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Drivetrain Noise, Vibration, and Harshness

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FS
Drivetrain Noise, Vibration, and Harshness

OO
H. Rahnejat1 , S. Theodossiades1 , P. Kelly2 , and M.T. Menday1
1
Loughborough University, Loughborough, UK
2
Ford Motor Company, Cologne, Germany

1 Introduction
2 Clutch Take-Up Judder
3 Clutch In-Cycle Vibration (Whoop)
4 Driveline Shuffle and Clonk
PR 1
2
3
5
clutch movement (Hasebe and Aisin Seiki, 1993). Kelly,
Rahnejat, and Biermann (1998) and Kushwaha et al. (2002)
showed that the whoop phenomenon is as the result of
the combustion fundamental frequency (half engine order
vibration in the case of a four-stroke engine) from the firing
of cylinders close to the flywheel. This induces conical
5 Transmission Rattle 8 motion of the flywheel, causing it to impact the clutch
6 Closure 11
E
system during the clutch actuation process. The ensuing
References 11 vibration of the clutch system is in the frequency range
150–250 Hz and is felt by the rough oscillations transmitted
from the flywheel impacts and along the clutch cable to the
G

clutch pedal as well as emanating as a whoop sounding

1 INTRODUCTION noise from the driver’s foot-well area. Hydraulic actuating
clutch systems are also not immune from this phenomenon
PA

There is a plethora of noise, vibration, and harshness
(NVH) concerns in the drivetrain system. These include
low frequency, relatively large displacement inertial
dynamics such as clutch take-up judder, which is the
first torsional mode of the driveline system (Rabieh and
Crolla, 1996; Centea, Rahnejat, and Menday, 2001).
Another low frequency rigid body oscillation is driveline
T
as the stick–slip oscillations of the actuator induce the same
problem.
Another NVH problem is the transmission rattle, which is
the result of impacting of gear teeth pairs. This phenomenon
usually occurs in the case of unselected (unengaged) gears
(Wang, Manoj, and Zhao, 2001; Theodossiades, Tanga-
sawi, and Rahnejat, 2007; Tangasawi, Theodossiades, and
Rahnejat, 2007), although contact separation or transmis-

shuffle, which is the first torsional vibration mode, coupled

with fore-and-aft oscillations of the vehicle, known as sion error in engaged gear pairs can also contribute (Kim
shunt (Farshidianfar et al., 2002). These concerns may be and Singh, 2001; De la Cruz, Theodossiades, and Rahnejat,
RS

regarded as harshness, in the frequency range 3–10 Hz,
depending on the drivetrain system, the driveline gearing,
and the vehicle mass.
There are also vibration concerns at higher frequency
range. One is the clutch in-cycle vibration, referred to in
the industry as whoop; the resulting radiated sound during
FI
2010). Gear rattle has a broadband nature as perceived,
because the resulting vibration at the impact sites travels
along the structural members as a structure-borne wave
and excites their modal behavior. As the drivetrain compo-
nents are lightly damped, such impulse loading can result
in structure-borne noise output. There is also clearly some
airborne noise as well from the impact site itself, which

Encyclopedia of Automotive Engineering, Online © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
This article is © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/9781118354179.auto096
Also published in the Encyclopedia of Automotive Engineering (print edition)
ISBN: 978-0-470-97402-5
can be heard in the absence of significant engine noise,
for example, when the vehicle is idling. The nature of
rattle is repetitive and at a given transmission speed
may be regarded as a steady-state noise and vibration

