Table of Contents

2 Fundamentals Page
2.1 PETROLEUM GEOLOGY .......................................................................................................2-1
2.1.1 Basic concepts of geology ........................................................................................2-2
2.1.1.1 Early History of the Earth ...............................................................................2-2
2.1.1.2 How is the duration of eras and subdivisions measured? ...............................2-3
2.1.2 The Sedimentary Cycle.............................................................................................2-3
2.1.2.1 Weathering ......................................................................................................2-4
2.1.2.2 Erosion and deposition ....................................................................................2-4
2.1.2.3 Diagenesis .......................................................................................................2-4
2.1.3 Sedimentary rock types.............................................................................................2-4
2.1.4 Terrigenous sediments (clastic)................................................................................2-5
2.1.4.1 Clays................................................................................................................2-5
2.1.4.2 Silts..................................................................................................................2-6
2.1.4.3 Sands ...............................................................................................................2-6
2.1.4.4 Rudites.............................................................................................................2-6
2.1.5 Pyroclastic sediments................................................................................................2-6
2.1.6 Carbonates ................................................................................................................2-6
2.1.6.1 The Chemical Components of Carbonates......................................................2-7
2.1.6.2 The physical components of carbonates .........................................................2-7
2.1.6.3 The Classification of Limestone Rocks ..........................................................2-7
2.1.7 Evaporites .................................................................................................................2-8
2.1.8 Carbonaceous rocks ..................................................................................................2-8
2.1.8.1 Coal .................................................................................................................2-8
2.1.8.2 Oil Shale..........................................................................................................2-8
2.1.8.3 Bituminous Limestone ....................................................................................2-8
2.1.9 Structural geology.....................................................................................................2-9
2.1.9.1 Introduction .....................................................................................................2-9
2.1.9.2 Earth movements.............................................................................................2-9
2.1.9.3 Faults ...............................................................................................................2-9
2.1.9.4 Folds ................................................................................................................2-9
2.1.9.5 Joints ...............................................................................................................2-10
2.1.9.6 Unconformities................................................................................................2-10
2.1.10 Petroleum accumulations........................................................................................2-11
2.1.10.1 Origin of petroleum.......................................................................................2-11
2.1.10.2 Reservoir rocks..............................................................................................2-11
2.1.10.3 Traps..............................................................................................................2-12
2.1.10.4 Structural traps ..............................................................................................2-12
2.1.10.5 Stratigraphic Traps ........................................................................................2-12
2.1.10.6 Combination traps .........................................................................................2-13
2.1.11 Reservoir fluids and pressure .................................................................................2-13
2.1.11.1 Types of reservoir fluids ...............................................................................2-13
2.1.11.2 Water .............................................................................................................2-13
2.1.11.3 Oil..................................................................................................................2-13
2.1.11.4 Gas.................................................................................................................2-13
2.1.11.5 Fluid distribution ...........................................................................................2-14
2.1.11.6 Reservoir pressure .........................................................................................2-14
2.1.11.7 Normal pressure ............................................................................................2-14
2.1.11.8 Abnormal pressure ........................................................................................2-14

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2.2 ALGEBRA AND TRIGONOMETRY .........................................................................................2-15

2.2.1 Equations ..................................................................................................................2-15
2.2.1.1 Plotting of Equations.......................................................................................2-16
2.2.2 Geometry ..................................................................................................................2-17
2.2.2.1 Angles..............................................................................................................2-17
2.2.3 Right-angle triangles.................................................................................................2-21
2.2.4 Similar triangles........................................................................................................2-22
2.2.5 Trigonometry ............................................................................................................2-22
2.2.5.1 Solution of right-angle triangles......................................................................2-24
2.2.5.2 Pythagorean Theorem .....................................................................................2-24
2.2.5.3 Other Properties of Triangles ..........................................................................2-25
2.2.6 The circle ..................................................................................................................2-26
2.2.6.1 Tangent............................................................................................................2-26
2.2.6.2 Arc...................................................................................................................2-27
2.2.6.3 Radians ............................................................................................................2-27
2.2.6.4 Unit circle........................................................................................................2-28
2.2.6.5 Trigonometric Functions by Quadrant ............................................................2-28
2.2.6.6 Projections of Lines ........................................................................................2-29
2.2.6.7 Projections of Lines - Perpendicular Directions .............................................2-30
2.2.6.8 Projection of Lines onto Planes ......................................................................2-30
2.2.6.9 Radius of Curvature ........................................................................................2-31
2.2.6.10 Circumference of a circle ..............................................................................2-31

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List of Figures Page

Figure 2-1 Cross section of earth with crust, mantle, core and inner core............................... 2-2
Figure 2-2 Uplifted horst and down dropped graben ............................................................... 2-2
Figure 2-3 Weight of overlying unconsolidated sediments (B) compacts layer (A) into
sedimentary rocks................................................................................................... 2-4
Figure 2-4 Simple faults - normal (a), reverse (b), thrust (c) and lateral (d) ........................... 2-9
Figure 2-5 Reverse fault ........................................................................................................... 2-9
Figure 2-6 Folding and cleavage ............................................................................................ 2-10
Figure 2-7 Unconformities ..................................................................................................... 2-11
Figure 2-8 In map view, fault traps may be simple (a) or compound (b)............................... 2-12
Figure 2-9 Discontinuous peripheral traps around piercement salt dome.............................. 2-12
Figure 2-10 Common types of stratigraphic traps.................................................................. 2-13
Figure 2-11 Artesian well....................................................................................................... 2-14
Figure 2-12 The first order (straight line) equation ............................................................... 2-17
Figure 2-13 Angles a and b are supplementary...................................................................... 2-17
Figure 2-14 The sum of all angles around one point is 360° ................................................. 2-18
Figure 2-15 This figure shows the relationship of angles ...................................................... 2-18
Figure 2-16 In this figure, angle a is equal to angle a'............................................................ 2-19
Figure 2-17 The sum of internal angles of a triangle is 180°................................................. 2-19
Figure 2-18 ln this figure, angle a + c = angle e..................................................................... 2-20
Figure 2-19 This figure can be solved as above..................................................................... 2-20
Figure 2-20 lf angle c = 29°17’, what are angles a and b....................................................... 2-21
Figure 2-21 Projections from a right-angle triangle............................................................... 2-21
Figure 2-22 Similiar triangles ................................................................................................ 2-22
Figure 2-23 Right angle triangle ............................................................................................ 2-22
Figure 2-24 Right angle triangle ............................................................................................ 2-23
Figure 2-25 Example of right angle triangle .......................................................................... 2-24
Figure 2-26 Right-angle triangle example.............................................................................. 2-25
Figure 2-27 Equality of segments .......................................................................................... 2-25
Figure 2-28 Circle and chord ................................................................................................. 2-26
Figure 2-29 Circle and tangent............................................................................................... 2-26
Figure 2-30 Circle and arc...................................................................................................... 2-27
Figure 2-31 Unit circle ........................................................................................................... 2-28
Figure 2-32 Sign of sine, cosine and tangent in a circle ........................................................ 2-29
Figure 2-33 Projections of lines ............................................................................................. 2-29
Figure 2-34 Projection of lines - example .............................................................................. 2-29
Figure 2-35 Projection of lines - perpendicular direction ...................................................... 2-30
Figure 2-36 Projection of lines onto planes ........................................................................... 2-30
Figure 2-37 Radius of curvature definitions .......................................................................... 2-31

