RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Submitted by:
Shubhaneel Neogi
ROLL NO- 14/BT/1501, PT, PHD
DEPT. OF BIOTECHNOLOGY
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, DURGAPUR
 Table of contents

1. Introduction

2. Objectives of research

3. Categories of research approaches

4. Criteria of good research

5. Significance of research

6. Research problems

7. Constrains of research

8. Review of literature

9. Research planning

10. Steps of research problem

11. Formulation of research design

12. Important features of research design

13. Experimental research design

14. Observational research design

15. Report writing

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 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

1. Introduction
Research is nothing but search for knowledge or search for unknown things. So
research is the search repeatedly (re-search) for new knowledge in a systematic and
scientific way. This search (re-search) is a vital instinct for all living organisms,
particularly human beings. We never expect a bear to be hunting and living only on fish
as food in tropical area, but it is a common phenomenon in polar area. The same bear in
polar areas (polar bear) has trained (by-search) to catch the fish for food because this is
the only food available there.
Around 8000 years ago, man knew nothing about wearing a dress, constructing
houses, tilling land, utilizing the animals for productive propose etc., Because of the vital
instinct of search they started construction of houses, using water resources for
cultivation purpose, utilizing animals for productive work, weaving and using clothes etc.
As time went on this search became intensified. Now we are using TV, electricity,
computers, aero planes etc., which the people of a few centuries back never even dreamt
of. This search will go on in further also; after some decades we will be astonished by
seeing the world at that time.
Simply put, research is “the quest for knowledge through systematic and scientific
way on a specified topic, aimed at discovery and interpretation of new knowledge”.

Research is an art of scientific investigation

Research is nothing but search (or search repeatedly) for new knowledge or
discovery of new things. This search (re-search) was to be carried in any branch of
science or any branch knowledge.
A simple definition of scientific research is: “It is a process of knowledge new
facts and verifying old ones by the application of scientific methods to nature
phenomena”.
Dictionary meaning of research is “A careful investigation or enquiry especially
through search for new facts in any branch of knowledge”. According to American
philosopher “Charles Pierce,” there are four methods for knowing facts and new
knowledge. These are (1) Tenacity (2) Intuition (3) Authority (4) Science.

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 Tenacity is the tendency to continue to believe a proposition though habit or
inertia. We accept a proposition as true simply because we have always believed it to be
true.
Intuition is the method that relies upon appeal to reason. The person who
supports the proposition should the reason. Propositions that agree with reasons are
considered correct. Therefore, intuition is one of the accepted ways of knowing about
facts or one of the important steps in research.
Authority is the method that relies upon the knowledge of experts in their fields.
When there is some difference of opinion about previous knowledge, we seek the help of
some experts (authority) in that field. The experts were needed to answer or clarify this
difference of opinion.
Scientific research is the process of knowing new facts and verifying old ones by
the application of systematic and scientific methods to natural phenomena. This is the
most accepted way of research.

F.N. Kerlinger defines scientific research as

“Scientific research is systematic, controlled, empirical, and critical investigation
of hypothetical propositions about the presumed relations among the natural
phenomena.”

From the above definition, one can understand three points. These are:
1. Scientific research is a systematic and controlled procedure.
2. Scientific research is empirical.
3. Scientific research involves investigation of some “hypothetical proposition.”
Scientific research should be planned systematically. We should follow various
steps of research process systematically beginning with definition of the problem
followed by stating by stating objective of the study formulation of research hypothesis,
collection of data, analysis and interpretation and finally hypothesis testing. Only then,
we are able to generalize the results of the study to the whole population. Scientific
research must be carried out in a controlled and systematic way, i.e., we should follow
the principles of sampling like (1) Selecting correct sample size (this will depend upon

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the prevalence of the study variable, (2) Appropriate sampling method (random sampling
method is the preferable one).
Scientific research is empirical. Scientific research is based on the experiences of
a large number of people. If the scientific research is time tested and confirmed by large
number of people, we can say it is empirical. By this it provides rationality, and
objectivity to the know facts. Scientific research involves the formulation of hypothesis
(the formulated hypothesis is a tentative statement about the relationship between tow or
more variables) and testing of hypothesis. To test hypothesis we formulate null
hypothesis. By proving or disproving null hypothesis, we can say our assumptions are
correct or not. By this, we can generalize our findings.
One can confidently say, if the search (re-search) for new knowledge is
scientifically selected, systematically conducted, correctly analyzed and interpreted, the
possibility of getting good and reliable results is very high. Thus, research is a very
important contribution to the present knowledge and it is very useful for the advancement
of science. Thus, research is a systematic method of definition of the problem,
formulation of hypothesis, collection of the information and analysis of data, finally to
reach the conclusions (testing the hypothesis) and generalization of the results.
Scientific research begins with an observation of real world phenomena called
“facts.” The researcher thus uses “induction” (a process of moving from particular to
general) to develop explanation of such facts. After this the researcher uses “deduction”
(process of going from general to particular) to predict what should happen in real world.
However, his explanation must be plausible (believable). The final step of research is to
determine whether these predictions are supported by real world events. This is known
as “hypothesis testing.”
Scientific research begins with an observation of real world phenomena called
“facts.” The researcher thus uses “induction” (a process of moving from particular to
general) to develop explanation of such facts. After this the research uses “deduction”
(process of going from general to particular) to predict what should happen in real world.
However, his explanation must be plausible (believable). The final step of research is to
determine whether these predictions are supported by real world events. This is known
as “hypothesis testing”.