2 Transmission and Driveline
problem. It may easily be confused with diesel engine
knock.
In contrast, some other NVH concerns have a tran-
sient nature and occur as the result of driver behavior
or road input. These include driveline clonk, which is an
elasto-acoustic response of the driveshaft tubes (Menday,
Rahnejat, and Ebrahimi, 1999). This phenomenon occurs
when a high energy deformation wave travels from an
impact site along the driveline, causing elastic deforma-
tion of the hollow thin-walled driveshaft pieces and excite
their modal responses (Theodossiades et al., 2004). There is
coincidence of some of the many structural natural modes
of the tubes with their internal acoustic natural modes.
This coincidence is referred to as elasto-acoustic coupling,
leading to noise radiation, usually at quite high frequencies
(500–5000 Hz), and emanating as a disconcerting metallic
sound. Therefore, like many other NVH concerns, the
term clonk or clunk is chosen onomatopoeically (Menday,
Rahnejat, and Ebrahimi, 1999; Biermann and Hagerodt,
1999). The traveling wave is often caused by the impact
of teeth pairs of engaged gears under impulsive conditions,
such as with sudden clutch actuation, abrupt throttle tip-in
PR
or back-out actions, or misalignment of driveshaft pieces
from coast to drive condition or as the result of road input.
E
Any misalignment of shafts can also cause contact sepa-
ration and impact on highly loaded hypoid gears of the
differential, giving rise to a tonal sound output, referred to
as axle whine (Kim and Lee, 2007; Koronias et al., 2010).
G
The impulsive action often leads to teeth pair impact,
sometimes severe enough to cause torque reversal, thus
leading to severe clonk conditions. Clonk can also take
PA
place with driveline shuffle and vehicle shunt (Krenz,
1985). With lower impulsive energy, the severity of clonk is
attenuated and a sound more like a thump is heard. Side-to-
side motion of the driveline pieces about the center bearing
of the driveshaft or lateral motion of the driven axle can
also cause another vibration concern known as shudder.
There are, therefore, many NVH concerns in the driv-
etrain system. These are mostly as the result of engine
T
order vibration input, unexpected driver actions, road input,
lash zones, and low structural damping. The situation has
RS
been exacerbated in recent years with the trend toward high
output power-to-weight ratio vehicles and use of compact
transmissions, differentials, and hollow driveshaft pieces. In
this chapter, some of the aforementioned drivetrain NVH
problems are discussed.
FI
2 CLUTCH TAKE-UP JUDDER
Clutch judder is a low frequency phenomenon that occurs
when the pull away gear has been selected and the
Encyclopedia of Automotive Engineering, Online © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
This article is © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/9781118354179.auto096
Also published in the Encyclopedia of Automotive Engineering (print edition) ISBN: 978-0-470-97402-5
eae auto096.tex V1 - 08/27/2013 1:47 P.M. Page 2
clutch pedal operated, bringing the clutch into progressive
engagement. The oscillations are readily felt at the
driver’s seat, this being a suitable location to measure the
problem.
FS
The role of the clutch in the slip maneuver is to
synchronize the rotational speed of the engine/flywheel with
the transmission shaft. When there is no relative angular
velocity and the clutch is fully clamped, the clutch pedal is
released and the engine torque drives the vehicle forward.
During the transition from a fully disengaged to a fully
OO
engaged state, a longitudinal body vibration may be felt.
This starts as a torsional vibration in the driveline and is
reacted at the engine and body mounts before transmitting
to the driver’s seat. The judder mode is lightly damped and
may continue for as long as the clutch slips, and it would
be necessary to disengage the clutch in order to stop the
judder vibration and prevent the clutch overheating.
Fore-and-aft driver’s seat longitudinal acceleration is
an adequate indicator of judder and this can be readily
measured and subjectively correlated. It may be directly
compared with the dynamic behavior of the engine mounts.
Clutch judder should not be confused with two other similar
low frequency vehicle vibrations; namely
•
Brake judder, which occurs during braking and at a
higher frequency.
• Shuffle, which occurs after application of the throttle and
with the clutch fully engaged (i.e., it is not related to
the friction contact between flywheel and clutch disk).
Both shuffle and judder occur when the first torsional
driveline eigen-mode has been excited. For a rear-wheel-
drive vehicle, this mode has a maximum amplitude response
at the flywheel and has an in-phase response of minimum
amplitude at the rear axle. The mode is reacted at the
tire-road contact patch; consequently, the low frequency
longitudinal oscillations of the vehicle occur.
As judder is a modal phenomenon of the driveline
system, a multibody system analysis approach should be
undertaken to simulate the conditions. One such model is
reported by Centea, Rahnejat, and Menday (2001) for a
cable-operated clutch system. The model showed that the
propensity to judder was directly related to the slope of
kinetic coefficient of friction μ with slip velocity, when
its value is negative: n = dd μv < 0. The larger the negative
value of n is, the greater is the judder response. Figures 1
and 2 show increasing oscillations before fully clamped
clutch with an increasingly negative slope n. Simulations
and experimentation have also shown that the potential
for judder is greatly reduced if the slip gradient of the
clutch lining friction coefficient is held to be positive or
at least zero for its useful service life. The challenge is to
 eae auto096.tex V1 - 08/27/2013 1:47 P.M. Page 3

Drivetrain Noise, Vibration, and Harshness 3

Flywheel

Clutch judder investigation

Engagement process for friction material with low negative μ
.
6300.0

FS
Angular_velocity (deg/s)
4200.0

2100.0

OO
0.0

Clutch disc

−2100.0
4.2 4.45 4.7 4.95 5.2
Time (s)

dμ
= n = −0.004 s/m
dν

© Elsevier. PR
Figure 1. Take-up judder oscillations for low negative friction gradient with slip speed. Source: Reproduced from Centea et al. 2001.