List of Tables Page

Table 2-1 Geologic time scale.................................................................................................. 2-3
Table 2-2 Common evaporites ................................................................................................. 2-8

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2 Fundamentals
About this chapter
A solid foundation in geology as well as algebra and trigonometry is essential to
understanding directional drilling techniques and procedures. Geology, a science based
on the history and structure of the earth, combined with a thorough knowledge of
mathematics, forms the core discipline necessary for proficiency in this complex
business. Although it is far beyond the scope of this manual to completely describe the
total essence of geology and mathematics, this chapter is designed to refresh any
knowledge that should already be a part of the directional drilling trainee.

Objectives of this Chapter

On completing this chapter the directional driller should be able to do the following
exercises:

Part A/Petroleum Geology

1. Describe the phases that occurred during the formation of the earth that resulted in the
various features of its surface and inner structures.
2. Be prepared to explain the several terrigenous sediments (clastic) that can found
under the Earth’s surface.
3. Be prepared to describe the four general classes of sedimentary materials and how
they are categorized by relative size.
4. Be prepared to define pyroclastic sediments and explain the various of sub-groups.
5. Describe the basic concepts of structural geology and how the various elements are
related to exploration and production of petroleum.

Part B/Algebra and Trigonometry

1. Observe and explain miscellaneous equations of algebraic and trigonometric
mathematics.
2. Be prepared to describe geometric descriptions of a circle.
3. Understand and solve equations applicable to various straight line problems.
4. Demonstrate an understanding of angles resulting from intersecting lines.
5. Demonstrate an understanding of circles and parts of circles resulting from
intersecting lines.
6. Demonstrate an understanding of the trigonometric quadrants identified by sine,
cosine and tangent; solve various equations using these quadrants.

2.1 Petroleum Geology

Rock is a natural substance composed of a mineral or group of minerals which lead to the
formation of rocks and to accumulations of hydrocarbons. A study of this phenomenon is
aimed to help directional drillers in understanding of geological environments. Geology
is so essential to the petroleum industry that a knowledge of the basic principles of this
science is desirable for anyone associated with oil or gas.

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Geological information is acquired by observing rocks and their relationship to each

other as they were formed in the layers of the earth. Chronological events can then be
reconstructed in order to understand rock formations and, in the particular field of
petroleum geology, to be able to predict where oil accumulations might occur.

2.1.1 Basic concepts of geology

2.1.1.1 Early History of the Earth

The earth is thought to have originated some 4 to 5 billion years ago out of a condensing
cloud of cosmic dust. During its early life, the earth passed through a molten or partially
molten stage induced by gravitational compression or the release of energy by
radioactive elements. During this stage, the components of the earth separated to produce
a heavy core 4,400 miles in diameter, a mantle of lighter material some 1,800 miles thick
and a crust of the lightest materials some 10 to 30 miles thick (Figure 2-1). At the same
time, large amounts of water vapor and gases erupted to form the primeval atmosphere.

Figure 2-1 Cross section of earth with crust, mantle, core and inner core

A second stage can be considered as the atmosphere developed and the earth cooled, rain
began to fall. Water coming down from the heights and flowing to the valleys eroded the
surface of the earth by removing particles of rocks whereas sedimentary accumulations
deposited in the lower reliefs.
The tectonic activity resulting from the internal adjustments led to the formation of
horsts and grabens filled with sedimentary deposits (Figure 2-2), as it is attested by the
Red Sea between Asia and Africa.

Figure 2-2 Uplifted horst and down dropped graben

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Life began in the oceans sometime in the Precambrian period and eventually spread onto
the land during the Devonian period (about 350 million years ago).
Fossils preserved in deposits attest to the progressive evolution of the fauna and flora
and enabled the succession of rocks to be subdivided into eras and smaller subdivisions.
The more important ones are shown in Table 2-1.
Table 2-1 Geologic time scale
Duration Dates
Era Period Epoch (millions (millions
of years) of years)
Recent 0.01 0.00
Quaternary 0.01
Pleistocene 1
1
Pilocene 10
11
Cenozoic Miocene 14
25
Tertiary Oligocene 15
40
Eocene 20
60
Paleocene 10
70±2
Cretaceous 65
135±5
Mesozoic Jurassic 30
165±10
Triassic 35
200±20
Permian 35
235±30
Pennsylvanian 30
265±35
Mississippian 35
300±40
Palezoic Devonian 50
350±40
Silurian 40
380±40
Ordovician 70
460±40
Cambrian 90
550±50
Precambrian 4,500±

2.1.1.2 How is the duration of eras and subdivisions measured?

Absolute ages for these subdivisions were determined from studies of radioactive
minerals.

2.1.2 The Sedimentary Cycle

The classic cycle is one of uplift, weathering, erosion, transportation, deposition,
lithification and renewed uplift.