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2. Objectives of Research
The main purpose of the research is to discover the answers to some unknown and
hidden facts. Thus, the prime aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and
which is not yet discovered. Every research study has its own specific purposes.

For the sake of convenience sake, we can divide the research objective as:
1. To gain familiarity with a new phenomenon and achieve insight into it (this type of
studies are called experimental studies).
2. To know the characteristics (such as time, place, person) of groups of people (this
type of studies are called descriptive research studies).
3. To determine the frequency of some events and diagnose it (this type of studies are
called diagnostic research studies).

3. Categories of research approaches

Empirical research in the health science necessarily involves quantification. For
the most part this is achieved by three related numerical procedures. These are
1. Measurement of variables
2. Estimation of population parameters (rates, rations, proportions)
3. Statistical testing of hypothesis
Statistics is the tool, which permits health research to be empirical rather than
abstract. So, statistics allows us to confirm our findings or hypothesis, but not prove it.
Health research generally falls into three important interlinking categories (1) Biomedical
research, (2) Behavioral research, (3) Health services research. A constant interaction is
needed between these three scientific systems to get good results.
Scientific research or research approach is broadly divided into two categories;
these are quantitative approach and qualitative approach.
a. Quantitative approach: It involves formulation of data in quantitative form, which
can be subjected to rigorous quantitative analysis.
This approach can be subdivided into:
1. Inferential approach: The purpose of inferential approach to research is to formulate
a database from which to infer characteristics or relations of population. Example is

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surveys research. (Here we select a sample from the population to study and the results
we generalize to whole population.
2. Experimental approach: Is characterized by much greater control over the research
environment. (Here manipulation of some variables is done and observation of this effect
on other variables is studied).
3. Simulation approach: Involved the construction of an artificial environment from
which the relevant information and data can be generated. By this, we can observe the
dynamic behavior of a system under controlled conditions.

b. Qualitative approach: This is concerned with the assessment of qualitative aspects

like opinions, attitudes, and behaviors. The results we get from this approach may be
either qualitative in form or in the form which are not subjected to quantitative
analysis. Example: Projective techniques, in-depth interviews etc.
Social and behavioral sciences mainly deal with qualitative research and issues
subjective in nature. Example: Values of a group, skills of a group, attitudes, knowledge
and perception, etc., these are not measurable because they are qualitative in nature. The
fact remains that qualitative data, however important these may be, cease to be of much
scientific value unless they are quantified. So, to have a scientific value, unless they have
quantified. So to have a scientific status and statistical value the qualitative data need to
be converted to quantifiable units. Scaling techniques are useful tools to convert
qualitative data into quantifiable units.

4. Criteria of good research

A good scientific research should satisfy the following criteria:
1. First, we should clearly define the purpose of the research.
2. The procedure to be used for the research should be described in detail and in
simple language.
3. The research design was formulated more carefully to yield good results.
4. The researcher should report with complete frankness. If any flaws are found
during designing and measurement, they should be corrected immediately.

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 5. The data should be collected completely (sufficiently), then only it will given
significant results.
6. The methods used for analysis of data should be appropriate.
7. Conclusions should be confined to the data, which are justified by testing of
hypothesis.
8. The data usually is considered more valid provided the researcher is more
experienced, has a good reputation in research, and is a person of integrity.

5. Significance of research
The role of research in several fields of applied economics, whether related to
business or to the economy as a whole, has greatly increased in modern times. The
increasingly complex nature of business and government has focused attention on the use
of research in solving operational problem. Research, as an aid to economic policy, has
gained added importance, both for government and business.
Research provides the basis for nearly all government policies in our economic
system. For instance, government’s budgets rest in part on an analysis of the needs and
desires of the people and on the availability of revenues to meet these needs. The cost of
needs has to be equated to probable revenues and this is field where research is most
needed. Thorough research we can devise alternative policies and can as well examine
the consequences of each of these alternatives.
Decision – making may not be a part of research, but research certainly facilitates
the decisions of the policy maker. Government has also to chalk out programmes for
dealing with all facets of the country’s existence and most of these will be related directly
or indirectly to economic conditions. The plight of cultivators, the problems of big and
small business and industry, working conditions, trade union activities, the problems of
distribution, even the size and nature of defense services are matters requiring research.
Thus, research is considered necessary with regard to the allocating of nation’s resources.
Another area in government, where research is necessary, is collecting information on the
economic and social structure of the nation. Such information indicates what is
happening in the economy and what changes are taking place. Collecting such statistical
information’s is by no means a routine task, but it involves a variety of research