Clutch judder investigation

engagement process for friction material with high negative μ
.
6300.0
E
Angular_velocity (deg/s)

4200.0
G

2100.0

0.0
Clutch disc
PA

−2100.0
4.2 4.45 4.7 4.95 5.2
Time (s)

dμ
= n = −0.016 s/m
dν

Figure 2. Exacerbated take-up judder with an increasingly negative friction gradient with slip speed. Source: Reproduced from Centea
et al. 2001. © Elsevier.
T

design a clutch friction disk that maintains these properties phenomenon occurs during the clutch transition state (from
RS

throughout service life. engagement to disengagement and vice versa), thus the
reason for the chosen name. The accompanying noise is
onomatopoeically termed as whoop.
3 CLUTCH IN-CYCLE VIBRATION Whoop is a transient dynamic phenomenon, occurring
(WHOOP) during the engagement and disengagement of the drive
(engine) with the driven system (the drivetrain system).
FI

As already mentioned in Section 1, during the clutch Figure 3 shows the measured response from the clutch pedal
pedal movement and with some vehicles (especially those and the driver’s foot-well area.
with diesel engines), a tactile clutch pedal vibration is With all NVH phenomena, including clutch whoop, it is
felt, accompanied by a disagreeable noise. Therefore, the essential to determine the underlying cause of the problem

Encyclopedia of Automotive Engineering, Online © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
This article is © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/9781118354179.auto096
Also published in the Encyclopedia of Automotive Engineering (print edition) ISBN: 978-0-470-97402-5
 eae auto096.tex V1 - 08/27/2013 1:47 P.M. Page 4

4 Transmission and Driveline

Pedal travel Clutch system boundary for whoop project

Down Up

Release Release Dash

Angle clutch Pressure

FS
Engaging bearing lever Panel Pawl
release lever (°) plate
Disengaging Disc
assy
Pedal
Pedal impact box
Acceleration pedal against stop

Quadrant

OO
Sound pressure

Time axis
Clutch
cable
Clutch
Pedal
Figure 3. Clutch whoop response during clutch movement. Case
Source: Reproduced from Kelly, Rahnejat, and Biermann, 1998. Bearing transmission
Flywheel
© John Wiley & Sons. Cover P/plate

as a prelude to devising a root cause solution. In many

cases, however, a root cause solution may be difficult to
achieve or may contravene the overall vehicle development
PR assy fingers
shaft
assy

Figure 5. The boundary for the clutch whoop investigation.

strategy, such as those resulting in an increase in the mass
or inertia of components. Therefore, a palliative approach
E
may be adopted, which requires the determination of the
paths of noise and vibration propagation. Figure 4 shows
the path of vibration transmittance from the engine, through
G
increased vibration levels are noted along the transmission
path to the clutch pedal.
To implement any root cause or palliative measure, it
is necessary to undertake a fundamental study with a
prescribed boundary of investigation. For the clutch whoop
problem, the system of interest is shown in Figure 5.

the crankshaft–clutch system interface into the vehicle

cabin. It can be seen that as the cylinders 3 and 4 are nearer Clearly, any solution to an NVH problem should not exac-
to the flywheel–clutch interface, when ignition occurs, erbate other NVH concerns (some of which are described
in this chapter). It should also not result in any loss or
PA

deterioration of system function. Therefore, traditionally a

large mass-stiffness damper known as the Diehl-fix has been
Flywheel speed Ignition of cylinders:
added to the release lever to attenuate the traveling wave
3 4 3 4 from the flywheel–clutch interface before reaching the
clutch cable in cable-operated clutch systems. However, this
Acceleration clutch lever (g) mass damper often weighs 1–2 kg and occupies a volume
of 100–200 mm2 at a unit cost of $7. As already noted,
lightweight and compact power trains are now regarded as
T

