Dokumen - Pub Mechanical Operations 0070700222 9780070700222

Anup Kumar Swain is presently Assistant Professor,
Department of Chemical Engineering at Gandhi Institute

of Engineering and Technology, Gunupur, Odisha. He
obtained his BE degree from Utkal University, Odisha,
in 1999 and ME from The M S University of Baroda,
Gujarat, in 2003. He has one year of research expe-
rience at Bayer ABS Ltd., Gujarat and nine years of
teaching experience at various levels in engineering
colleges of Odisha. He has published six papers in
national and international journals and is a life member
of Indian Institute of Chemical Engineers and Indian
Society for Technical Education. His research interests
include adsorptive removal of organics from industrial waste water using low-cost
adsorbents, and synthesis and characterisation of polymers. His subjects of interest
include mechanical operations, polymer technology, mass transfer operations, fluid
mechanics, and chemical process calculations.
Hemalata Patra is presently Assistant Professor,

Department of Chemical Engineering at Gandhi Institute
of Engineering and Technology, Gunupur, Odisha.
She obtained her BE degree from Utkal University,
Odisha, in 1999. She is currently pursuing PhD from the
Ceramic Engineering Department of National Institute
of Technology, Rourkela and has nine years of teaching
experience at various levels in engineering colleges of
Odisha. She has published five papers in national and
international journals, has also attended five short-term
courses and presented four papers in national-level con-
ferences. Her subjects of interest include mechanical operations, mass transfer opera-
tions, fluid mechanics, and ceramic materials. Her research interests include solid
oxide fuel cell (SOFC) materials.
Gopendra Kishore Roy is presently Professor,
Department of Chemical Engineering at National
Institute of Technology, Rourkela. He obtained his BSc
(Chemical Engineering) degree from Banaras Hindu
University, in 1966, MTech from IIT Kharagpur in
1971, and PhD from Sambalpur University in 1975. He
was the Principal (of erstwhile Regional Engineering
College, Rourkela) and thereafter the Director of the
Institute from October 2001 to May 2003. He has over
43 years of teaching and research experience with
authorship of more than 125 research publications and
six books. He was post-doctoral fellow at the University of Karsruhe, Germany,
during 1977–78 and represented developing countries in an international confer-
ence on Chemical Engineering Education in London in June 1978. He received
Sir Gangaram Memorial Award (1974) and certificates of merit (1978, 1984, and
1998) of the Institution of Engineers (India) for his publications in the institutional
journal, DAAD Award (1993), and the Indian Institute of Public Health Engineers
Award (1994). He has been honoured as a renowned engineer of the state of Odisha
by the Rourkela Local Centre (2002) and the Odisha State Centre (2007) of the
Institution of Engineers (India). He is a recipient of the Samanta Chandra Sekhar
Award (2005) of the Department of Science and Technology, Government of
Odisha. He is a fellow of Indian Institute of Chemical Engineers, the Institution
of Engineers (India), and the Institution of Public Health Engineers, India. He is
a life member of the Indian Society for Technical Education, Indian Institute of
Metals, Indian Computer Society, and Indian Ceramic Society, and also a Chartered
Engineer (India). On invitation, he presented a paper in the 17th International
Conference of Chemical and Process Engineering held in Prague, Czech Republic,
during August 2006. In addition to Germany, UK, and the Czech Republic, he has
visited France, Switzerland, Italy and Scotland.
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Mechanical Operations
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The McGraw-Hill Companies
Kamini Kumar Swain
and
Annapurna Swain
Anup Kumar Swain
Gayadhar Patra
and
Sukantilata Patra
Hemalata Patra
Late Aditya Prasanna Marhual

and
Late Shailalata Marhual
Gopendra Kishore Roy
Foreword xii
Preface xiii
Acknowledgements xv
1. Introduction 1
1.1 Unit Operations 2
1.2 Unit Systems 3
Nomenclature 9
2. Properties and Storage of Solids 11

2.1 Characterisation of Solid Particles 12
2.2 Solids in Bulk 22
Points to Remember 27
Short Questions with Answers 29
Review Questions 30
Exercise Problems 30
Objective Questions with Answers 31
Nomenclature 32
3. Size Reduction of Solids 34