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problems. These days nearly all governments maintain large staff of research technicians
or experts to carry on this work. Thus, in the context of government, research as a tool to
economic policy has three distinct phases of operations, viz., (i) investigation of
economic structure through continual compilation of facts; (ii) diagnosis of events that
are taking place and the analysis of the forces underlying them; and (iii) the prognosis,
i.e., the prediction of future development.
Research has its special significance in solving various operational and planning
problems of business and industry. Operations research and market research, along with
motivational research, are considered crucial and their results assist, in more than one
way, in taking business decisions. Market research is the investigations of the structure
and development of a market for formulating efficient policies for purchasing, production
and sales. Operations research refers to the application of mathematical, logical, and
analytical techniques to the solution of business problems of cost minimization or of
profit maximization or what can be termed as optimization problems. Motivational
research of determining why people behave as they do is mainly concerned with market
characteristics. In other words, it is concerned with the determination of motivations
underlying the consumer (market) behavior. All these are of great help to people in
business and industry who are responsible for taking business decisions. Research with
regard to demand and market factors has great utility in business. Given knowledge of
future demand, it is generally not difficult for a firm, or for an industry to adjust it supply
schedule within the limits of its projected capacity. Market analysis has become an
integral tool of business policy these days. Business budgeting, which ultimately results
in a projected profit and loss account, is based mainly on sales estimates, which in turn
depends on business research. Once sales forecasting is done, efficient production and
investment programs can be set up around which are grouped the purchasing and
financing plans. Research, thus, replaces intuitive business decisions by more logical and
scientific decisions.
Research is equally important for social scientists in studying social relationships
and in seeking answers to various social problems. It provides the intellectual
satisfaction of knowing a few things just for the sake of knowledge and has practical
utility for the social scientist to know for the sake of being able to do something better or

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in a more efficient manner. Research in social sciences is concerned both with
knowledge for its own sake and with knowledge for what it can contribute to practical
concerns. “This double emphasis is perhaps especially appropriate in the case of social
science. On the one hand, its responsibility as a science is to develop a body of principles
that make possible the understanding and prediction of the whole range of human
interactions. On the other hand, because of its social orientation, it is increasingly being
looked to for practical guidance in solving immediate problems of human relations”.
In addition to what has been stated above, the significance of research can also be
understood keeping in view the following points:
1. To those students who are write a master’s or Ph.D. thesis, research may mean a
careerism or way to attain a high position in the social structure;
2. To professionals in research methodology, research may mean a source of
livelihood;
3. To philosophers and thinkers, research may mean the outlet for new ideas and
insights;
4. To literary men and women, research may mean the development of new styles
and creative work;
5. To analysts and intellectuals, research may mean the generalizations of new
theories.
Thus, research is the fountain of knowledge for the sake of knowledge and an
important source of proving guidelines for solving different business, governmental and
social problems. It is a sort of formal training that enables one to understand the new
development in one’s field in a better way.

6. Research Problems
The first step in any research process is the selection of research problem and
proper definition of this research problem. To design a research problem, first we should
perceive a problem. The problem exists when we do not have sufficient information to
answer a question, i.e., when there is a noticeable gap in the results of an investigation
and some questions remain unanswered, or when the results or explanations of several

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researchers disagree with each other. Above all, “there should be a desire for
innovation”. All theses lead to starting of research.
In exploratory research studies, the problem statement is not needed, because the
purpose of exploratory research is to find a problem or hypothesis (to be tested).
A) Importance of defining a research problem
A clearly stated research problem is a half – solved research problem.
A clearly stated research problem will enable the researcher to do his job
perfectly. So, defining a research problem clearly and concisely is a
prerequisite for al studies.
B) Selection of research problem
The research problem undertaken for study must be carefully studied. The
young researchers may take the help of a research guide to select the research
problem. When selecting the research problem the following points should be kept
in mind: subject on which extensive research has already been conducted
should not be chosen, because there is little scope for a researcher to throw any new
light on such an area. The selected problem should be neither very general nor
very specific.
So during the selection of research problem we should avoid too narrow or too
vague a problem. It should be simple, concise and easy to understand. The
problem should be solvable (i.e., controversial subjects should not be selected by a
young researcher).
The selected research subject should be familiar and feasible. The feasibility of the
research problem depends upon the study design, sampling method and sample size,
methods of collection of data, accessibility to respondents, availability of resources
(money, mean, material) measuring instrument study variables, available facilities for
analysis of data, testing of hypotheses. Therefore, the important criterion that should
be met the availability of the required funds and trained research workers. The time
factor is another important criterion that should be kept in our mind.
C) Technique of defining a research problem
Defining a research problem is a very difficult task, which needs to be tackled
intelligently; otherwise, the researcher may fall into deep trouble during collection

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 and analysis of data. Defining a research problem properly and clearly is a crucial
part of a research study. So it should not be done hurriedly. To define a research
problem the following steps are advised.
First, the research problem should be stated in a board, general way. Then he may
undertake a preliminary survey, which is other called “pilot survey”. Then the
researcher should try to understand the nature of the study problem. For this “search
and analysis” of the available data related to the research problem is advised. Then
he should try developing new ideas and knowledge through discussion with his
colleagues, teachers, and persons working with a similar research problem. This is
known as “experience survey”. Finally, the researcher should try to rephrase the
research problem into a “working hypothesis”. By this the researcher formulates the
research problem clearly and precisely so that it may become operationally feasible.

The following points also need consideration

Basic assumption relating to research problem should be clearly states. Technical
terms and phrases with special meaning should be clearly defined. The time needed for
the research problem and sources of availability of data should be specified. The scope
of the investigative and limitations of the study also need to be specified.
Proper definition of research problem will enable the researcher to be on the right
track, whereas an ill-defined problem will create hurdles during conduct of the study.
Stating a research problem in a general way and resolving the ambiguities by thinking
and rethinking process and also taking the help of experts is essential. This leads to
formulation of clear, concise, realistic research problem. This also specifies the available
resources and difficulties of conducting study, the scope and limitations of the study etc.