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2.1.2.1 Weathering
Weathering can be either a physical process, a biological process or a chemical process
which all result in the breakup and the decay of rocks at the earth’s surface. Erosion is the
process or removing newly formed sediments and is caused by four agents which are also
responsible for the subsequent transportation of the sediment. This sediment
transportation can be achieved through the action of gravity, water, glaciers or wind.

2.1.2.2 Erosion and deposition

Erosion results from the action of many agents such as wind, freezing water, waves and
moving ice, which remove particles from the surface of the earth (Figure 2-3).
Unconsolidated deposits (A) resulting from the accumulation of those particles were
compacted by the weight of the overlying sediments (B) and, under the action of pressure
and heat, were transformed into metamorphic rocks. Most oil and gas accumulations
occur in sedimentary rocks.

Figure 2-3 Weight of overlying unconsolidated sediments (B) compacts

layer (A) into sedimentary rocks

2.1.2.3 Diagenesis
A name given to the processes which change sediments to a rock. As the energy of the
transporting agent slows down, removed sediments will deposit; the coarsest part would
drop first whereas the fine fraction (such as clay) might then be slowly deposited further
away. This natural segregation of coarse materials from fine, and the soluble from
insoluble, form the basis for the classification of sedimentary rocks.
Diagenesis occurs under the effects of compaction, dewatering (water squeezed out of
the sediments) or cementation (chemical processes). All these mechanisms can be
combined over a certain period of time.

2.1.3 Sedimentary rock types

In order to differentiate between the various rock types, several classifications are
structured either on the basis of the grain size or on the fundamental mineralogy. The
sedimentary processes which have formed the rock can as well be invoked into the
classification.
When it comes to classifying rocks seen at the well site, we stick to a descriptive
classification and leave environmental factors alone. This simplifies matters a great deal.
We will now go on to look at the main rock types encountered in the drilling of oil wells
and how these rocks can induce the drilling process.

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2.1.4 Terrigenous sediments (clastic)

These are land derived sediments and are represented by the clay minerals that coarser
material formed from the fragmentation of silicate rocks. They have been sub-divided
further on the basis of their grain size.
• Group A - Clays (particles with a diameter less than 0.004 mm)
• Group B - Silts (particle diameter 0.004 to 0.06 mm)
• Group C - Sands (particle diameter 0.06 mm to 2 mm)
• Group D - Rudites (coarser rock fragments).

2.1.4.1 Clays
Clay minerals are hydrous platy aluminosilicates. They form a complex and extensive
series due not only to variations in ordering of the sheet-like crystal lattices, but also to
the presence of different cations between the lattices.
Clay minerals can be subdivided into five important groups with different chemical and
physical characteristics; kaolinite, illites, smectites, chlorites and glauconites.
The term “shale", generally used to name those argillaceous sediments, mostly describes
the tendency of those materials to split, especially when they have been exposed to high
compactions and pressures. Soft clays which are encountered in the topmost sections of
wells usually drill fine unless their affinity to water causes them to form so-called gumbo
formations.
Gumbo is a term used to describe claystone formations which absorb water, hence,
hydrating shales tend to expand. Sticking mechanisms are associated with such
formations:
• Contraction of the wellbore behind the BHA makes it difficult to trip out.
• Large clumps of gumbo will fall into the wellbore and will eventually stick to the
BHA. Chemical inhibitors can be added to the drilling fluid in order to restrict or
avoid such phenomenon.
Kaolinite clays generally form by sub-aerial weathering of granites: rocks with a low
proportion of iron or magnesium rich minerals. The clay particles may be washed out as
colloids or formed in situ. When they come in contact with water rich in potassium ions
(for instance sea water) they slowly alter to illite.
Illites are the dominant clay mineral group. They are formed by the direct weathering of
feldspars or by alteration of kaolinite and montmorillonite under marine or later
post-depositional conditions.
Montmorillonites form by the alteration of minerals rich in iron and magnesium. For
instance, certain types of volcanic ash. They too gradually change to illite when
transported into sea water.
Clays may also be the subsidiary minerals of other sedimentary rocks. Their origin
(petrogenesis) may be primary in that they were deposited at the same time as other
major constituents. Alternatively, they may have formed as a later alteration product of
those less stable minerals in the original sediment, their origin in this case being
secondary or diagenetic.

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2.1.4.2 Silts
Silts are clastic sediments, intermediate in size between clays and fine sands (particle
diameter 0.004 to 0.06 mm). They are derived from fragmented rocks or minerals and are
called clastic or detrital sediments. Silt size particles are generally the result of extreme
abrasion (mechanical wearing down), and therefore all the minerals found in that size
range may also be found as sand-grade particles. They consist of quartz, feldspar, heavy
minerals, iron ores and phosphates. While sand may be silt free, most clays and
claystones contain about 35% silt or more (thus named silty claystones or argilaceous
siltstones). Very abrasive siltstones can be encountered in the drilling processes and,
therefore, frequent bit changes become necessary.

2.1.4.3 Sands
Sands, like silts, are defined by their grain size (0.062mm) and not by their mineralogy.
Terrigenous or siliclastic sands are of prime, economic importance because they are
often of wide lateral extent and are frequently porous and permeable, thereby satisfying
three basic requirements for major aquifers and hydrocarbon reservoirs.
Quartz, feldspar, lithic fragments, micas and heavy minerals are the major mineralogical
groups found in detrital sands.

2.1.4.4 Rudites
These are sediments whose grain size exceed 2 mm in diameter. This coarse rock
fraction is not unique to terrigenous deposits, and rudite grade particles are common in
both the carbonate and pyroclastic groups.
The shape of the class is also important. Rounded rock fragments which have undergone
physical abrasion are called conglomerates. Angular ones, physically as well as
chemically immature, are termed breccias.

2.1.5 Pyroclastic sediments

These are derived by volcanic eruption into the air. They may be chemically weathered
or physically reworked to closely resemble terrigenous deposits. This is because they
may have similar mineralogies, and the range of grain sizes are comparable.
Volcanic ash or tuff can fall as clay, silt or sand grade particles whereas the still coarser
agglomerate is the direct equivalent of conglomerate.
While traces of volcanic ash are common in most deep sea sediments, pyroclastic
deposits are generally rare within sedimentary sequences.