3.1 Objectives of Size Reduction 35
3.2 Size-Reduction Methods 35
3.3 Principles of Size Reduction 37
3.4 Size-Reduction Equipments 48
3.5 Coarse Crushers 50
3.6 Intermediate Crushers 64
3.7 Fine Crushers (Grinders) 71
3.8 Ultra-Fine Grinders 78
3.9 Effective Methods for Operating Size-Reduction Equipments 81
Review Questions 88
Objective Questions 89
Nomenclature 91
4. Separation of Solids: Introduction 93

4.1 Separation Processes 94
Review Questions 97
Objective Questions 97
5. Solid–Solid Separation 99
5.1 Screening 100
5.2 Electrical Separation 138
5.3 Classification with Water 150
5.4 Gravity Concentration 159
5.5 Floatation 166
Review Questions 175
Nomenclature 178
6. Solid-Liquid Separation 179

6.1 Terminologies 180
6.2 Sedimentation (Thickening and Clarification) 180
6.3 Equipments (Thickeners and Clarifiers) 190
6.4 Filtration 197
Nomenclature 228
7. Gas-Solid Separation 231

7.1 Gas-Cleaning Equipments 232
Nomenclature 247
8. Transportation of Solids 248

8.1 Transportation Equipment 249
Nomenclature 263
9. Mixing of Solids 265

9.1 Liquid Mixing 266
9.2 Solid Mixing 270
9.3 Mixing Equipment 274
Nomenclature 285
10. Auxiliary Operations 287

10.1 Size Enlargement 288
10.2 Crystallisation 295
10.3 Feeding 299
10.4 Weighing 305
10.5 Coagulation and Flocculation 306
Nomenclature 311
Appendix–I 313
Appendix–II 314
Appendix–III 315
References 317
Web References 318
Index 319
It gives me immense pleasure in introducing the first title of Tata McGraw Hill
Education Private Limited on Mechanical Operations. I take this opportunity to con-
gratulate the authors as well as the publisher for this.
Whether the industry is related to Chemical, Ceramic, Metallurgical, Mining,
Pharmacy, or Biotechnology, Mechanical Operations find its applications wherever
solids are handled. Various mechanical operations are transportation, feeding, weigh-
ing, storage, size reduction, size separation, and mixing. The study of these opera-
tions is important since the handling of solids by any of these operations is more
difficult compared to liquids and gases, because, gases and liquids do not have their
own shape and size rather they take the shape of the container, whereas solids have a
definite shape and size.
Thus, the need for a good textbook is highly essential. In different unit opera-
tions and mineral processing books, only scattered information are available on this
subject. This book is simple and syllabus compatible. The whole of the contents are
written keeping in mind the present industrial practices. Figures of a large number of
recent industrial equipments obtained from world-class manufacturers are included
with their permission. A large number of numerical examples with solution have
been incorporated in each of the chapters to explain the concept more clearly. In
addition, each chapter contains review questions and short and multiple choice ques-
tions with answers which are unique to the present title. I am sure this book will be
able to fill the void and will meet the needs of the students (Chemical, Ceramic,
Metallurgical, Mining, Pharmacy, and Biotechnology), practising engineers as well
as the subject teachers.
I wish the authors all the best and the book all the success.
V K Srivastava
President
Indian Institute of Chemical Engineers
Mechanical Operations are those unit operations of Chemical Engineering, which
involve mechanical forces, either small or large. These mainly deal with the handling
and processing of the solids and the solids present in other phases.
Generally, solids are more difficult to handle and process than liquids and gases,
because gases and liquids do not have their own shape and size; rather they take the
shape of the container. In contrast, solids have a definite shape and size, due to which
their handling becomes difficult. For example, liquids and gases can easily be trans-
ported through pipes from one place to another, but for solids we have to decide the
means according to their shape and size.
Mechanical Operations are broadly classified in the following ways:
(i) Particulate Solids Characterisation of solids, Handling of solids (Trans-
portation, Feeding, Weighing, and Storage), Size reduction, and Size
separation
(ii) Particle Dynamics Sedimentation, Filtration, Elutriation, Classification
(iii) Mixing Mixing of solids with solids, Mixing of cohesive solids and Mixing
of liquids
Mechanical operations play an important role in every kind of chemical process
industries. They also find major applications in mineral processing, ceramic, and