7. Constrains of research
As such, the researcher must judiciously select the method/methods for his own
study, keeping in view the following factors:
a) Nature, scope and object of enquiry: This constitutes the most important factor
affecting the choice of a particular method. The method selected should be such that
it suits the type of enquiry that is to be conducted by the researcher. This factor is

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 also important in deciding whether the data already available (secondary data) are to
be used or the data not yet available (primary data) are to be collected.
b) Availability of funds: Availability of funds for the research project determines to a
large extent the method to be used for the collection of data. When funds at the
disposal of the researcher are very limited, he will have to select a comparatively
cheaper method which may not be as efficient and effective as some other costly
method. Finance, in fact, is a big constraint in practice and the research has to act
within this limitation.
c) Time factor: Availability of time has also to be taken into account in deciding a
particular method of data collection. Some methods take relatively more time,
whereas with others the data can be collected in a comparatively shorter duration.
The time at the disposal of the researcher, thus, affects the selection of the method by
which the data are to be collected.
d) Precision required: Precision required is yet another important factor to be
considered at the time of selecting the method of collection of data.

8. Review of literature
In the research process, one of the important steps is “review of literature”. By
understanding this topic, we will be able to utilize the resources of the library. The
researcher should familiarize himself with existing knowledge about the research
problem and find out whether or not others have investigated the same or similar
problem. No research process can be started without preliminary orientation. Another
important aspect in review of literature is we can get large and valuable information on
the research problem from the previous research reports. The important aspect in review
of literature is “we should understand the ways in which libraries organize their
collections with the knowledge of basic bibliographic and reference materials.”
The sources of information are:
1. Card catalogues of books in the library.
2. Indexes such as “The Index Medicus” and the “International Nursing Index”
and “Excerpta Medica” etc.,
3. Bibliographies such as those found at the end to books, articles, theses etc.,

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 4. Reference books (dictionaries, encyclopedia, yearbooks etc.,)
5. Special materials (journals, periodicals, newsletters etc.,)
6. Statistical reports etc.,
7. Computer based literature search such as MEDLARS, MEDLINE and
CATLINES.

Card catalogue
The first source to get material related to our studies in the library is “Card
Catalogue.” Card catalogues are the index cards, which contain the details about the
author, subject title etc. Theses card catalogues are arranged alphabetically according to
the first word on the card. All the works of an author are filed alphabetically by title
under his surname. So to find a publication by an author in card catalogue it is essential
to know the name and surname of the author and title of the study (because sometimes
different authors may have similar name in the same field or research).

Example of a card:
Society
Divyesh Kothari (1928 – 89)
Role of Society in Health & Disease
Paras Publishers. Hyderabed 1982
133 – 148
The information available in the card identifies specifically the author (name and
surname), title, place or publication, publisher, data of publication, number of pages and
other important characteristics. The data of publication will give us the idea about
regency of information. The name of the author and name of the publisher will indicate
the authoritativeness of the subject matter.
The call number, shown at left upper corner of the card catalogue, would give the
information, needed to locate the book in the library.

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 Main class Subclass (SPM) Subclass (sociology)
000 – Medicine 300 – Epidemiology 320 – Principles of sociology
100 – Surgery 310 – Environment 321 – Family
200 – OBG 320 – Sociology 322 – Society
300 – SPM 330 – Nutrition 323 – Community
400 – Pathology 340 – Health education 324 – Demography

By observing above table we can understand that in main class we should look at
first number of 322 (here it is 300), i.e., SPM subject. In SPM subject, we can look for
320 (i.e., 20). Here it is sociology. In sociology subclass we can look for society, here it
is 322 (i.e., 2). So the call number acts as the key to locate the prescribed book in library
shelves.

Indexes and bibliographies

Card catalogue also has its limitations. It is an index to the collection of only one
library. During research we need to consult many libraries and also many source other
libraries. Another problem is that the card catalogue does not index all the materials
available in the library.
Periodical segments form an important part of published research material. So to
find all the material which may be needed and which cannot be found through the card
catalogue, it is necessary to use published indexes, bibliographies and various types of
indexed books and reference books.
Periodical indexes were maintained in some libraries, these are also useful for us
during review of literature. The search for review of literature can be undertaken by
though literatures scan for related works, discussions with experts in the specific area of
interest and first hand experience or observation.

Uses of review of literature

1. It helps to define and redefine the statement of research problem. It is also
useful to identify the study variables and concentration their relationships.

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 2. It helps in selection and formulation of research hypothesis.
3. It helps to find out what others have reported on the same topic.
4. It helps to familiarize with the various methods that might be used in the
research.

9. Research planning
All research activity should be planned systematically and scientifically.
Research process consists of a series of actions necessary to carry out research
effectively. So, research process consists of ten important.

Statement of research problem

Relevance of the problem to health activities,

field of application or research results

Review of literature

Formulation of hypothesis and statement of objective

Selection of controls and study instruments

Data collection and the execution of the project

Analysis of data and testing of hypothesis

Interpretation and generalization of results

Preparation and presentation of the study results

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10. Steps of research process
I. Research Problem
a) Statement of research problem: At the very outset the researcher should
specify the wants to study. The research problems which he selected for the
study include all the essential points. This statement of the problem is the
essential basis for the construction of research proposal. It allows the
investigator to describe the problem systematically.
b) Relevance of the problem to national and local health activities: Here the
researcher should specify why the proposed research on the problem was
undertaken and the importance of the problem and its priority in the country and
in the local area should be spelled out. It should contain a statement on how the
results will be used.
c) Fields of application of the proposed research results: Here the researcher should
stress the importance of the study, how the study will be useful for the policy
makers, health administrators and other health scientists. He also needs to specify
how the results will be transmitted to the targeted audience.

