OLOGI C
GE A
la serena
Massive Iron Oxide-Apatite (IOA) Deposit Formation by
Efficient Flotation of Magmatic Magnetite Suspensions: A
Genetic Link Between IOA and IOCG Deposits?
1, * 2 2
Martin Reich , Jaayke Knipping , Adam Simon , Fernando Barra , Laura Bilenker , Rodrigo Munizaga
1
Department of Geology and Andean Geothermal Center of Excellence (CEGA), Universidad de Chile, Santiago
2
Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, US
3
Compañía Minera del Pacífico (CMP), Brasil N 1050, Vallenar, Región de Atacama 1610000, Chile
*Contact email: mreich@ing.uchile.cl
Abstract. The link between iron oxide-apatite (IOA, or
“Kiruna-type”) and iron oxide-copper-gold (IOCG) deposits
remains controversial. Based on geochemical and isotopic
data of magnetite from the Los Colorados IOA deposit in
northern Chile, we report compelling evidence for a change
from purely magmatic to magmatic-hydrothermal conditions
that agrees with the proposed model in which IOAs may
represent the deeper roots of some Andean IOCG systems.
Our proposed model invokes efficient concentration of
magnetite that takes place by buoyant segregation of early-
formed magmatic magnetite-bubble pairs, followed by high-
temperature hydrothermal magnetite formation, driven by
decompression. These results suggest a link to mafic-
intermediate magmas and are indicative that IOA deposits
can source Fe-Cu-Au-rich fluids that according to
experimental studies, can migrate and cool to form IOCG
mineralization at shallower levels in the crust.
Keywords: IOA, Kiruna-type, IOCG, magnetite, flotation
1 Introduction
Iron oxide-apatite (IOA) and iron oxide-copper-gold
(IOCG) deposits are of economic interest due to their
mineable amounts of magnetite and/or hematite and/or
variable amounts of Cu, Au, REE, P, U, Ag and Co
(Barton, 2014). While IOCG deposits are mostly thought
to be formed by hydrothermal processes mainly due to a
lack of clear igneous correlation, the origin of IOA or
Kiruna-type deposits remains controversial. Some authors
invoke a hydrothermal origin, which can be either a non-
magmatic surface derived fluid that scavenges Fe from
surrounding dioritic plutons and metasomatically replaces
volcanic rocks (Menard, 1995; Barton and Johnson, 2004;
Sillitoe and Burrows, 2002), or a magmatic-hydrothermal
fluid that sources Fe directly from magmas (Pollard, 2006).
A third hypothesis invokes liquid immiscibility between a
Fe-, P-rich oxide melt and a conjugate Si-rich melt, with
coalescence, separation and crystallization of the Fe-, P-
rich oxide melt forming IOA deposits (Nyström and
Henríquez, 1994; Naslund et al., 2002). The first two
hypotheses allow the possibility for a genetic connection
between IOA and IOCG deposits, which have been
observed within the same district (Sillitoe, 2003), whereas
the third hypothesis distinguishes completely IOA deposits
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from IOCG deposits sensu stricto. A major challenge to
testing these hypotheses seems to be the need to peel back
layers of metasomatism that possibly obscure the original
chemistry of the deposits. In this study, we combine high-
precision Fe and O isotope data with chemical analyses of
magnetite grains to peel back these layers in the world-
class Los Colorados IOA deposit. Based on these data, we
propose a new model (Knipping et al., in press) that
explains the observed coexisting purely magmatic and
hydrothermal-magmatic features at Los Colorados and
allows a genetic connection between Kiruna-type IOA and
IOCG deposits.
2 Samples
Samples from two drill cores were collected from the Los
Colorados (LC) IOA deposit, in the Chilean Iron Belt,
which hosts more than 40 IOA deposits in the Coastal
Range of northern Chile. All the deposits occur within the
southern segment of the Atacama Fault System. The LC
deposit (350 Mt Fe) hosts two parallel, magnetite-rich
(>90 modal %) dikes that measure 1500 m strike, 150 m
wide, and ~500 m deep (total). The West dike contains
~63% total iron and the East dike ~55% total iron. The
dikes are bounded on the west by a fault and the east by a
brecciated zone, which contains ~25% total iron. LC is
Cretaceous in age, and hosted in igneous rocks of the
Punta del Cobre Formation.