Acceleration cable - clutch side (g) essential design features, as well as reduced costs. Thus,
other solutions are sought. Therefore, a fundamental study
RS

necessitates the development of detailed models for both an

Acceleration cable - pedal side (g) in-depth understanding of the phenomenon and parametric
simulation studies, rather than expensive physical prototype
testing.
Acceleration pedal (g) A multibody dynamic model, comprising a four-stroke
four-cylinder engine and a cable-operated clutch system, is
reported by Kushwaha et al. (2002). The model includes
FI

combustion pressure, firing order of engine cylinders,

Figure 4. Clutch whoop vibration transmission path. Source: crankshaft engine bearings, and crankshaft flexibility.
Reproduced from Kelly, Rahnejat, and Biermann, 1998. © John Details of the model are beyond the scope of this
Wiley & Sons. chapter. Readers should refer to Kushwaha et al. (2002).

Encyclopedia of Automotive Engineering, Online © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
This article is © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/9781118354179.auto096
Also published in the Encyclopedia of Automotive Engineering (print edition) ISBN: 978-0-470-97402-5
 eae auto096.tex V1 - 08/27/2013 1:47 P.M. Page 5

Drivetrain Noise, Vibration, and Harshness 5

ω axial 870,00.0

Flywheel nodding acceleration

580,00.0 4 4

Y (mm/s**2)

FS
ω rocking 3
290,00.0
2 2
1 1
ω flywheel Rocking axis 0.0

−290,00.0
0.08 0.14 0.2
Figure 6. Conical whirl of the flywheel due to crankshaft 0.05 0.11 0.17

OO
flexibility. Time (s)

Figure 8. Increased flywheel nodding acceleration with firing of

With crankshaft flexibility included in the model, the cylinders 3 and 4 proximate to the flywheel. Source: Reproduced
applied combustion forces from each cylinder tend to from Kushwaha et al. 2002. © Sage/Institution of Mechanical
induce combined torsional-bending deflections of the Engineers.
crankshaft. This leads to the conical whirl of the flywheel
(Figure 6). This is known as flywheel nod. nodding motion. The increased flywheel movement due
For a four-stroke four-cylinder engine with a fairly
rigid crankshaft, the spectrum of oscillations superim-
posed on the steady-state angular velocity comprises second
engine order (twice the crankshaft angular velocity) and
its full integer harmonics (Rahnejat, 1998). However, with
PR to the firing of third and fourth cylinders is sufficient to
account for the clutch whoop problem (Figure 8). Note that
for a four-cylinder four-stroke engine, the impulsive second
order is main engine torsional signal.
increasing flexibility due to the use of lighter materials,
spectral contributions due to combustion fundamental at 4 DRIVELINE SHUFFLE AND CLONK
half engine order and all its multiples remain resident on
E
the crankshaft angular velocity. These affect the flywheel Shuffle is an uncomfortable tactile low frequency, fore-and-
motion with its axial nodding causing an impact with the aft, lightly damped vibration of the vehicle. A shuffle mode
clutch system during the engagement and disengagement may continue for several cycles. It can occur following
G

processes. The model by Kushwaha et al. (2002) predicts a rapid throttle tip-in or back-out. A tip-in is a fairly
flywheel movement within 9% of that measured from rapid actuation of the throttle, whereas back-out is a rapid
the flywheel surface using a series of proximity devices. release of the throttle. In either case, the power flow along
PA

Q1 Figure 7 shows the spectral content of the flywheel axial the drivetrain changes direction on account of ensuing

0.045
1.5
0.04
2
0.035

0.03
T Amplitude (mm)

0.025 0.5
3

0.02
RS

2.5
3.5
0.015

0.01 6
1
4.5 5 5.5
0.005 4 6.5 7
7.5 8
0.0
0.0 125.0 250.0 375.0 500.0
FI

Frequency (Hz)

Figure 7. Spectrum of vibration harmonics of engine order in flywheel nodding motion. Source: Reproduced from Kushwaha et al.
2002. © Sage/Institution of Mechanical Engineers.