11. Formulation of Research design

Preparation of the design for the research project is known as “research design”.
A research design is “the formulation of a design for collection and analysis of data
relating to the research problem with minimum cost and maximum results”. So it is a
conceptual structure used to conduct research. Practically the research design is the “blue
print” of what the researcher is going to do in future.
To formulate a research design, it is wise to remember the words of Rudyard
Kipling. He says:
I have six honest serving men.
They taught me all I knew.
Their names are:
What, Why, Where
When, Who, How
By applying this we can formulate research questions:

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 1. What are the study objectives and what type of data is requires?
2. Why the study is being conducted (purpose)
3. Where the study is going to be conducted (place)
4. When the study is going to be conducted (time)
5. How to get the data (methodology)

By answering the above we can formulate the research design:

1. Research problem and objectives of the problem to be studies
2. The nature of the problem to be studies.
3. Purpose of the study.
4. Place of the study (or research setting)
5. Study period (time)
6. Availability of resources (money, men, material).
7. Characteristics of the people involved in the study.
8. Means of obtaining information (methodology).

12. Important features of research design

It is a plan that specifies the available resources (time, money, men, and material)
and types of information needed for a research study. It is a strategy specifying what
approach will be used to analyze the data. It is a strategy specifying how to test the
“research hypothesis” and what are the statistical tests needed to prove or disprove the
null hypothesis. Research design also includes the time required for the study. It also
specifies the budget (effective use of available resources).

Features of good research design

Good research design is characterized by the following
1. Internal validity.
2. External validity.
3. Reproducibility or reliability.
4. Minimum bias.
5. It should yield maximum information with minimum resources.
6. It should be efficient and economical.

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 7. It should provide opportunity for considering different aspects of a problem.

Research design should be formulated depending upon the study problem and
available resources. A research design found very effective in one situation may be
found useless in another situation. So, one single design cannot serve the purpose of all
types of research problems. DIFFERENT TYPES OF STUDIES NEED DIFFERENT
DESIGNS. The question of good design should be purposive and objective.
Three important principles during the preparation of experimental design are:
1. Principle of randomization
2. Principle of replication
3. Principle of local control

13. Experimental research designs

Experimental design refers to the framework or structure of an experiment and as
such there are several experimental designs. We can classify experimental designs into
two broad categories, viz., informal experimental designs and formal experimental
designs. Informal experimental deigns are those designs that normally use a less
sophisticated form of analysis based on differences in magnitudes, whereas formal
experimental design offer relatively more control and use precise statistical procedures
for analysis. Important experiment designs are as follows:
a) Informal experimental designs :
a) Before – and – after without control design.
ii) After – only with control design.
iii) Before – and – after with control design.
b) Formal experimental design :
i) Completely randomized design (C.R. Design)
ii) Randomized block design (R.B. Design)
iii) Latin square design (L.S. Design)

We may briefly deal with each of the above stated informal as well as formal
experimental designs.

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a) Before–and–after without control design: In such a design a single test group or
area is selected and the dependent variable is measured before the introduction of the
treatment. The treatment is then introduced and the dependent variable is measured
again after the treatment has been introduced. The effect of the treatment would be
equal to the level of the phenomenon after the treatment minus the level of the
phenomenon before the treatment. The design can be represented thus:
The main difficulty of such a design is that with the passage of time considerable
extraneous variations may be there in its treatment effect.
b) After–only with control design: In this design two groups or areas (test area and
control area) are selected and the treatment is introduced into the test area only. The
dependent variable is then measured in both the areas at the same time. Treatment
impact is assessed by subtracting the value of the dependent variable in the control
area form its value in the test area. This can be exhibited in the following form :
The basic assumption in such a design is that the two areas are identical with respect
to their behavior towards the phenomenon considered. If this assumption is not true,
there is the possibility of extraneous variation entering into the treatment effect.
However, data can be collected in such a design without the introduction of problems
with the passage of time. In this respect the design is superior to before – and – after
without control design.
c) Before – and – after with control design: In this design two areas are selected and
the dependent variable is measured in both the areas for an identical time-period
before the treatment. The treatment is then introduced into the test area only, and the
dependent variable is measured in both for an identical time – period after the
introduction of the treatment. The treatment effect is determined by subtracting the
change in the dependent variable in the control area from the change in the dependent
variable in test area. This design can be shown in this way :
This design is superior to the above two designs for the simple reason that it avoids
extraneous variation resulting both from the passage of time and from non-
comparability of the test and control areas. But at times, due to lack of historical
data, timer or a comparable control area, we should prefer to select one of the first
two informal designs stated above.