metallurgical industries.
In spite of a volume of scattered information available on this subject in different
unit operations and mineral processing books, no single textbook comprising the
various aspects is available. Keeping this in mind, the present title on Mechanical
Operations is being brought out.
The special feature of this book is that the whole of the content has been written
keeping in view the present shop-floor practices. Also, the figures of a large number
of recent industrial equipments obtained from world-class manufacturers over the
globe are included with their permission. Photographs to depict the equipments used
in real life in various separation processes are also given.
Numerical examples with solutions, totalling to over 45, have been incorporated
in each chapter to explain the concepts more clearly. In addition, the excellent peda-
gogy includes 135 Solved Conceptual Questions, 135 Review Questions, 40 Exercise
Problems and over 100 Multiple Choice Questions with answers which are unique to the
present title. In the forthcoming editions, we plan to include other related chapters.
The text is being proposed keeping in view the syllabus followed by various Indian
universities, which we hope will be of much help to the students (Chemical, Ceramic,
Metallurgical, Mining, Pharmacy, and Biotechnology), practising engineers as well
as to the subject teachers.
The book is organised in ten chapters. Chapter 1 is an introductory one and describes
the brief history of chemical engineering, concept of unit operations, and the importance
of mechanical operations. This also includes the unit system and the various dimen-
sionless groups. In Chapter 2, the properties and storage of solids have been given. In
this chapter, properties like shape, size, storage and flow of bulk-solids are discussed.
Chapter 3 is about size reduction of solids and describes the importance of size
reduction, actions involved, and parameters affecting size reduction; power and
energy relation with crushing efficiencies; and the recent industrial size-reduction
equipments. Chapter 4 is an introductory chapter on size separation of solids and
summarizes various separation processes and the types of separation equipments
available to separate solids from different phases. The separation of solids from solids
both in dry state (screening and electrical separation) and wet state (classification,
gravity concentration, and froth floatation) and also the recent industrial equipments
have been discussed in Chapter 5. Chapter 6 deals with solid-liquid separation
and describes the theory and equipments of sedimentation (thickening and clarifi-
cation) and filtration. In Chapter 7, the principles of gas-solid separation have been
discussed and the various gas-solid separators including air classifiers have been
described. Chapter 8 deals with the transportation of solids and discusses the equip-
ments like conveyors and elevators. The mixing of solids along with the theory of
liquid and solid mixing has been given in Chapter 9. Various solid, liquid, and viscous
mixers are also discussed. In Chapter 10, some auxiliary mechanical operations
like size enlargement by agglomeration, crystallization, coagulation, feeding, and
weighing have been briefly dealt with.
The Web Supplements can be accessed at http://www.mhhe.com/swain/mo and
contain the Solution Manual and PowerPoint lecture slides for Instructors and, Web
Links for additional readings are given for Students.
We have tried to contact most of the owners of copyrighted materials. However,
we offer our apology to any copyright holder whose rights we may have unwittingly
infringed.
In spite of our best efforts, some errors might have crept in to the book. Report
of any such errors and suggestions for improving the book are welcome and will be
gratefully acknowledged.
In case of any query, readers are requested to feel free to contact us at
anup.k.swain@gmail.com, hemalata2020@gmail.com and gkroyster@gmail.com.
Anup Kumar Swain

Hemalata Patra
Publisher's Note
Tata McGraw-Hill invites comments, views and suggestions from readers, all of
which can be sent to tmh.chemfeedback@gmail.com. “Feel free to report any piracy
spotted by you as well!!”
We are extremely grateful to the following companies and individuals for providing
text, illustrations, images, data, and suggestions for this book and giving their per-
mission to reproduce copyrighted materials.
1. Pennsylvania Crusher Corporation, USA