Encyclopedia of Automotive Engineering, Online © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
This article is © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/9781118354179.auto096
Also published in the Encyclopedia of Automotive Engineering (print edition) ISBN: 978-0-470-97402-5
 eae auto096.tex V1 - 08/27/2013 1:47 P.M. Page 6

6 Transmission and Driveline

acceleration or deceleration (the drivetrain is defined as The clonk vibration signal was obtained by a laser
the torque path between the flywheel and the driven road vibrometer placed at a suitable distance near to a hollow
wheels). The result is the application of an impulse, causing driveshaft tube as the structural wave passes through it. The
system oscillations, which are torsional for the drivetrain, induced vibrations were measured by the vibrometer from

accompanied and coupled with longitudinal motions of
the vehicle (shunt). These occur at the lowest rigid body
natural frequency of the system. The extent of oscillations
depends on the stiffness and damping of the drivetrain, and
in the case of the vehicle body, the longitudinal stiffness
of the driven wheels’ contact patch in series with the
FS
a suitably reflective tape attached to the driveshaft tube. At
the same time, the clonk sound can also be measured as
sound pressure variation by a microphone directed toward
the same target. A typical clonk noise signal is shown in
Figure 10 (Gnanakumarr, 2010).
The signal comprises a ramp up duration of 80–200 ms,

OO
fore-and-aft stiffness of driven axle’s suspension bushings. followed by an impact time of a few milliseconds and a
The oscillations are also affected by the lash rate in the much longer decay period as shown in the figure. It is
torsional system (i.e., the drivetrain). Any rapid changes
in the stiffness characteristics of the system can exacerbate 4
the system response through impacts in the various lash Rampup
Impact
Decay
zones. Therefore, cycles of shuffle may be accompanied by
audible metallic clonk noises as the torque traverses the
drivetrain lash during each cycle of shuffle (Krenz, 1985;
and Arrundale et al., 1998).
Arrundale et al. (1998) reported a multibody driveline
model, comprising elastic thin-walled driveshaft tubes.
Throttle tip-in input from a four-cylinder four-stroke 1.8 L
PR Pressure (Pa)
2

0
engine was used to drive the model. The results are shown
in Figure 9, with low frequency cycles of shuffle at 5 Hz.
E
In fact, shuffle response is often in the range 3–8 Hz,
depending on the vehicle inertial properties and system
−2
stiffness. Hurried driver behavior in the form of rapid
G

throttle action or release of clutch often introduces a sharp

change in the input energy to the drivetrain system. Some
of this energy is expended in vehicle shuffle, while the
remainder causes impact in drivetrain lash zones and travels −4
PA

1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2

back and forth (in severe cases) along the drivetrain. The
Time (s)
energy is often sufficient to excite modal response of lightly
damped hollow structures such as the modern driveshaft Figure 10. A typical clonk sound signal. Source: From Gnanaku-
tubes. These sharp high frequency oscillations can be seen marr 2010. Reproduced by permission of Woodhead Publishing
with each cycle of shuffle response in Figure 9. Limited.

14.0
T

7.0
Torque (Nm)
RS

0.0

−7.0

−14.0
FI

0.0 0.1875 0.375 0.5625 0.75

Time (s)

Figure 9. Cycles of shuffle with high frequency impulsive action through zones of low lash rate. Source: Reproduced from Arrundale
et al. 1998. © ISATA, 1998.

Encyclopedia of Automotive Engineering, Online © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
This article is © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/9781118354179.auto096
Also published in the Encyclopedia of Automotive Engineering (print edition) ISBN: 978-0-470-97402-5
 eae auto096.tex V1 - 08/27/2013 1:47 P.M. Page 7

Drivetrain Noise, Vibration, and Harshness 7

Avg (1)#Test 8 C1 (3.20-4.56 s). Wavelet (10.0, medium).

Frequency
Total impact
event

FS
Hard impact
site, Transient decay
following
clutch

OO
engagement

Average

Time

Figure 11. Wavelet of a typical clonk signal.

useful to look at the content of such signals in time

frequency domain. Such a representation is known as a
wavelet. Figure 11 shows a typical wavelet of a clonk
PR typically in the range 500–5000 Hz. Thus, the resulting
wave front traveling along the drivetrain can excite a large
number of modal responses of the system components,
vibration signal. The ordinate of the figure is frequency particularly those of hollow thin-walled structures, such as
and its abscissa is time. Note that at the instance of the driveshaft tubes that have a dense population of natural
impact the signal contains a broadband of frequencies; frequencies/mode shapes.
G E

1830 Hz 1838 Hz
PA

2312 Hz 2338 Hz

2454 Hz 2457 Hz
T

2502 Hz 2678 Hz
RS

2718 Hz 2857 Hz

2871 Hz 3348 Hz
FI

3540 Hz 3634 Hz

Figure 12. A large number of flexural acoustically active modes (breathing modes). Source: Reproduced from Theodossiades et al.
2004. © Sage/Institution of Mechanical Engineers.