2.1.6 Carbonates
This major group of sediments is fundamentally different to the terrigenous (or
siliclastic) and pyroclastic rocks just discussed. In these clastic groups, the mineralogy of
the deposits is largely controlled by the processes of weathering and erosion of the
bedrock in the area of the sediment source; namely outside the basin. In carbonate rocks,
however, it is the depositional environment within the basin which exerts the prime
control on the mineralogy and sediment type. In this respect carbonates have closer
affinities to the evaporite and carbonaceous rocks.
Biological activity around the area of deposition is of prime importance in generating the
basic particles of carbonate sediments.

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 Fundamentals

In order to determine the depositional environment and the genesis of carbonate rocks, a
fairly precise description of the chemical and physical components is required.

2.1.6.1 The Chemical Components of Carbonates

The chemical components are:
• Aragonite
• Magnesian
• Calcite
• Dolomite
All these minerals, know as polymorphs of calcium carbonate (CaC03), present different
degrees of chemical stability depending on the environmental characteristics of the
depositional basin.

2.1.6.2 The physical components of carbonates

Four basic physical components are taken into account for the description of carbonates:
The grain types either mineral or biological.
The matrix which consists of the fine material.
The cement which grows in the pore spaces of the sediment after it deposition.
The pore space remaining after cement has taken place.

2.1.6.3 The Classification of Limestone Rocks

In an essentially monomineralogical calcium carbonate system, there is apparently as
wide a range of particle type as there is in the multi-mineral terrigenous group. The most
successful attempts to solve the nomenclature problem are those of Folk, in which the
basic components of the rock are described, and of Dunham where the basic fabric is
described.
Four more terms are frequently used to describe grain size in carbonate rocks.
• Group A - Calcilutite up to 0.004 mm grain diameter
• Group B - Calcisiltite 0.004 to 0.065 mm
• Group C - Calcarenite 0.065 to 2 mm
• Group D - Calcirudite above 2 mm grain diameter
Certain specific types of limestones like chalk, marl, bituminous limestones and dolomite
can be as well mentioned at this stage.
• Chalk This is a soft white limestone composed of the tests (or skeletons) of once
floating micro-organisms.
• Marl This is a calcareous clay - generally an intermediate mixture of terrigenous
clay and micrite.
• Bituminous Limestones These are micrites which contain much organic or
carbonaceous matter, mostly in the form of tarry hydrocarbons which are usually
described as bitumen.
• Dolomite This term is applied to limestones where the calcium carbonate has
been completely replaced by the mineral dolomite.

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2.1.7 Evaporites
These sediments, which include mineral salts such as anhydrite. gypsum and rock salt
(halite), are believed to form by precipitation from brines (waters concentrated in salt by
evaporation processes).
They are important as mineral deposits sometimes occurring in thick, relatively pure
mono-mineralogic sequences. They play an important role in petroleum geology, being
excellent cap rocks for oil or gas reservoirs. They are also very plastic and thick salt
sequences deform and flow to produce salt domes. Salt movements frequently produce
hydrocarbon traps.
The more frequently encountered evaporate minerals are listed Table 2-2.
Table 2-2 Common evaporites
Common name Chemical composition Group
Gypsum Ca S042H2O
Anhydrite Ca SO4 Sulphates
Polyhalite K2 SO4Mg SO4(CaSO4)2H2O
Halite Na Cl
Sylvite K Cl Chlorides
Carnalite M Mg Cl36H2O
Kainite Mg S04KCl3H2O Mixed
Trona Ta SO3NaHCO3H2O Bicarbonate

2.1.8 Carbonaceous rocks

Small traces of organic material are present in most sedimentary deposits with the
notable exception of desert red-beds where it has been entirely destroyed by oxidation.
However, in certain very reducing anaerobic (oxygen free) environments it may form an
appreciable proportion of the sediment.

2.1.8.1 Coal
Coals are formed by the action of fungi and anaerobic (oxygen hating) bacteria on
decaying vegetal or “humic" matter in a reducing environment. Compaction by deep
burial is an important agent in reducing the volatile content of the rock. The series
PEAT, LIGNITE, HUMIC COAL, ANTHRACITE expresses the increase in the carbon
content as oxygen and hydrogen are progressively driven off.

2.1.8.2 Oil Shale

This is more an economic rather than geological term, and refers to argillaceous
sediments with an organic content of at least 5%, but generally meaning considerably
higher (20 to 50%). They must be sufficiently rich in organic matter to yield free oil on
heating.
They generally form in lakes where algae matter decays in a strongly reducing (or
anaerobic) environment, thereby preserving the organic material. This is referred to as
"sapropelic" matter and is a good source for oil. Marine equivalents are also known.

2.1.8.3 Bituminous Limestone

This is again an economic rather than geological concept being the direct carbonate
equivalent of terrigenous oil shales. Such sediments may form in lagoons behind a reef.

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2.1.9 Structural geology

2.1.9.1 Introduction
At destructive plate margins, the sediments and the top part of the crust are compressed
and deformed by the process of collision. The rocks are bent and fractured. The study of
the structures that result and the processes that form them is called Structural Geology.

2.1.9.2 Earth movements

Most rocks are fractured during earth movement, resulting in cracks called joints. If the
rock layers on one side of a fracture have moved in relation to the other side, the fracture
is called a fault (Figure 2-4). Displacement - or how far apart the sides of the fault have
moved - may range from only a few inches to many miles, as along the San Andreas fault
in California.

Figure 2-4 Simple faults - normal (a), reverse (b), thrust (c) and lateral (d)

2.1.9.3 Faults
A simple classification system outlines four kinds of faults: normal, reverse, thrust, and
lateral (Figure 2-4). The names are derived from the movement of adjacent blocks.
Movement is up or down in normal and reverse faults but is mainly horizontal in thrust
and lateral faults. A combination of vertical and horizontal movements is also possible in
all faults.
Rotational faults and upthrusts (Figure 2-5) are variations of normal and reverse faulting.
They are most important to the petroleum geologist because they affect the location of
oil and gas accumulations.