2. Outotec Oyj., Finland
(Eila Paatela, Anna-Kaisa Varamaki, Misty Dobbins, Timo Nore)
3. Ronald Gill Associates, UK
(Ron Gill)
4. M/S Hosokawa Micron India Pvt. Ltd., India
(V Manjula)
5. JOEST Australia Pvt. Ltd., Australia
(Steve Clifford)
6. Eriez Manufacturing Company, USA
(Partha Venkatraman, Dave Heubel, Rob Yandrick)
7. Metso Minerals Inc.
(Jarmo Eloranta, Tuulikki Oittinen, Eero Hamalainen, Kevin Moore, Janne
Rannanpaa, Marja-Liisa Jarvinen)
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9. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., USA
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10. Vedanta Aluminium Ltd., India
(Mukesh Kumar)
11. John Thixton, Australia
(Inventor of the Supaflo High Rate Thickener)
12. M/S Amar Equipments Pvt. Ltd., India
(Avinash Mukundan)
13. Orissa Sponge Iron and Steel Limited, India
(S C Khattoi, Asaman Prasad Patnaik)
14. FLSmidth A/S, Denmark
(Sudhir Kamath, Shomeet Pattanayak)
15. Unique Mixers and Furnaces Pvt. Ltd., India
(Jayesh Tekchandaney)
16. M/S IKA Werke GmbH & Co. KG., Germany
(Daniel Loeffler, Frauke Muller)
17. Hosokawa Bepex GmbH, Germany
(Werner Bakela)
18. Sturtevant, Inc., USA
(Michelle Smith, Joseph Muscolino)
19. Pampa Enterprises, India
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20. Haver & Boecker OHG, Germany
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21. IKA India Private Limited, India
(Usha Rani)
22. Elsevier
(Sam Mahfoudh)
We express our heartfelt thanks to the following reviewers for their valuable sug-
gestions for the improvement of the book.
1. Timo Nore, Outotec Oyj., Finland, for Chapters 5 and 6
2. V Manjula, M/S Hosokawa Micron India Pvt. Ltd., India for Chapter 3
3. Jarmo Eloranta and Janne Rannanpaa, Metso Minerals Inc. for Chapters 2, 3,
5, 8, and 10
4. Sandeep Bhattacharjee, Sandvik Mining and Construction, Sweden for
Chapters 3 and 5
5. Sudhir Kamath, FLSmidth A/S, Denmark for Chapters 2, 5, 6, and 8
6. Jayesh Tekchandaney, Unique Mixers & Furnaces Pvt. Ltd., India, for
Chapter 9
7. Frauke Muller, M/S IKA Werke GmbH & Co. KG., Germany for Chapter 9
8. Werner Bakela, Hosokawa Bepex GmbH, Germany for Chapter 10
9. Michelle Smith and Joseph Muscolino, Sturtevant, Inc., USA for Chapter 7
10. Walter Haver, Haver & Boecker OHG, Germany for Chapter 5
11. Usha Rani, IKA India Private Limited, India for Chapter 9
Besides the above, we would also like to thank the reviewers commissioned by the
publisher. Their names are given below.
K K Pant
Indian Institute of Technology (IIT), New Delhi
Ashish M Gujrathi
Birla Institute of Technology and Science (BITS), Pilani, Rajasthan
Sunil Kumar Maity
National Institute of Technology (NIT), Rourkela, Odisha
Gopinath Halder
Indian School of Mines (ISM), Dhanbad, Jharkhand
Somak Jyoti Sahu
Haldia Institute of Technology (HIT), Haldia, West Bengal
Z V P Murthy
Sardar Vallabhbhai National Institute of Technology (SVNIT), Surat, Gujarat
V Sivasubramanian
National Institute of Technology (NIT), Calicut, Kerala
Jayasankar E Variyar
Vellore Institute of Technology (VIT), Vellore, Tamil Nadu
K V Radha
A C College of Technology, Chennai, Tamil Nadu
Y Pydi Setty
National Institute of Technology (NIT), Warangal, Andhra Pradesh
We are obliged to Louis C Flanagan of Flanagan Advertising Inc., USA, for
providing materials of Pennsylvania Crusher Corporation, USA, and to Deepak Mehta
of Leevams Incorporated, India, for providing materials of Sturtevant Inc., USA.
We express our sincere thanks to S P Panda (Chairman), C D Panda (Secretary),
and N V J Rao (Dean—Administration) of Gandhi Group of Institutions, Gunupur,
Odisha and to S K Sarangi (Director, NIT, Rourkela) for their moral support.
A heartfelt note of thanks goes to the librarians of GIET, Gunupur, and NIT, Rourkela,
for their timely help and literature support. We are also thankful to Asaman Prasad
Patnaik of OSIL, India and to Pradeepta Kalia of TAL Manufacturing Solutions Ltd.,
India, for their valuable suggestions and timely help.
We also express our gratitude to Vibha Mahajan, Shalini Jha, Devshree Lohchab,
Surabhi Shukla, Sohini Mukherjee, Piyaray Lal Pandita, and to the entire team
of Tata McGraw Hill Education Private Limited for their constant support in bring-
ing out their first title on Mechanical Operations.
We are indebted to V K Srivastava (retired professor of IIT Delhi, India) President
of IIChE for graciously agreeing to write the Foreword for this book.
And last but not the least, we acknowledge the contribution of all our loved
ones—our parents, family members, and elders for their support, encouragement,
and blessing without which this work would not have been successful.
Anup Kumar Swain