Encyclopedia of Automotive Engineering, Online © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
This article is © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/9781118354179.auto096
Also published in the Encyclopedia of Automotive Engineering (print edition) ISBN: 978-0-470-97402-5
 eae auto096.tex V1 - 08/27/2013 1:47 P.M. Page 8

8 Transmission and Driveline

Theodossiades et al. (2004) showed that some of the 5 TRANSMISSION RATTLE

excited structural modes of the driveshaft tubes are efficient
noise radiators, giving rise to the clonk noise, which is Gear rattle is associated with the characteristic structure
metallic and accelerative in nature. These are generally and airborne noises that are radiated to the environment

the modes that are combined high frequency (many half-
wavelength oscillations axially and around a tube’s circum-
ference) torsional and bending modes, usually referred to as
flexural modes. The efficient noise radiating modes among
the flexural responses are known as the breathing modes
FS
by the impact of unselected (unengaged) transmission gear
pairs (Sakai et al., 1981; Wang, Manoj, and Zhao, 2001).
The phenomenon occurs at low teeth impact forces and
is qualitatively similar to the sound produced by marbles
in a shaken metallic can. Therefore, it has a distinct
repetitive sound quality differentiating it from other noise

(Figure 12). There is also ringing noise during the decay of
the clonk response.
There have been traditionally many palliative measures
in order to take away the associated sharp metallic nature
of the clonk noise, while still maintaining driveline’s
lightweight. These palliations have included use of sound
absorbent media, such as foam filling the tubes, or use of a
polymeric sandwich structure. The former can be an irritant
substance and in some cases carcinogenic. Thus, its use is
now prohibited in many places through directives and/or
by legislation. The latter is considered to be expensive for
high volume mass manufacture.
PR
Gnanakumarr et al. (2006) described various methods of
palliation of high frequency sharp metallic clonk response.
In particular, they described the use of cardboard inserts
E
fitted into the driveshaft tubes that reduce the sharp-
ness of high frequency metallic noise contributions (above
2500 Hz) as shown in Figure 13 (note that higher noise
G
OO
NVH concerns (Dogan, Ryborz, and Bertsche, 2006). Rattle
is induced by engine order vibrations (Rahnejat, 1998)
in the presence of backlash in meshing teeth pairs. It
is particularly noticeable in diesel vehicles with higher
output torque fluctuations, where the intensity of rattle noise
has found to be directly affected by the resulting engine
order torsional vibrations (Tangasawi, Theodossiades, and
Rahnejat, 2007; Theodossiades, Tangasawi, and Rahnejat,
2007).
Transmission rattle is a broadband NVH phenomenon as
perceived by vehicle occupants and other road users alike
(Figure 14 shows the response from a bearing cap of a trans-
mission housing). It can cause unnecessary concern for the
vehicle owner. Its spectral composition comprises engine
order vibration, meshing frequencies of loose gear pairs,
and structural modal response of the transmission casing.
The higher band frequency due to structural response is

because of traveling waves from the impact sites along the

level is represented by the dark tone in this figure within transmission output shaft and transmitted though the bear-
the lower rectangular region). The cardboard inserts break ings onto the casing. Transmission rattle manifests itself
up the traveling standing structural waves, as well as under various operating conditions. In general, these are
PA

attenuating the sound propagation by absorption. The

secondary events are low frequency contributions because • Idle/neutral rattle: The vehicle is idling and as the name
of the decaying ringing noise in the hollow cavity of the indicates without any gear selected. The usual engine
tubes. speed is in the range 600–1000 rpm.

4000
T

3500
Clonk event
3000
RS

2500
Frequency

2000 Secondary event

1500

1000

500
FI

0
1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7
Time

Figure 13. Attenuated clonk noise by cardboard inserts. Source: Reproduced from Gnanakumarr et al. 2006. © Inderscience Enterprises
Ltd.

Encyclopedia of Automotive Engineering, Online © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
This article is © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/9781118354179.auto096
Also published in the Encyclopedia of Automotive Engineering (print edition) ISBN: 978-0-470-97402-5
 eae auto096.tex V1 - 08/27/2013 1:47 P.M. Page 9

Drivetrain Noise, Vibration, and Harshness 9

2000
1750
1500

FS
Frequency
1250
1000
750
500
250
0

OO
5 6 7 8 9 10
Time

Figure 14. Wavelet of idle gear rattle from 2 L diesel engine vehicle.