Figure 2-5 Reverse fault

2.1.9.4 Folds
Folds can be classified in many ways, one of the simplest is into anticlinal and synclinal
folds.

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 Fundamentals

As compressional forces increase, the folds become tighter and the limbs drop more
steeply. Assymetric folds are ones in which one limb dips more steeply than the other.
These dips can eventually become greater than vertical and folds become overturned.
Axial plane cleavage can develop which is caused by alignment of platey minerals
parallel to the fold axis. With increasing deformation this cleavage can dominate the
structure of the rock, obliterating the original bedding. Fold axes need not be horizontal,
in which case they are said to plunge.
If more than one episode of folding takes place, then the axial planes cleavage developed
by the first phase may itself be folded. This is then known as superimposed folding and
can often be recognized by statistical analysis of several fold axes in one area.

Figure 2-6 Folding and cleavage

Folding in sedimentary rocks is important as it creates the potential for oil traps on the
Crest of folds, and these are a major cause of hydrocarbon accumulations.

2.1.9.5 Joints
These are fractures in the rock which are not associated with any significant movement
of the rock. They typically occur in Limestones and Dolomites due to solution along
natural planes of weakness by percolating underground waters, or by removal of
overlying weight of rock by erosion which allows the rock to expand slightly from stress
release, and fracture.
Joints normally develop in three planes, all at right angles, and often have a strong
control on the geomorphology of the area. Jointing in the rocks can lead to large volumes
of porosity and is an important reservoir type, particularly in carbonate rocks. It can also
give lost circulation problems when drilling a highly jointed or cavernous area.

2.1.9.6 Unconformities
Although these are not strictly structural features, we will look briefly at unconformities.
An unconformity is any break in the geological sequence.
Earth movements often bury or prevent the depositing of part of a sediment series that is
present elsewhere. Such buried erosion surfaces are called unconformities. Two general
kinds of unconformities are the disconformity and the angular (Figure 2-7). Earth
movements are most important to petroleum geology because they produce barriers that
cause a large proportion of petroleum accumulations.

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 Fundamentals

Figure 2-7 Unconformities

2.1.10 Petroleum accumulations

A petroleum accumulation must have (1) a source of oil and gas, (2) a porous and
permeable bed or reservoir rock and (3) a trap that acts as a barrier to fluid flow so that
accumulation can occur.

2.1.10.1Origin of petroleum
Oil and gas probably originated from organic matter in sedimentary rocks. The origin of
coal on land is a process similar to the origin of petroleum in the sea. In the formation of
coal, dead vegetation in the absence of oxygen ceases to decompose and accumulates as
humus in the soil and as deposits of peat in bogs and swamps. Peat buried beneath a
cover of clays and sands becomes compacted. As the weight and pressure of the cover
increase, water and gases are driven off. The residue, very rich in carbon, becomes coal.
In the sea a similar process takes place. An abundance of marine life is eternally falling
in a slow, steady rain to the bottom of the sea. Vast quantities of matter are eaten or
oxidized before they reach the bottom, but a portion of this microscopic animal and plant
residue escapes destruction and is entombed in the ooze and mud on the sea floor. The
organic debris collects in sunken areas at the bottom and is buried within an
ever-increasing accumulation of sands, clays and more debris until the sediment is
thousands of feet thick.
As the sediment builds, the pressure of deep burial begins to work. Bacteria take oxygen
from the trapped organic residues and gradually break down the matter, molecule by
molecule, into substances rich in carbon and hydrogen. The extreme weight and pressure
of the mass compacts and squeezes the clays into hard shales. Within this deep,
unwitnessed realm of immense force, oil is born.

2.1.10.2Reservoir rocks
A petroleum reservoir is a rock capable of containing gas, oil, or water. To be
commercially productive, it must be big enough, be thick enough, and have enough pore
space to contain an appreciable volume of hydrocarbons. Also, it must give up the
contained fluids at a satisfactory rate when the reservoir is penetrated by a well.
Sandstones and carbonates (such as limestone and dolomite) are the most common
reservoir rocks.
Besides porosity, a reservoir rock must also have permeability; i.e., the pores of the rock
must be connected. Connected pores allow petroleum to move from one pore to another.

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2.1.10.3Traps
Migration is a continuing process once the hydrocarbons have been generated and
expelled from the source rock. Hydrocarbons will move ever upward until they escape at
the surface unless something stops the movement. Therefore, a barrier, or trap, is needed
to impede this migration in order to get subsurface accumulation of petroleum.
A trap is produced by geological conditions that cause oil and gas to be retained in a
porous reservoir. Reservoir traps for hydrocarbons have two general forms: (1) an arched
upper surface, commonly called structural and (2) an up-dip termination of porosity,
called stratigraphic (Figure 2-8).

Figure 2-8 In map view, fault traps may be simple (a) or compound (b)

2.1.10.4Structural traps
A structural trap is formed by the folding or faulting of the rock layer that contains the
hydrocarbons (Figure 2-9). Structural traps vary widely in size and shape. Some of the
more common structural traps are anticlinal traps, fault traps and dome and plug traps.

Figure 2-9 Discontinuous peripheral traps around piercement salt dome

2.1.10.5Stratigraphic Traps
A stratigraphic trap is caused either by a nonporous formation sealing off the top edge of
a reservoir bed or by a change of porosity and permeability within the reservoir bed itself
(Figure 2-10). Two general kinds of stratigraphic traps are the disconformity and the
angular unconformity, both resulting from unconformities (Figure 2-7).

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Figure 2-10 Common types of stratigraphic traps

2.1.10.6Combination traps
Another common type of reservoir is formed by a combination of folding, faulting,
changes in porosity and other conditions - some structural and some stratigraphic in
origin. Examples of reservoirs of this nature are the many reservoirs found in the
Seeligson field in Southwest Texas or parts of the East Texas field.

2.1.11 Reservoir fluids and pressure

2.1.11.1Types of reservoir fluids

By definition, a fluid is any substance that will flow. Oil, water, and gas are all fluids; oil
and water are liquids as well as fluids; gas is a fluid but not a liquid.

2.1.11.2Water
Oil reservoirs are composed of sediments that were deposited in the sea. Consequently,
these sedimentary beds were originally saturated with salt water. However, part of this
water was displaced by petroleum when it was formed. Salt water that remains in the
formation is called formation water.