Hemalata Patra
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A i in 1 15 in in 1 2
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i n n n A
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. .
Dr Arthur D Little first introduced the concept of unit operations in 1915. Broadly,
the unit operations are
Mechanical operations,
Fluid-flow operations,
Heat-transfer operations, and
Mass-transfer operations.
The present text covers mechanical operations — one of the unit operations
of chemical engineering, as it is not practicable to cover the entire unit operations of
chemical engineering under a single head due to its variety and complexity.
Mechanical operations are the unit operations of chemical engineering in which
mechanical forces, either small or large, are involved for the processing and handling
of solids as such and the solids present in other phases.
Generally, solids are more difficult to handle and process than liquids and gases.
This is because gases and liquids do not have their own shape and size; rather they
take the shape of the container; whereas solids have a definite shape and size, due to
which their handling becomes difficult. For example, liquids and gases can be easily
transported through pipes from one place to another, but for solids we have to decide
the means according to their shape and size. Also, of all the shapes and sizes that are
found in solids, the most important one from the chemical-engineering viewpoint is
the small-sized particles.
Thus, for a better understanding of the subject of mechanical operations, it is
broadly classified as the following:
Characterisation of solids, handling of solids (transporta-

tion, feeding, weighing, and storage), size separation/screening, size reduction
Sedimentation, filtration, fluidisation, elutriation
Mixing of solids, cohesive solids, and liquids
Mechanical operations play an important role in almost all chemical-process

industries. These also find major applications in the mineral processing and the
metallurgical industries.
Chemical engineers often find the various data expressed in four different units:
cgs, mks, fps, and SI. But the official international system of units is the SI system
(System International d Unites), which covers the entire field of science and engi-
neering and is widely accepted worldwide. Thus, it becomes necessary to be thorough
in the use of this system.
The various systems of units and the basic quantities associated with them are
given in Table 1.1.
Quantity System
cgs SI fps MKS
Mass, M gram kilogram pound kilogram
Length, L centimetre metre foot metre
Time, q second second second second
Force, F dyne newton poundal kilogram
force
Temperature, degree centigrade degree Kelvin degree fahrenheit degree
centigrade
Table 1.2 lists various basic SI units. Table 1.3 lists the various prefixes for the
SI system. Table 1.4 lists some constants while Table 1.5 lists important conversion
factors to SI units. Finally, to get the students acquainted with various dimensionless
quantities, they are presented in Table 1.6 with their formulae and significance.
Mass : Kilogram, kg
Length : Metre, m
Time : Second, s
Force : Newton, N
Energy : Joule, J
= Newton.Metre, N.m
Temperature : Kelvin, K
Mole : Kilogram mole, kmol
Factor Prefix Symbol

1012 tera T
109 giga G
106 mega M
103 kilo k
102 hecto h
101 deka da
10−1 deci d
10−2 centi c
10−3 milli m
10−6 micro m
10−9 nano n
10−12 pico p
Acceleration due to gravity, g = 9.81 m/s2