• Creep rattle: The engine speed is low (600–1000 rpm) Essentially, a DMF integrates the function of a usual
with vehicle driven in first or second gear. solid mass flywheel with that of a tuned torsional spring-
•

•
Drive rattle: The engine speed varies between 1000 and
2000 rpm with second, third, or fourth gear selected and
with partially loaded throttle.
Over-run rattle: The engine speed is between 2000 and
4000 rpm with second gear engaged and throttle at over-
run position.
PR damper, often in the form of an arc spring (Figure 15).
In this configuration, the primary flywheel is bolted onto
the engine crankshaft and is free to rotate relative to the
secondary flywheel. An arc spring transmits the torque
between the primary flywheel and a flange, which is riveted
to the secondary flywheel. With a positive load, the arc
• Coast rattle: With floating throttle and the engine speed spring is pushed by the end stop on the primary side against
between 4000 and 2000 rpm and second gear engaged. the flange on the secondary side. With a negative load, the
E
arc spring is pushed in the opposite sense by the flange
Various methods have been used in order to attenuate against the end stop. Long travel of the spring at rela-
the effect of rattle. These include backlash eliminators, tively low frequency achieves good isolation, while still
G

clutch predampers, controlled slip clutches, and dual mass maintaining sufficient stiffness to transmit the maximum
flywheel (DMF), the last of which has been found to be the engine torque. In this manner, spring stiffness can be tuned
most effective, but a costly palliative. to act as a band-pass filter, removing or attenuating the
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Starter ring gear

Primary flywheel

Arc springs
Shell
T

Flange
RS

Arc spring

Friction membrane
FI

Cover

Secondary flywheel

Figure 15. Components of an arc spring dual mass flywheel.

Encyclopedia of Automotive Engineering, Online © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
This article is © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/9781118354179.auto096
Also published in the Encyclopedia of Automotive Engineering (print edition) ISBN: 978-0-470-97402-5
 eae auto096.tex V1 - 08/27/2013 1:47 P.M. Page 10

10 Transmission and Driveline

92 Low rattle conditions and drag introduced by the grease. Further description for
Medium rattle conditions (DMF)
High rattle conditions
DMF is given by Kelly et al. (2010).
All the palliative methods essentially attenuate the engine
torsional vibrations resident on the transmission input

FS
88
shaft, thus reducing the impulsive nature of input between
Angular velocity (rad/s)

conjugate teeth pairs of unselected gears (Figure 16; De la

84 Cruz, Theodossiades, and Rahnejat, 2010).
In Figure 16, the prevailing rattle condition is obtained
from the transmission input shaft under various drivetrain
configurations. The response, indicated by medium rattle is

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80
when a DMF is used, that for low rattle condition makes
use of a clutch slip device as a predamper and the high
76 rattle condition corresponds to no palliation (a solid mass
flywheel is used and with no form of palliation). Gear rattle
is easily noted and its intensity is often subjectively rated
72 by NVH engineers. However, it is necessary to have an
0 0.5 1 1.5 objective function, determining an acceptable level for the

Figure 16. Torsional oscillations resident on the transmission

input shaft. Source: Reproduced from De la Cruz et al. 2010.
© Institution of Mechanical Engineers.
Time (s)

PR rattle noise. To achieve this, it is necessary to undertake

quite in-depth numerical analysis, such as those reported
by Tangasawi, Theodossiades, and Rahnejat (2007) for
idle rattle condition and De la Cruz, Theodossiades, and
Rahnejat (2010) for creep rattle. The former uses the rattle
significant engine order vibration contributions, depending ratio for its objective function. This is the ratio of inertial
on the engine type (number of cylinders and combus- torque of an idling gear (loose gear) to that of the resistive
E
tion signature). Therefore, lower amplitude oscillations are drag torque (caused by friction between the loose gear and
achieved, resident on the transmission input shaft. Note its retaining output shaft, as well as some small contribution
that these engine torsional vibrations are found to be the due to flank viscous friction between the gear meshing teeth
G

main contributory factor in transmission rattle (Tangasawi, pairs with their conjugate pinion teeth). Seaman, Johnson,
Theodossiades, and Rahnejat, 2007; Theodossiades, Tanga- Hamilton (1984) defined the rattle threshold as the angular
sawi, and Rahnejat, 2007; Dogan, Ryborz, and Bertsche, acceleration at which an idle gear’s inertial torque exceeds
2006). the drag torque (i.e., a rattle ratio exceeding unity). Rattle
PA