2.1.11.3Oil
Oil, which is lighter than water and will not mix with it, makes room for itself in the void
space of the reservoir rock by pushing the water downward. However, oil will not
displace all the original water. A film of water sticks to, or is absorbed by, the solid rock
material surrounding the pore spaces. The film of water lining the pores is called wetting
water. In other words, water is not only in the reservoir below the oil accumulation, but
also within the pores along with the oil.

2.1.11.4Gas
Natural gas is always associated with oil produced from a reservoir. The energy supplied
by gas under pressure is probably the most valuable drive in the withdrawal of oil from
reservoirs. The industry has come a long way since the day it was general practice to
"blow" gas caps into the atmosphere, so that a well in the gas zone of a reservoir could
finally be induced to produce a little crude oil. Gas is associated with oil and water in
reservoirs in two principal ways as solution gas and as free gas in gas caps.

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2.1.11.5Fluid distribution
The oil-water contact line (the point in the reservoir where the oil and water touch) is of
prime interest to all concerned in the early development of a field because, to get
maximum production from the reservoir, the water should not be produced with the oil.
Practically all reservoirs have water in the lowest portions of the formation, and the oil
lies just above it. However, no sharp line divides the oil and water, nor is the contact line
horizontal throughout a reservoir. Actually, the oil-water contact is a zone of part water
and part oil, and this zone may be from 10 to 15 feet thick. The gas-oil contact has
somewhat the same properties. However, because oil is much heavier than gas, oil does
not tend to rise as high into the gas zone as water does into the oil zone.

2.1.11.6Reservoir pressure
Every reservoir that contains fluids contains those fluids under pressure.

2.1.11.7Normal pressure
Under normal conditions, the only pressure that exists in a reservoir is the pressure
caused by the water in it. Contrary to what might seem logical, all the rocks that overlie a
buried reservoir do not create pressure in the reservoir under normal circumstances.
In any case, as long as the reservoir has some ultimate outlet to the surface, the pressure
in it is caused only by the water and is considered to be normal pressure.

2.1.11.8Abnormal pressure
Reservoirs that do not have a connection with the surface are totally surrounded by
impermeable formations. In such cases, the overlying rock formations do have a bearing
on reservoir pressure. What happens in this case is that the heavy weight of the overlying
beds presses down and squeezes the reservoir. Since the water in the reservoir cannot
escape to the surface, the reservoir pressure builds up to abnormally high amounts.
Another way in which abnormally high pressure can exist is when there is an artesian
effect (Figure 2-11). In this case, the reservoir does connect with the surface. However,
the outcrop to the surface is on the side of a hill or mountain, at an elevation much higher
than the part of the reservoir buried below the level plain. A well drilled at this point
spouts water like a fountain. The water tries to seek its own level. Such wells are called
artesian wells.

Figure 2-11 Artesian well

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2.2 Algebra and Trigonometry

The level of mathematics required for directional drilling work is fairly basic. However,
a minimum competence in algebra and trigonometry is required. In order to understand
how wells are planned, trigonometry is necessary. When doing projections, planning,
etc., quick calculations are often required at the rig-site. While these calculations are
often performed by a computer/programmable calculator, it is a useful exercise to check
the results "by hand", using a scientific calculator. This chapter is a refresher course in
the basics and should provide a adequate mathematical background for what’s normally
required of the directional driller.

2.2.1 Equations
Question

3b
If a = , what is a when b = 60?
2
Answer

180
a= = 90
2
Ratios

15 x
If = , find x.
500 78x
Solution
Cross-multiply:

(15) × (789)
x= = 23.67
500

3a 3b
If = , find a when b = 6.
4 8
Solution
Cross-multiply:

b
24a = 12b, so a = =3
2
Rule
If we add, subtract, multiply or divide the same quantity to both sides of an
equation, the identity does not change.
Example

If a = 3b then a + c = 3b+ c and a - c = 3b - c

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Rule
If a component of an equation is adding to one of the sides, it can be moved to the
other side but it changes sign.
Example

If a=b+c then a-c=b

Thus a-c=b
Example

a
Given equation - 3 = 4b - 6
2
If b = 4 find the value of a

a
= 4b - 6 + 3
2

a= 2 (4b - 6 + 3)
With b=4:

a = 2 × 13 = 26

2.2.1.1 Plotting of Equations

An equation of the type y= ax+b is known as the equation of a straight line. If plotted in
rectangular (X-Y) coordinates, it gives a straight line.
a is the slope of the straight line. It is defined as "the tangent of the angle which the line
makes with the positive direction of the X-axis”.
b is the intercept which the line makes with the Y-axis.
Example

y = 2x- 3 Plot points on X-Y plane.

When

x=1 y = -1

x=2 y=1

x=4 y=5

x=5 y=7

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-3
2x
y=
5

x
4
-3

Figure 2-12 The first order (straight line) equation

This first-order (straight line) equation is shown plotted in Figure 2-12. The slope of the
line is 2. The intercept is -3.

2.2.2 Geometry
Note
1 degree (°) = 60 minutes (')
1 minute (') = 60 seconds (")

2.2.2.1 Angles
Some important properties of angles are listed below.
• The sum of the angles on one side of a straight line gives 180°. These are called
supplementary angles.
Example

If a = 75° find b (Figure 2-13)

a = 75˚
b=?

Figure 2-13 Angles a and b are supplementary

Solution

a + b = 180°, b = 180° - 75° = 105°

Example

If b = 64°18' find a (Figure 2-13)

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Solution

a = 115° 42'
• The sum of all the angles around one point gives 360°.

a + b + c + d = 360° (Figure 2-14)

d
a

c
b

Figure 2-14 The sum of all angles around one point is 360°

The opposite angles are equal.

a=c and b=d (Figure 2-14)

Example (see Figure 2-14)

If a = 45°, find angles b, c and d.

Solution

We know a + b = 180°. Therefore b = 135°.