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d) Completely randomized design (C.R. design): Involves only two principles viz., the
principle of replication and the principle of randomization of experimental designs. It
is the simplest possible design and its procedure of analysis is also easier. The
essential characteristic of the design is that subjects are randomly assigned to
experimental treatments (or vice – versa). For instance, if we have 10 subjects and if
we wish to test 5 under treatment A and 5 under treatment B, the randomization
process gives every possible group of 5 subjects selected from a set of 10 an equal
opportunity of being assigned to treatment A and treatment B. One – way analysis of
variance (or one – way ANOVA) is used to analyses such a design. Even unequal
replications can also work in this design. It provides maximum number of degrees of
freedom to the error. Such a design is generally used when experimental areas
happen to be homogeneous. Technically, when all the variations due to uncontrolled
extraneous factors are included the heading of chance, we refer to the design of
experiment as C.R. design.
e) Randomized block design (R.B. design) is an improvement over the C.R. design. In
the R.B. design the principle of local control can be applied along with the other two
principles of experimental designs. In the R.B. design, subjects are first divided into
groups, known as blocks, such that within each group the subjects are relatively
homogeneous in respect to some selected variable. The variable selected for
grouping the subjects is one that is believed to be related to the measures to be
obtained in respect of the dependent variable. The number of subjects in a given
block would be equal to the number of treatments and one subject in each block
would be randomly assigned to each treatment. In general, blocks are the levels at
which we hold the extraneous factor fixed, so that its contribution to the total
variability of data can be measured. The main feature of the R.B. design is that in this
each treatment appears the same number of times in each block. The R.B. design is
analyzed by the two – way analysis of variance (two – way ANOVA) technique.
Let us illustrate the R.B. design with the help of an example. Suppose four different
forms of a standardized test in statistics were given to each of five students (selected
one form each of the five I.Q. blocks) and following are the score which they
obtained.

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 If each student separately randomized the order in which he or she took the four tests
(by using random numbers or some similar device), we refer to the design of this
experiment as a R.B. design. The purpose of this randomization is to take care of
such possible extraneous factors (say as fatigue) or perhaps the experience gained
from repeatedly taking the test.
f) Latin square design (L.S. design) is an experimental design very frequently used in
agricultural research. The conditions under which agricultural investigations are
carried out are different from those in other studies for nature plays an important role
in agriculture. For instance, an experiment has to be made through which the effects
of five different varieties of fertilizers on the yield of a certain crop, say wheat, it to
be judged. In such a case the varying fertility of the soil in different blocks in which
the experiment has to be performed must be taken into consideration; otherwise the
results of obtained may not be very dependable because the output happens to be the
effect not only of fertilizers, but it may also be the effect of fertility of soil. Similarly,
there may be impact of varying seeds on the yield. To overcome such difficulties, the
L.S. design is used when there are two major extraneous factors such as the varying
soil fertility and varying seeds.
The Latin – square design is one where in each fertilizer, in our example, appears five
times but is used only once in each row and in each column of the design. In other
words, the treatments in a L.S. design are so allocated among the plots that no
treatment occurs more than once in any one row or any one column. The two
blocking factors may be represented through rows and columns (one through rows
and the other through columns). The following is a diagrammatic form of such a
design in respect of, say, five type of fertilizers, viz., A, B, C, D and E and the two
blocking factor viz., the varying soil fertility and the varying seeds:
The above diagram clearly shows that in a L.S. design the field is divided into as
many blocks as there are varieties of fertilizers and then each block is again divided
into as many parts as there are varieties of fertilizers in such a way that each of the
fertilizer variety is used in each of the block (whether column-wise of row-wise) only
once. The analysis of the L.S. design is very similar to the two – way ANOVA
technique.

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14. OBSERVATIONAL RESEARCH DESIGN
14.1. Descriptive designs:
a. Cross – sectional study design: Cross – sectional are also called prevalence
studies. This is a single examination study (or cross section) of a population in a
defined area. Here the researcher measures the exposure and the disease
simultaneously in a defined population. It is useful to find the prevalence rate of
various diseases and to formulate the etiological hypothesis. It is also useful for
screening of population groups for undiagnosed diseases of public health
importance.
Design:
Reference population

Study population

Exposure Exposure No exposure No exposure

and and and and
disease no disease disease no disease

b. Longitudinal study design: Repeated observations on a sample of population

over a period of time are called as ‘longitudinal studies”. Longitudinal studies
permit the measurement of incidence of diseases, natural history of a disease and
association between initial characteristics (risk factors) and development of
disease. The essential difference between these ad cohort studies is here there is
no control group.
Design

Reference Study Observe over Change in

Population Population study
A period of time population

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 14.2. Analytical study design:
a. Case control study design
Case control studies are also called ‘retrospective studies” or “backward looking
study”. Case control studies are commonly used cheap and efficient epidemiological
studies. These are designed particularly to establish the cause of disease (hypothesis
formulation) by investigating the associations between exposure to a risk factor and
the occurrence of disease.
In case control study first we select the cases. These cases we select usually by
random sampling method. Second step is selection of control group. Control group
may be selected from hospital or general population. Cases and controls should be
similar in all characteristics except the study variable. This is called matching. Then
we measure the exposure in the study group and control group.

Design of case control study

Exposed to risk factor

Persons with
Disease
Not exposed to risk factor

Population

Exposed to risk factor

Persons with
Out disease
Not exposed to risk factor

Present

Direction of enquiry Starting point of study

b. Cohort study
Cohort study is also called incidence study or forward – looking study. Cohort
studies are designed mainly to test the hypothesis. “Cohort is a group of people
experiencing common characteristic”.

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Design of cohort study

Developed disease
Exposed
Cohort Not developed disease
Reference Study
Population Population
Developed disease
Not exposed
cohort
Not developed disease

Present Direction of enquiry Future

In cohort studies first we will identify the reference population. From this we will
select study population. From the study population we formulate two cohorts based
on exposure to the risk factor (or characteristic). The selection is in such a way that
one cohort is exposed to risk factor (study cohort). After the follow-up period (10-20
years) is over we analyze the data and find how many persons in the exposed cohort
developed disease and how many people in not exposed group developed disease.
c. Retrospective cohort study design (or historical cohort)
A historical cohort study is one in which the outcome has already occurred before the
start of the study. The essential difference between this and case control study is,
here we are not selecting the cases and control, we are selecting only an exposed
group and not exposed group retrospectively (in the past). Here the researcher goes
back in time (10 – 20 yrs) to select his study group and control group and control
group from the available records (past employment records or medical records etc.,).
Then traces them, forward through the time usually up to present for the outcome.