= 981 cm/s2
= 32.2 ft/s2
Gravitational conversion factor, gc = 1 kg.m/N.s2
= 1 g.cm/dyn.s2
= 981 g.cm/gmf.s2
= 32.2 lb.ft/lbf.s2
Molar volume of ideal gases at STP = 22.4 m3/kmol
(0°C, 1 std atm) = 22.4 l/gmol
= 359 ft3/lbmol
Gas constant, R = 8314 N.m/kmol.K
= 1.987 cal/gmol.K
= 0.7302 atm.ft3/lbmol.K
= 0.08205 atm.m3/kmol.K
Conversion from o Multiply by
Length, L
ft m 0.3048
in m 0.0254
cm m 0.01
Area, L2
ft2 m2 0.0929
in2 m2 6.452 × 10−4
cm2 m2 10−4
Volume, L3
ft3 m3 0.02832
cm3 m3 10−6
Volume, L3
l m3 10−3
US gal m3 3.785 × 10−3
UK gal m3 4.546 × 10−3
Specific area, L2/L3
ft2/ft3 m2/m3 3.2804
cm2/cm3 m2/m3 100
Velocity, L/q
ft/s m/s 0.3048
ft/h m/s 8.467 × 10−5
Acceleration, L/q 2
ft/s2 m/s2 0.3048
cm/s2 m/s2 0.01
Volume flow rate, L3/q
ft3/s m3/s 0.02832
cm3/s m3/s 10−6
l/s m3/s 10−3
Mass, M
lb kg 0.4536
Ton (short, 2000 lb) kg 907.2
Ton (long, 2240 lb) kg 1016
metric ton kg 1000
Density, M/L3
lb/ft3 kg/m3 16.019
g/cm3 kg/m3 = g/l 1000
lb/US gal kg/m3 119.8
Specific Volume, L3/M
ft3/lb m3/kg 0.0624
cm3/g m3/kg 0.001
Mass flow rate, M/q
lb/s kg/s 0.4536
lb/h kg/s 1.26 × 10− 4
(Continued )
Conversion from o Multiply by
Viscosity, M/Lq
lb/ft.s kg/m.s = N.s/m2 1.488
Poise (P) kg/m.s 0.1
cP kg/m.s 0.001
Mass flux, M/L2q
lb/ft2.h kg/m2.s 1.356 × 10−3
g/cm2.s kg/m2.s 10
Mass-transfer coefficient,
mole/L2 q (F/L2)
lb mol/ft2.h.atm kmol/m2.s.(N/m2) 1.338 × 10−8
lb mol/ft2.h.(lb mol/ft3) kmol/m2.s.(kmol/m3) 8.465 × 10−5
Force, F
lbf N 4.448
kgf N 9.807
dyn N 10−5
Surface tension, F/L
lbf /ft N/m = kg/s2 14.59
erg/cm2 N/m 10−3
dyn/cm N/m 10−3
Pressure, F/L2
lbf /ft2 N/m2 = Pa 47.88
atm N/m2 1.0133 × 105
in Hg N/m2 3386
in H2O N/m2 249.1
dyn/cm2 N/m2 10−1
mm Hg = torr N/m2 133.3
bar N/m2 105
kgf /cm2 N/m2 9.807 × 104
Work, Energy, Heat, FL
Btu N.m = J 1055
erg N.m 10−7
cal N.m 4.187
kW.h N.m 3.6 × 106
Enthalpy, FL/M
Btu/lb N.m/kg = J/kg 2326
cal/g N.m/kg 4187
Heat capacity, Specific heat,
FL/M
Btu/lb.°F N.m/kg.K = J/kg.K 4187
cal/g. °C N.m/kg.K 4187
Energy flux, FL/L2q
Btu/ft2.h N.m/m2.s = W/m2 3.155
cal/cm2.s N.m/m2.s 4.187 × 104
(Continued )
Conversion from To Multiply by
Thermal conductivity,
FL2/L2qT
Btu.ft/ft2.h.°F N.m/m.s.K = W/m.K 1.7307
cal.cm/cm2.s.°C N.m/m.s.K 418.7
kcal.m/m2.h.°C N.m/m.s.K 1.163
Heat transfer coefficient,
FL/L2qT
Btu/ft2.h.°F N.m/m2.s.K = W/m2.K 5.679
cal/cm2.s. °C N.m/m2.s.K 4.187 × 104
Power, FL/q
ft.lbf /s N.m/s = W 1.356
hp N.m/s 745.7
Btu/h N.m/s 0.2931
Name Symbol Formula Significance

