactants and the products,
the state is referred to as a dynamic
equilibrium, and the rate constant is known as
equilibrium constant.
 Irreversible Reactions occur in only one
direction (→), where the products cannot change
back as reactants Example: Combustion, where
fuel + O2 → CO2 + H2O
 Reversible Reactions occur in both directions
(↔), where the products can change back as
reactants at least under certain conditions (this
balance is called as equilibrium vapor pressure)
Example: Boiling of water
Before: Rate of Evaporation > Rate of
Condensation
During: Rate of Evaporation = Rate of
Condensation
Reaction Rates and Factors Affecting Rate of
Reaction
Reaction kinetics is the study of the rate of chemical
reactions. Reactions occur when two reactant molecules
effectively collide, each having minimum energy and
correct orientation. During a molecular collision,
molecules must also possess a minimum amount of
kinetic energy for an effective collision to occur. This
energy varies for each reaction and is known as the
activation energy (Ea). Therefore, the reaction rate
depends on the activation energy; higher activation
energy means that fewer molecules will have sufficient
energy to undergo an effective collision.
Reactions happen - no matter what. Chemicals are
always combining or breaking down. The reactions
happen over and over, but not always at the same speed. Concentration usually in molarity, symbol “[ ]”.
The rate of a reaction is the speed at which a chemical
Time usually in seconds
reaction happens. If a reaction has a low rate, the
 For the hypothetical reaction: A + B → C, we can
molecules combine at a slower speed than a reaction express the average rate of reaction as follows: Rate
with a high rate. of reaction

Factors Affecting the Rate of Reaction

FACTOR EFFECT ON REACTION
RATE
 The Δ[A] is the difference between the concentration
Concentration of the Reactant Increasing the concentration of A over the time interval
of one or more reactants will
often increase the rate of
reaction. This occurs because
a higher concentration of a
reactant will lead to more  The concentration of a reactant always decreases
collisions of that reactant in a with time, so Δ[A] and Δ[B] are both negative. Since
specific time. negative rates do not make much sense, rates
Physical State of the Reactant If reactant molecules exist in expressed in terms of a reactant concentration are
and Surface Area different phases, as in a always preceded by a minus sign to make the rate
heterogeneous mixture, the come out positive.
rate of reaction will be limited  When the stoichiometric relationships in the balanced
by the surface area of the equation are not 1:1, the coefficient for each species
phases that are in contact. must also be corrected for. In the hypothetical
Temperature An increase in temperature reaction 2 A + B → 3 C, two molecules of A are
typically increases the rate of consumed for every one molecule of B, this means A
reaction. An increase in is consumed twice as fast. To correct for this and
temperature will raise the express the average rate of reaction for each species,
average kinetic energy of the we must divide each by its coefficient in the balanced
reactant molecules. equation:
Therefore, a greater
proportion of molecules will
have the minimum energy
necessary for an effective
collision.
Pressure Pressure affects the rate of
reaction, particularly with
gases. When pressure is
increased, the molecules
have less space in which they
can move. Pressure is also
related to concentration and
volume. By decreasing the
volume available to the
molecules of gas, you
increase the concentration of
molecules in a specific space.
Generally, reaction rates for
solids and liquids remain
unaffected by increases in
pressure.
Presence of catalyst A catalyst is a substance that
accelerates a reaction by
participating in it without being
consumed. Catalysts provide
an alternate reaction pathway
to obtain products. They are
critical to many biochemical
reactions.

Chemical reactions vary greatly in the speed at which they

occur. The reaction rate for a given chemical reaction is the
measure of the change in concentration of the reactants or the
change in concentration of the products per unit time. The
speed of a chemical reaction may be defined as the change in
concentration of a substance divided by the time interval during
which this change is observed: rate = Δ concentration / Δ
time