Earth Materials and

Processes
Rocks and Minerals
• Rocks are formed from mineral
grains
• Assembly of mineral grains are
not random; they are the result
of the rock-forming process
• Igneous rocks: formed by
crystallization; composed of
several kinds of minerals
• Sedimentary rocks: composed
of one kind of mineral
• Minerals possess a crystalline
structure
• Classified according to chemical
composition and atomic
structure
• Silicate minerals: structure
based on silicate units.
• Rocks: made up of one or more
silicate units
Rocks and Minerals: Igneous Rocks
• Starting points in the rock cycle
• Metamorphic and sedimentary
rocks start out as igneous rocks
• Derived from the convection in
the earth’s mantle
• Source of heat: radioactive
isotopes of potassium, uranium,
and thorium
• Also comprised of volcanic rocks
Rocks and Minerals: Sedimentary Rocks
• Secondary rocks
• Three types of grains: coarse,
medium, and fine
• Three types of sedimentary
rocks: clastic, chemical, and
biogenic
• Silicate materials in sedimentary
rocks undergo changes
• Weathering: the process of
breaking down
• Two types of weathering:
physical (mechanical
disaggregration) and chemical
(chemical decomposition)
• Clastic rocks: formed from
“clasts”
• Chemical: formed from the
evaporation of water
• Biogenic: contain fragments or
fossils
Rocks and Minerals: Metamorphic Rocks
• Formed from igneous rocks
which have undergone
mechanical and physical stress
• Metamorphism occurs when the
rocks are in their solid state
• Transition between igneous and
metamorphic is marked by the
melting point of the rock
• Contact metamorphism
• Regional metamorphism
Exogenic and Endogenic Processes: Exogenic
• Exogenic processes: erosion,
transportation, and deposition
• Erosion: broken rock
• Transportation: movement
• Deposition: deposited in a new
location
• Geomorphic agents: ice, wind,
snow, and water (or even gravity
alone)
Exogenic and Endogenic Processes: Endogenic
• Uses heat from within the earth
• Also called hypogene processes
• Unaffected by external
processes
• Cause earthquakes,
metamorphism, volcanic activity,
formation of troughs and oceans
• Thermal energy derived from
decay of radioactive materials
and gravitational differentiation
• Earthquakes: form of wave
motion that is transmitted
through the surface of the earth
• Tectonic Movements: gives rise
to oceans, mountains, ridges;
called distrophism when it
results in building up
• Volcanism: matter is transported
to the surface of the earth and
then erupted; magmatic matter
is effused to the surface,
otherwise they are called
intrusives or plutons
Formation of the Crust
• Plate Tectonics: movement of
the continents
• Continental Drift Theory:
proposed by Wegener;
movement of tectonic plates
• Evidence: Fossils,
paleomagnetism
Formation of the Crust: Deformation
• The result of forces strong
enough to move ocean
sediments thousands of meters
above sea level
• Changes in volume/shape
• Fold: bend in the rock in
response to compressive forces
• Fault: caused by internal
stresses in the rock that cause
fractures
History of the Earth
• The magnetic field polarity
changes
• Normal polarity: from South
pole to North pole
• Reverse polarity: from North
pole to South pole
• Polarity changes are key
indicators of seafloor spreading
• Seafloor spreading: seafloor
moves away from ridges
History of the Earth: Seafloor Spreading
• Helps explain continental drift
theory
• Divergence of ocean plates
cause tensional stress
• Tensional stress causes fractures
in the lithosphere
• Basaltic magma rises up from
fractures, cools on seafloor,
causing formation of new
seafloor
History of the Earth: Ocean Basin Evolution
• Embryonic
• Juvenile
• Mature
• Declining
• Terminal
• Suturing/ Relict Scar
Formation of Stratified Rocks
• Stratification planes
• Results from changes in
composition or texture of the
rocks during deposition
• History has been recorded in
stratified rocks
• May be composed of both fine
and coarse particles
Geologic Time Scale
• Relative dating: able to place
events in their proper order, but
unable to precisely identify the
number of years
• Absolute dating: based on the
decay of radioactive elements
• Marker fossils/ Index fossils
Thank you!