3 Results
3.1 High precision Fe and O isotopes
We report stable Fe and O isotope pairs for magnetite
samples from two drill cores of the LC deposit. The
resulting δ56Femgt values range from 0.09‰ to 0.24‰
(average δ56Femgt = 0.17‰ ± 0.05‰ [2 σ]) and
δ18Omgt values range from 1.92‰ to 3.17‰ (average
δ18Omgt = 2.60‰ ± 0.04‰ [2 σ]. The Fe and O isotope
compositions of magnetite at LC overlap those of
magnetite precipitated from a silicate melt or magmatic-
hydrothermal aqueous fluid, reported in the literature (i.e.,
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 AT 2 geología económica y recursos naturales
δ56Femgt: 0.06‰ to 0.5‰, and δ18Omgt: from 1.0‰ to 4.0‰,
Heimann et al., 2008). The data also overlap the Fe and O
isotope signature of magnetite from the Kiruna district
(Jonsson et al., 2013), and eliminate a purely low-
temperature hydrothermal origin for the Fe ore at LC.
3.2 High resolution magnetite geochemistry
To distinguish between purely igneous and magmatic-
hydrothermal signatures that are merged as “magmatic” in
the previous section, high-resolution trace element
analyses were performed on individual magnetite grains.
Electron microprobe analyzer (EMPA) data of most
magnetite grains from the center of the western dike and
its border zone indicate a high-T magmatic origin
(porphyry type) according to discrimination diagrams
([Ti+V] vs. [Al+Mn]) of Dupuis and Beaudoin (2011) and
Nadoll et al. (2014) (Fig. 1). However, some magnetite
grains are zoned with euhedral cores rich in silicate
inclusions (Type 1) within a less porous magnetite matrix
(Type 2), which can be surrounded by a third generation of
porous magnetite (Type 3). The compositions of the
magnetite cores (Type 1) are consistent with Ti-rich
magnetite in nelsonites, which are thought to form by
purely magmatic processes, while Type 2 magnetite has a
high-T magmatic-hydrothermal fluid signature (porphyry
field) (Fig. 1). Only samples distal from the dike center or
distal from the grain cores (i.e., late growth zones) have
(Ti+V) and (Al+Mn) as low as expected for magnetite of
the Kiruna field (Type 3 magnetite).
The chemical patterns are therefore best interpreted to
reflect a change from purely magmatic to magmatic-
hydrothermal conditions during crystallization of the LC
magnetite.
Figure 1. [Ti+V] versus [Al+Mn] diagram show the distribution
of LC magnetite samples, as measured by EMPA (dark grey:
center of the dike; light grey: distal from the dike center). The
green star shows the average composition of magnetite. Fields
after Dupuis and Beaudoin (2011) and Nadoll et al. (2014).
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4 A new model for IOA deposits: flotation
of magmatic magnetite suspensions
The LC magnetite records a transition from purely
magmatic conditions (Type 1) to high-T magmatic-
hydrothermal conditions (Type 2) with decreasing T (Type
3). This compositional change suggests that the formation
of the LC magnetite ore resulted from a sequence of events
involving a melt and a magmatic-hydrothermal fluid.
Our model invokes hydrous, oxidized arc-magmas, where
magnetite is often the liquidus phase at 200 MPa (Fig. 2A).
This magmatic magnetite is enriched in elements such as
Ti, V, Mn, Al and Ga, consistent with Type 1 magnetite
cores. The exsolving magmatic-hydrothermal fluid prefers
to nucleate bubbles initially on mineral surfaces, and thus
crystallizing magnetite promotes water supersaturation.
The attachment of bubbles is energetically favored on
magnetite microlites, and magnetite-bubble pairs form.
The total density of these pairs is less than the surrounding
melt, allowing magnetite-bubble pairs to ascend (Fig. 2B).