The damping characteristics of the DMF can be further ratio can be regarded as an indication of rattle, but is not
enhanced by attaching additional components to the arc the best metric which can be used. A better ratio is defined
spring, thereby creating friction between the spring coils by De la Cruz, Theodossiades, and Rahnejat (2010) as
and the flange. These components are usually referred to as the impulsion ratio. This is the ratio of drive torque over
shoes with an appropriate wedge shape to entrain grease, the drag torque for a loose gear. Therefore, any torque
which is filled into the DMF enclosure, into the contact. reversal as the result of severe impact conditions can also
Some vibration is therefore attenuate through viscous shear be ascertained (Figure 17).
T

200
6
RS

150
Impulsion ratio
Impulsion ratio

4 100

50
2
0

0 −50
FI

0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
(a) Time (s) (b) Time (s)

Figure 17. Impulsion ratio corresponding to conditions of (a) low rattle and (b) severe rattle. Source: Reproduced from De la Cruz
et al. 2010. © Sage/Institution of Mechanical Engineers.

Encyclopedia of Automotive Engineering, Online © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
This article is © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/9781118354179.auto096
Also published in the Encyclopedia of Automotive Engineering (print edition) ISBN: 978-0-470-97402-5

6 CLOSURE
In this chapter, a number of drivetrain NVH phenomena are
described. Some aspects of analysis and palliation measures
are also noted. In general, with an increasing trend toward
lighter power train construction and higher output power,
the propensity for occurrence of these phenomena and
others are on the increase. In particular, there would be
an increasing effort in power train hybridization as well
as development of electric vehicles. These are likely to
further introduce NVH issues. As a result, the need for in-
depth investigation, particularly numerical analysis, would
be increasing in the future.
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Acoustic response of driveline pieces under impacting loads
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PR
Biermann, J.W. and Hagerodt, B. (1999) Investigation into the clonk
phenomenon in vehicle transmission—measurement, modelling
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Engineers, Part K: Journal of Multi-body Dynamics, 213(1),
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Centea, D., Rahnejat, H. and Menday, M.T. (2001) Non-linear
G
multi-body dynamic analysis for the study of clutch torsional
vibrations (judder). Applied Mathematical Modelling, 25(3),
177–192.
De la Cruz, M., Theodossiades, S. and Rahnejat, H. (2010) An
PA
investigation of manual transmission drive rattle. Proceedings
of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part K: Journal of
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Dogan, S.N., Ryborz, J. and Bertsche, B. (2006) Design of low noise
manual automotive transmission. Proceedings of the Institution of
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T
(2002) High frequency torsional vibration of vehicular driveline
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RS
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This article is © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/9781118354179.auto096
Also published in the Encyclopedia of Automotive Engineering (print edition) ISBN: 978-0-470-97402-5
eae auto096.tex V1 - 08/27/2013 1:47 P.M. Page 11
Drivetrain Noise, Vibration, and Harshness 11
Kelly, P., Pennec, B., Seebacher, R., Tlatlik, B. and Mueller, M.
(2010) Dual mass flywheel as a means of attenuating rattle,
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Please note that the abstract and keywords will not be included in the printed book, but are required for the online
presentation of this book which will be published on Wiley Online Library (http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/). If the
abstract and keywords are not present below, please take this opportunity to add them now.

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The abstract should be a short paragraph of between 150–200 words in length and there should be 5 to 10 keywords

Abstract: This chapter describes the plethora of noise, vibration, and harshness (NVH) concerns in vehicular drivetrain

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systems. With a trend toward compact lightweight lightly damped drivetrain systems, such phenomena are likely to
exacerbate. Significant NVH concerns such as transmission rattle, driveline clonk, and clutch in-cycle whoop are described
and methods of measurement and modeling are described. These NVH phenomena are regarded as refinement quality
issues by vehicle customers, thus a concern to the automobile industry. Various methods of palliation are also discussed.

Keywords: noise; vibration and harshness (NVH); vibro-impacts; drivetrains; transmission

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Encyclopedia of Automotive Engineering, Online © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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DOI: 10.1002/9781118354179.auto096
Also published in the Encyclopedia of Automotive Engineering (print edition) ISBN: 978-0-470-97402-5
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