We know a + d = 180° Therefore d = 135°

a + b + c + d = 360°, c = 360° - a - b - d = 45°

• Parallel Lines cut by a Straight Line. Parallel lines meet at infinity. If two
parallel lines are cut by a third straight line (Figure 2-15), the following table
shows the relationships that apply:

a
b

d c
a'
b'

d'
c'
Figure 2-15 This figure shows the relationship of angles

Corresponding angles Alternate angles

a = a’ a = c’
b = b’ b = d’
c = c’ c = a’
d = d’ d = b’

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Figure 2-16 In this figure, angle a is equal to angle a´

Note
a = c = 45° and b = d = 135° in this case.
Example

InFigure 2-16, a = 51°17'. Find the other angles.

Solution

c = a = 51°17'

b = (180° - a) = 128°43'

d = b = 128° 43'

a' = a = 51° 17'

b'= b = 128° 43'

c' = a' = 51°17'

d' = b' = 128° 43'

• The sum of the internal angles in a triangle is 180°. Therefore, if we know any
two angles in a triangle, we can calculate the third one.

b = 85˚

a = 68˚
c
A C

Figure 2-17 The sum of internal angles of a triangle is 180°

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Example
In Figure 2-17, find the angle c.
Solution

68° + 85° + c = 180°.

Therefore

c = 27°
• The sum of two angles in a triangle is equal to the external angle at the third
corner.

C' B'
B e

a c
A C
Figure 2-18 ln this figure, angle a + c = angle e

In Figure 2-18, a + c = e
Example

B
e = 140˚

a c = 65˚
A C

Figure 2-19 This figure can be solved as above

In Figure 2-19, find a and b.

a + c = e = 140°
Therefore

a = 140° - 65° = 75°

We know a + b + c = 180°
Therefore

b = 40°

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2.2.3 Right-angle triangles

A right-angle triangle is one in which one of the angles = 90°. Consequently, the sum of
the other two (complementary) angles is also = 90°.
Example

B
b

a c
A C

Figure 2-20 lf angle c = 29°17’, what are angles a and b

In Figure 2-20, if c = 29°17' find angles a and b.

Solution

a = 90° and b + c = 90°

Therefore

b = 90° - 29°17' = 60°43'

If we draw two lines perpendicular to the lines enclosing an angle, the angle between the
perpendiculars will be equal to the original angle.
In Figure 2-21, BD and CD are at 90° to AB and AC respectively.

B
b

a e C
A e c
E

D
Figure 2-21 Projections from a right-angle triangle

a = 90° - e and d = 90 - e
Therefore

a=d

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2.2.4 Similar triangles

Triangles in which all three angles are identical are defined as similar triangles. The ratio
of the sides of similar triangles is constant. In Figure 2-22,
AB BC AC
= = and
AB′ B ′ C ′ AC ′
AB AB′ AB ′′
= = etc.
AC AC ′′ AC ′′
It does not matter what size the triangles are - the ratio of their sides will always be
constant.

B
B'"
B"
B'

A C
C' C" C'"

Figure 2-22 Similiar triangles

2.2.5 Trigonometry
In a right-angle triangle (Figure 2-23) the side XY opposite to the right angle is called the
hypotenuse. The following trigonometric functions are defined:

x
X Z

Figure 2-23 Right angle triangle

Consider the angle x

OPPOSITE YZ
sin x = =
HYPOTENUSE XY
ADJACENT XZ
cos x = =
HYPOTENUSE XY
OPPOSITE YZ
tan x = =
ADJACENT XZ

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 Fundamentals

Consider the angle y

OPPOSITE XZ
sin y = =
HYPOTENUSE XY
ADJACENT YZ
cos y = =
HYPOTENUSE XY
OPPOSITE XZ
tan y = =
ADJACENT YZ

Note
sin OPPOSITE
tan = =
cos ADJACENT
1
cosecant =
sin
1
secant =
cos
1
cotangent =
tan
In a right-angle triangle, the sum of the two complementary angles is 90°. In Figure 2-24,
A

c
b

C B
a

Figure 2-24 Right angle triangle

a b
sin A = cos A =
c c
b a
sin b = cos B =
c c
Therefore

sin A=cosB and cos A= sin B

The sine of one complementary angle is the same as the cosine of its complement.
The cosine of one complementary angle is the same as the sine of its complement, e.g.:
sin 70° = cos 20° = 0.9397
cos 70° = sin 20° = 0.342

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2.2.5.1 Solution of right-angle triangles

The components of a right-angle triangle are three sides and two angles (the third angle
is 90°). Knowing the values of two components, we can solve for the other components.

60˚

b = 20'
c=?

C B
a=?

Figure 2-25 Example of right angle triangle

Example (Figure 2-25):

given b = 20' and A = 60°

Solution:

B = 90° - 60° = 30°

b b 20
cos A = c= =
c cosA cos60°

cos 60° = 0.50 (from calculator)

Therefore:

c = 40’

a
sin A = a = c • sin A = 40 • sin 60°
c

sin 60° = 0.86603 (from calculator)

Therefore:

a = 34.64’

2.2.5.2 Pythagorean Theorem

"The square of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares of the other two sides."

c2 = a2 + b2 (See Figure 2-24)

Thus, knowing the lengths of two sides in a right-angled triangle, we can find the length
of the third side.

Note
This is how we calculate Horizontal Displacement or Closure from the rectangular
coordinates.

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2.2.5.3 Other Properties of Triangles

• Let A, B and C be the angles at the 3 corners of a triangle and a,b and c are the 3
sides opposite the respective corners (see Figure 2-26). The following
relationships hold true for any triangle:
a b c
= = Sine Rule
sin A sin B sin C
and
A

c
b

C B
a

Figure 2-26 Right-angle triangle example

a2 = b2 + c2 - 2 bc cos A Cosine Rule

b2 = c2 + a2 - 2ac cos B
c2 = a2 + b2 - 2ab cos C
• In any triangle, any one of the sides must be smaller than the sum of the other
two sides and bigger than the difference. Otherwise, there will be no triangle.
• If two similar (i.e., all 3 angles identical) triangles have one corresponding side
equal, then the triangles are equal.
• The shortest distance between two points is a straight line.
• The shortest distance from a point to a line is the perpendicular.
• The segments of parallels cut by other parallels are equal. In Figure 2-27,
parallel lines 1 and 2 are cut by two other parallel lines 3 and 4.