During ascent, the magnetite-bubble pairs are able to
“sweep up” other magnetite microlites becoming a rising
suspension rich in primary magnetite (Fig. 3C). Since H2O
saturation is followed by significant partitioning of Cl into
the fluid phase, the exsolving fluid will become Cl-rich
which in turn has the ability to scavenge from silicate melt
up to several wt% Fe as FeCl2 (Simon et al., 2004) (Fig.
3C). The originally igneous magnetite can continue to
grow by sourcing Fe from the magnetite-fluid suspension,
and this magnetite is expected to have a chemical signature
consistent with magmatic-hydrothermal magnetite.
In fact, the lack of Na and K alteration that is common in
magmatic-hydrothermal IOCG deposits (Barton, 2014) can
also be explained at LC by magnetite growth from a highly
saline brine instead from a low salinity vapor. It has been
shown experimentally that with decompression the
solubility of Na and K increase in the brine phase at 800°C
while iron solubility slightly decreases (Simon et al.,
2004). Consequently, Fe precipitation from brine would be
possible in the pressure range of the estimated paleodepth
of Los Colorados (3-4 km ~145-110 MPa) without the
formation of simultaneous K- and Na-rich minerals during
adiabatic decompression, in contrast to low salinity vapor.
The tectonic stress change in the back-arc setting, which
was responsible for generating the Atacama Fault System
(AFS) during the late Lower Cretaceous, may have created
hydraulic fractures that served as conduits for the ascent of
suspensions into the overlying crust. This explains the
efficient fluid transport and precipitation of massive
magnetite as dikes (Fig. 2D) instead of a less efficient
segregation such as magnetite-rich enclaves observed in
andesitic volcanoes (e.g., Soufrière Hills, Edmonds et al.,
2014). According to model calculations of Knipping et al.
(in press) a magma chamber size with 50 km3 would be
sufficient to supply enough water and iron to create a

deposit such as Los Colorados (~350 Mt Fe) even with a
depositional efficiency of only 50% iron. This volume is in
the range of typical arc volcano magma chambers (~4-60
km3) and similar to estimated caldera sizes of extrusive
IOA deposits (~30 km2; El Laco, Chile).
Figure 2. (A) Bubble nucleation on primary igneous magnetite;
(B) ascent of bubble-magnetite pairs due to positive buoyancy;
(C) further ascent and coalescence of primary magnetite as well
as scavenging of Fe into the high-salinity fluids; (D) formation of
hydraulic fractures (due to tectonic stress changes) allowing
efficient segregation growth of hydrothermal magnetite.
5 A genetic link between IOAs and IOCGs?
Our new model accounts for the observed geochemical
features of magnetites at LC and the lack of Na and K
alteration, and can potentially support a genetic link
between IOA and IOCG deposits. Iron concentration of a
Cl-rich aqueous fluid decreases slightly during
decompression (Simon et al., 2004), while concentrations
of Na and K strongly increase, allowing for magnetite
precipitation without simultaneous Na and K
mineralization. However, owing to retrograde solubility of
metals such as Fe, Cu, and Au, the magmatic-hydrothermal
fluid that precipitates magnetite will continue transporting
significant amounts of dissolved Fe (plus Cu, Au) after
IOA deposition. Further ascent and cooling promotes the
precipitation of Cu-sulfides at T<420°C and at shallow
levels within the crust, as observed for IOCG deposits.
This is consistent with the proposed model in which IOA
deposits represent the deeper roots of IOCG systems (e.g.,
Sillitoe, 2003), and may therefore be a step toward a
systematic formation model for IOCG deposits.
Acknowledgements
Martin Reich and Fernando Barra acknowledge funding
from the MSI “Millennium Nucleus for Metal Tracing
Along Subduction” NC130065, FONDECYT grant
#1140780 and FONDAP grant 15090013. We thank CAP
geologist Mario Lagos for his help during fieldwork.
SIM 3 DEPÓSITOS DE TIPO IOCG DE LOS ANDES
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