Archimedes number, Ar g.r.L3 (Inertial forces × Buoyancy
( rp − r ) forces)/(Viscous forces)2
m2
Bingham number, Bm t y .L Yield stress/Viscous stress

m∞ .V
Biot number, BI h.Δ X Thermal resistance/Surface film

k resistance
Blake number, B V .r Inertial force/Viscous force
m (1 − ε ) s
Bond number, BO g .L2 ( rL − rG ) Gravitational force/Surface
s tension force
Brinkman number, Br m v2 Heat production by viscous

k ΔT dissipation /Heat transport by
conduction
Cauchy Number, C r .V 2 Inertial force/Compressibility
b force
Cavitation Number, s 2( p − pv ) Excess pressure above vapour

r .V 2 pressure/Velocity head
Colburn–Chilton j factor or 2 —
h ⎛ C .m ⎞ 3
. P
CP . r.V ⎜⎝ k ⎟⎠
heat-transfer factor, jH
(Continued )
Name & Symbol Formula Significance
Drag coefficient, CD 2FD Drag Force / (Projected area ×
A.r.V 2 Velocity head)
Eckert number, Ec v2 Flow s kinetic energy/Flow s

(Br /Pr) Cp ΔT enthalpy
Elasticity number, EI λ .m Elastic force/Inertial force

r.L2
Euler number, Eu Δp Friction pressure loss/Velocity

r.V 2 head
Fanning friction factor, f D.Δp Wall shear stress/Velocity head

2r.V 2 .L
Fourier number, FO a.t —
L2
Froude number, Fr V2 Inertial force/Gravitational
g .L force
Gratz number, Gz m.CP Thermal capacity/Convective

k .L heat transfer
Grashof number, Gr L3 .r 2 .g .β ′.ΔT Buoyancy force/Viscous force

m2
Knudsen number, Kn λ′ Length of mean free path/
L Characteristic dimension
Lewis Number, Le k α —
=
D ′.r.CP D ′
Mach Number, M V Fluid velocity/Sonic velocity
c
Mass-transfer factor, jM 2 —
kC ⎛ μ ⎞ 3
.
V ⎜⎝ r.D ′ ⎟⎠
Nusselt number, Nu hD Total heat transfer/Conductive

k heat transfer
Peclet number, Pe L.V ⎛ L.V ⎞ Convective transport/Diffusive
(Re × Pr or, Re × Sc) D ⎜⎝ or, α ⎟⎠ transport
Power number, Po P Drag force/Inertial force

r.N 3 .L5
Prandtl number, Pr C P .μ ⎛ ν⎞ Momentum diffusivity/Thermal
or,
k ⎜⎝ α ⎟⎠ diffusivity
(Continued )
Name & Symbol Formula Significance
Rayleigh number, Ra L3 .r 2 .g .β ′.ΔT .CP —
μ .k
Reynolds number, Re LVr L.G LV Inertial force/Viscous force
= =
μ μ ν
Richardson number, Ri g H′ Potential energy/Kinetic energy
u2
Schmidt number, Sc ν Momentum diffusivity/Mass
D diffusivity
Sherwood number, Sh kC .L Mass diffusivity/Molecular
D′ diffusivity
Stanton number, St h Heat transferred/Thermal
(Nu/Pe) CP .r.V capacity of fluid
Weber number, We L.V 2 .r Inertial force/Surface tension

σ force
kC
q
Å
6V
i i Φ
D S
a
||
Solids are found in a great variety of forms: spherical, cubical, rectangular, cylindrical,
powder, angular pieces, etc., which may be soft, hard, tough, rubbery, free-flowing,
or sticky. Irrespective of their forms, the three most important characteristics of an
individual particle such as composition, size, and shape need to be studied for vari-
ous reasons. The composition will determine properties like density and conductivity.
The particle size and shape affect properties such as the surface area per unit volume
and the rate at which the particle will settle in a fluid. The shape and size are easily
defined for regular particles like spheres and cylinders, but for irregular particles such
as sand and crushed glass, the shape and size are not clearly defined.
All these factors decide as to how solids will be stored, how they will be separated,
how they will be mixed, how their size will be reduced, how they will behave in a
fluid, how they will be transported, and many more.
Aside from physical form of the solids, the two important factors which must be defined
for a solid material are shape and size. These are related since in order to define a size,
one has to make some assumption about shape. For some regular shapes, there is a
single measurement which completely defines the particle, e.g., if the diameter of the
sphere or the side length of a cube is known, the volume and surface area may be easily
calculated. For other regular shapes, more than one measurement is required. Cylinders
require two: diameter and length; and cuboids require three: length, breadth, and depth.
For irregular shapes, some typical dimensions must be defined.
The simplest of the three-dimensional shapes is the sphere. The dimension-