AB = CD and AC = BD

4 3 1 2
B

A D

Figure 2-27 Equality of segments

h
• Area of a triangle = b × , where:
2
b = length of the base of the triangle.
h = height of the triangle.

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2.2.6 The circle

Circumference of a circle = 2 π R
where

R = Radius of circle

Area of a circle = π R2
A straight line which passes through the centre of a circle from opposite points on the
circle is called the diameter (d).

Diameter of a circle = 2R

A
D

R O B

Figure 2-28 Circle and chord

In Figure 2-28, AB is called a chord. CD is the perpendicular bisector of the chord. It

goes from the centre of the chord to the circumference of the circle, following the
direction of the radius at that point.

AC = CB OD = Radius Right angle at C

Angle ACO = Angle OCB = 90°

2.2.6.1 Tangent

R E

Figure 2-29 Circle and tangent

TE (Figure 2-29) is a tangent to the circle. It touches the circle at only one point (E), the
point of tangency.

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 Fundamentals

The tangent forms a right angle with the radius of the circle at the point of tangency,
because the radius is the shortest distance from the tangent to the centre of the circle.

2.2.6.2 Arc

O a

Figure 2-30 Circle and arc

We need to find the length of the arc AB (Figure 2-30). We know that if a is 360°, the
arc is the circumference of the circle = 2 πR. For any other angle, the ratio of the arc to
the circumference will be the same as the ratio of the angle to 360°.

2πR × a πRa
Arc AB = =
360° 180°
Example If R = 15m and a = 60°, find circumference (C) and length of the arc (AB).

C=2 π R = 2 π (15) = 94.2m

πR × a (15)(60)π
arc AB = = = 15.7m
180 180

2.2.6.3 Radians
In the radian system of measurement, the angles are given in radians instead of degrees.
A radian is defined as the angle at the centre of the circle when the length of the arc is 1.

2 π Radians = 360°

360°
1 Radian =
2π
1 Radian = 57.295°
Also

90° = π/2 radians

180° = π radians

270° = 3π/2 radians

360° = 2π radian

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Example
How many radians in 60°?

(60° )2π
x= = 1.05 radians
360°

2.2.6.4 Unit circle

We will derive the trigonometric functions for a unit circle (radius = 1). Consider Figure
2-31.

Figure 2-31 Unit circle

In triangle OSC, sin a = SC/OS and cos a = OC/OS.

In triangle OTB, tan a = TB/OB.

But OS = OB = R = 1.
Therefore

sin a = SC, cos a = OC, and tan a = TB.

Also

sin2a + cos2a = 1

2.2.6.5 Trigonometric Functions by Quadrant

The sign of Sine, Cosine and Tangent in all 4 quadrants is best illustrated by the unit
circle in Figure 2-22. All three functions are (+) from 0° to 90°. From 90° to 180°, only
sine is (+). From 180° to 270°, only tangent is (+). From 270° to 360º, only cosine is (+).

Note
We will see in Chapter 3 that the incremental Vertical Section is (-) in our survey
calculation when the difference between average hole direction and target direction is >
90°. We can see why in Figure 2-32.

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Figure 2-32 Sign of sine, cosine and tangent in a circle

2.2.6.6 Projections of Lines

The projection of any segment AB onto another line X is the distance between the
perpendiculars drawn from A and B onto X. In Figure 2-33, A’B’ is the projection of line
AB onto line OX.

Figure 2-33 Projections of lines

The projection of one line onto any other line is equal to the length of the line times the
cosine of the angle formed between the two lines. (If the lines don't meet, simply draw a
line parallel to the other line).
A´B´ = AB × COSα
Example (Figure 2-34):

Figure 2-34 Projection of lines - example

Given AB = 12', find its projection onto line AC, with which it forms an angle of 60°.
Draw line BB' at 90° to AC. AB’ is the projection.

AB' = AB. cos 60° = 12 × 0.5 = 6' = projection.

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2.2.6.7 Projections of Lines - Perpendicular Directions

In Figure 2-35, AC is drawn parallel to OX. OX and OY are the 2 axes onto which we
wish to project the line AB.

AxBx = Projection of AB onto X-axis.

AyBy = Projection of AB onto Y-axis.

Figure 2-35 Projection of lines - perpendicular direction

In triangle ABC:

AxBx = AB × cos a

AyBy = AB × sin a
Thus, the projections of a line onto two perpendicular axes are equal to the length of the
line times the cosine and sine, respectively, of the angle formed with one of the axes.

2.2.6.8 Projection of Lines onto Planes

In Figure 2-36, line AB is projected onto plane P. The angle a is formed between them.
The projection of AB is AB'. Triangle ABB’ is a right-angle triangle (Angle B' is 90°).

Figure 2-36 Projection of lines onto planes

AB’
cos a =
AB

AB' = AB × cos a

Note
If a > 90°, the projection will be negative.

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2.2.6.9 Radius of Curvature

In Figure 2-37, Rc is the radius of curvature for the build-up section of a well. Knowing
the buildup rate (BUR), we can calculate the value of Rc. Knowing the values of
inclination (I1 and I2) at the start and end of the arc, we can find the incremental values
for Horizontal Displacement (HD), Vertical Depth (TVD) and Measured Depth (MD).

Figure 2-37 Radius of curvature definitions

2.2.6.10Circumference of a circle
360 × 100
C = 2π R =
BUR
360 × 100 arc Angle × 100
BUR = = in /100 ft
2πRc arc Length
18000
Rc= in feet
π × BUR
TVD1= Rc × sinI1 & TVD2 = Rc × sinI2
∆TVD = TVD2 - TVD1 = Rc ( sinl2 - sinI1)
HD1 = Rc - Rc × cosI1 = Rc (1 - cosI1)
HD2 = Rc - Rc × cosI2 = Rc (1 - cosI2)
∆HD = HD2 - HD1 = Rc (cos I1 - cosI2)

( I2 − I1)
∆MD = π Rc × = length of the arc (ft)
360
Also

(I2 − I1) × 100

∆MD = in feet
BUR

January 97 Confidential Directional Drilling 2-31