Pat Present
O o

Starting point of exposure Start in time of study

01.01.1980 01.01.2000

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 So here we pick up cohorts (exposure cohort and control cohort) in 1980 and follow
them up to 2000 (present)

1. Design of retrospective prospective cohort study

In prospective cohort study the investigator should be present from the beginning of
the study. With retrospective prospective cohort study we can get the benefits of
cohort study without our continuous presence throughout the study period.

2. Exploratory research design

The purpose of exploratory research design is “identifying the formulating a
research problem” for more precise investigation (i.e., development of hypothesis). So
here more emphasis is laid on discovery of new ideas and insights.

The exploratory designs are

1. Survey concerning literature: It is the simplest method. Hypothesis formulated by
earlier workers is reviewed and evaluated for their usefulness. In cases where
hypothesis has not yet been formulated the researcher will review the available
literature and derive a new hypothesis.
2. Experience surveys: It is the survey of people who had practical experience with the
problem to be studied. Here the objective is to obtain insight into the problem. So
the researchers who are capable of understanding about the matter he is studying.
3. Insight simulating study: This is the intensive study of selective phenomenon. For
this purpose, the researcher may examine the existing records. He may formulate
unstructured interview to get insight into the problem.
Example
Study of behavior of criminal, study of individuals who are in transition phase
from one stage to another, behavior of individuals of different socio – economic strata
etc.

15. REPORT WRITING

The most important step in research process is report writing. Once all e
research work is completed and analysis is done then the report writing will start.

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The following are the important steps involved in report writing:

1. Logical analysis of collected data: First the collected data should be

analyzed and this should be kept in logical order. It is the arrangement of
material from the simple possible to the most complex structures.
2. Preparation of the rough draft: Now the researcher sits and writes down
what he has done in the context of his study. These include:
A. Procedures adopted by him
B. Limitations faced by him
C. Technique of analysis adopted by him
D. His findings
E. Generalizations
F. Various suggestions he wants to offer

3. Rewriting and polishing: This step needs more time, more patience and
more knowledge. A careful revision of the draft is advised, followed by
rewriting and polishing. One should check the report for weaknesses. If
possible, recheck by one colleague is advised. He should check for spellings,
grammar mistakes and usage.
4. Writing the final draft: This is the last step. The final draft should be
concise, simple in language, objective in style and avoid vague expressions.
The researcher must avoid abstract terminology. The final draft includes
three sections:

SECTION I (preliminary pages)

A. Title pages (includes title, preface, foreword, acknowledgements)
B. Table of contents
C. Summary (introduction, principal findings, conclusions and
Recommendations)
SECTION II (main text)
A. Introduction
B. Objectives of the study

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 C. Methodology
D. Findings
E. Limitations
F.Conclusions and recommendations

SECTION III (end matter).

A. Appendices
B. Copy of questionnaire
C. Other relevant details

TITLE PAGES
The title is a descriptive sentence stating the exact topic of report. For
description of qualitative research the title should inform the reader about the
groups being studied and the characteristics being reported.

Example for descriptive title:

"A study of family planning in slum dwellers". In causal
research, usually the title is:
1. Y as a function of X
Ex: "Measurement of proteinuria in diabetic patients".
2. The effect of X upon Y
Ex: "Effect of single dose ciprofloxacin in the treatment of gonorrhea".
Thus, in experimental studies Y is the dependent variable (being measured) and
X is the independent variable (being manipulated). In general, title should be
concise and informative, enabling a prospective reader to identify the nature of
the investigation. Immediately below the title should appear the names of the
investigators and their affiliation. Preface, foreword and acknowledgements
follow title page.

Table of contents
Table of contents should indicate the organization of the report by listing
various chapters and their page numbers. This should be followed by a list of

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tables and illustrations.

Abstract
Abstract is a short (not more than 250 words) description of entire report.
The purpose is a general overview of your communication. So the report should
begin with a brief summary of the findings of the study, followed by conclusions
and recommendations. In the report theses points should be discussed in detail.
Thus the abstract should provide enough details in order to decide
whether or not the article is of interest. Perhaps this is the most difficult part and
needs more concentration and skill. This is because of its precise nature and
needs to select catchy and interest creating points.

An abstract should include

1. A brief statement about previous findings which led us to conduct the present
research.
2. The hypothesis and aims of our research.
3. Methodologies including subjects, apparatus and procedures.
4. Lastly, the conclusions.

Main text of the study

Main text of the study contains complete research report. Title of the
research study is repeated at the top of the first page of the main text. It should
be kept in our mind that, each main section of the report should begin on a new
page. Sections of main text are:
1. Introduction
2. Objectives of the study
3. Methodology
4. Findings
5. Limitations
6. Conclusions
7. Recommendation

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 Introduction: The purpose of the introduction is to discuss the
background of the research project and explanation of the nature of the problem.
A good introduction will set the stage for hypothesis being tested. It should do
this by discussing the theoretical background of the problem under consideration
and evaluating the relevant research done previously. The introduction thus
serves as a link between the past and present.
A good introduction starts out by making a few general statements about
the field of research, leading down logically to a narrow and specific statement
of the aim or hypothesis. Introduction will provide a total picture of the research
topic, purpose of the study, previous position (i.e., any research done or not) and
how the research results will be utilized.
The last paragraph of introduction should state the precise aims and the
hypothesis being investigated.
Objectives of the study: This section consists of a statement of the
objective of the research project. Objectives must be established at all levels.
At higher level the objectives are general and at lower level they are more
specific. It the research has been done at the behest of any organizations, then
this section also consists of a statement of the frame of reference which was
given to the researcher at the inception of the study.
Methodology: The purpose of this section is to inform the reader of how
the investigation was carried out. A description of methodology tells the reader
about the technical aspects of the study. It tells him what should be done to
solve the problem. It is important to remember that the methodology section
should contain enough details to enable another researcher to replicate it.
Conventionally three subsections are used to explain methodology.
These are (1) Subjects, (2) Apparatus, and (3) Procedure
1. Subjects: In connection with subjects three questions needs answers. These
are (1) Who were they, (2) How many were there, (3) How they were
selected. Specific information must be given concerning the subjects are
results may vary form one sample to another.
2. Apparatus: A description of all equipment including questionnaires used in

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 the research. If the apparatus is commercially available, provide the reader
with the manufacture’s name and commercial identification of the
equipment. On the other hand, if the equipment was privately made, provide
the reader with enough information to allow replication.
3. Procedure: Once again, this section should provide enough information for
other researchers to replicate our investigation details of how the research
was carried out, how subjects were assigned to groups, how many subjects
per group, experimental procedure and a description of how the data was
collected. In a sense, the methodology section can be compared to a “Cook
Book” the subsection of “Subjects” is equivalent to “Ingredients” the
apparatus subsection is equivalent to “Equipment necessary for cooking” and
subsection of “Procedures” is equivalent to “Cooking”.
Then the methodology should include calculation of sample size, and
sampling method used. It also includes how the data was collected, what
were the techniques used, whether “Pilot study” (or pretesing) was done or
not. It should also include “method of testing the hypothesis” whether the
study is descriptive in nature or experimental in nature; if it is experimental
in nature, how was the independent variable manipulated.

Findings: This is the main body of the report. This section presents the
findings of the investigation and draws attention to points of interest. Raw data
and statistical calculation are not presented in this section. Rather we use the
principal of descriptive and inferential statistics to present the analyzed and
summarized data and supporting data in the form of tables and charts. All the
results should be presented in logical sequence and split into readily identifiable
sections. All relevant results must find a place in the report and the graphs and
tables correctly identified.
The findings of the study should be organized in a way that makes it easy
for the readers to grasp them. An explanatory report (inferential report) may be
written according to any one of the three models, namely:
1. Hypothesis testing

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 2. Focused argument
3. Structural model

Hypothesis testing
The report of such a study can be compact and direct. It may begin by
stating the hypothesis. It may then describe the methods used to present the
data. Finally judge the validity of the hypothesis in the light of research results.
Focused argument
Another model for an explanatory report is the “legal brief” – to the
investigator the data may all seem to contribute to a single conclusion and to
support a single central proposition. The researcher must present doubts as
effectively as the presents supporting evidence. A focused argument is like legal
brief in its concern with a central issue and its examination of evidence. So, in
focused argument the researcher presents all relevant data, whether it favorable
or not.
Structural model
Perhaps the most difficult conceptual frame work to manage for the
presentation of quantitative data is one that proposes a structural (system like)
model of an institution that has been studied-school or hospital or neighborhood
and uses the data to support or illuminate this mode. A report of this sort might
first concern itself with structural aspects like, the number of personnel, their
positions, and their responsibilities, the goals and atmospheres of the system.
Limitations
We know that every study will have some limitations even if the study
was done very carefully. It is the duty of the researcher to state clearly about the
limitations of the study. This should be done not to show humility or one’s
technical competence, but rather to prevent the reader form taking too much or
too little from the findings. It is equally important to underline the scope of
further research. Thus this section should deal with the possible bias and non –
response. We should explain about the sources and types of biases, their
problem reasons, and effects. There should also be an analysis of the number,

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characteristic, and reasons of non – response and substitutions. The reader
should be told how theses are related to differences in culture, demographic
characteristics, distances, and modes of transport, terrain, climate, callback
attempts and motivational efforts of interviewers.

Discussion and conclusion

This section restates the aim of the investigation and discusses results
with reference to the aim of experimental hypothesis stated in the introduction
our expectations and how the present results relate to previous research. It is
important to remember that one experiment in isolation cannot make or break a
theory. Thus the discussion should connect the findings with similar studies and
especially with the theory underlying such studies. If unexpected results were
obtained, possible reasons for the outcome (such as faulty design and controls)
should be discussed. By this, the discussion will point the way to further
problems, which remain to be solved. Unconstructive, negative or unimportant
criticism should be avoided, so that the report does not end with long discussions
of possible reasons for the outcome. Brief, concise discussion is more
appropriate. In the conclusion, usually the last paragraph of the discussion
section will summarize our main findings and make suggestions concerning
further research. Here we will try to generalize our findings to the related
phenomena.
Recommendations
The recommendations consist of statements which have implications for
the policy and decision – makers.

End Matter
Appendices: The final section of the report should be appendices items
that will appeal to only a few readers or that may be needed only for additional
reference should be combined into an appendix. Details of the sampling plan,
detailed statistical tables, and copies of questionnaires employed in the study and
similar items generally belong to this section.

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