less term sphericity, Φ, is in common use to compare particles of irregular shapes
with that of a spherical one.
Hakon Wadell, in 1935, defined sphericity as the surface area of a sphere of the
same volume as the particle divided by the actual surface area of the particle. In
another way, sphericity can be defined as the ratio of the surface–volume ratio for
a sphere of diameter Dp and the surface–volume ratio for the irregular particle
whose nominal size is Dp .
For a non-spherical particle, the sphericity is
Surface to volume ratio of sphere of diameter Dp
Φ=
Surface to volume ratio of particle whose nominal size is Dp
⎛ Sp ⎞
⎜V ⎟
⎝ p ⎠ sphere of particle volume
=
⎛ Sp ⎞
⎜V ⎟
⎝ p ⎠ particle
6 ⎛ Vp ⎞
⇒Φ= ⎜ ⎟ (2.1)
Dp ⎝ Sp ⎠ particle
⎡ ⎤
⎢ ⎛ Sp ⎞ π Dp 2 6 ⎥
⎢∵ ⎜ ⎟ = = ⎥
⎢ ⎝ Vp ⎠ sphere of diameter D p 1 π Dp3 Dp ⎥
⎣ 6 ⎦
where, = Nominal or equivalent diameter of sphere of equal volume of that
p
of the particle,
Sp = Surface area of one particle, and
p = Volume of one particle.
For a spherical particle of diameter p, from Eq. (2.1), the sphericity, Φ = 1.
Sphericity values for solid particles of various shapes which we often encounter
in process industries and for a few products are mentioned in Table 2.1 and Table 2.2
respectively.
Particle iagram Sp ericity Particle iagram Sp ericity

name Φ name Φ
Sphere 1.0 Cube 0.81
Sand 0.9 Crushed 0.6 to 0.8

particles
Cylinder 0.87 Flakes 0.2

(length =
diameter)
Tetrahedron 0.671 Octahedron 0.846
Dodecahedron 0.91 Icosahedron 0.939
Ideal Cone 0.794 Hemisphere 0.84

Industrial products Sp ericity Φ Food Materials Sp ericity Φ
(Size range = 55 – 440 μm) Wheat 0.01038
Silica sand 0.7 Bean 0.00743
Concentrates of rutile 0.8 Intact red lentil 0.00641
Ilmentite 0.8 Chickpea 0.00240
Titania slag 0.5 Coarse bulgur 0.01489
It is evident from the sphericity values given in Table 2.1 that as the shape of the
particle deviates from that of a spherical shape, the sphericity goes on decreasing
towards zero. For this, sphericity is sometimes defined as how close the irregular
particle is to a spherical particle.
It is to be noted that sphericity is independent of particle size because from the
definition of sphericity it is clear that sphericity compares the surface area of the par-
ticle to that of the equivalent spherical particle and defines only the particle shape.
For fine granular materials, it is difficult to determine the exact volume and sur-
face area of a particle. For these materials Dp is usually taken to be the nominal size
based on the screen analysis or microscopic examination. The surface area can be
found from adsorption experiment or from pressure drop in a bed of particles.
The volume can be calculated using a factor called volume shape factor. We know
that the volume of a spherical particle is proportional to the cube of its diameter and
if we assume the same is true for irregular particles, then
Vp α Dp3
⇒ Vp = aDp3 (2.2)
where, a = Volume shape factor.
π
For spherical particles, a = .
6
The reciprocal of sphericity is known as the surface shape factor. Thus,
1
Φs = (2.3)
Φ
From Eq. (2.1), we have the sphericity of a cube as

6 ⎛ Vp ⎞
Φ cube = ⎜ ⎟ .
Dp ⎝ Sp ⎠
cube
Here, for this cube, p = a3 and Sp = 6a2.

To find p, we have to equate the sphere volume with the cube volume.
π 3 6
Thus, D = a3 ⇒ Dp = a × 3 .
6 p π
6 ⎛ a3 ⎞ π
Thus, Φ cube = ⎜ 2 ⎟ = 6 = 0.81
3 (Ans)
6 ⎝ 6 a ⎠
a× 3
π
Size is the linear dimension of the particle. Sphere is the ideal example again,
whose size is defined by its diameter. For irregular particles, the size may be found
as the average of the shortest and the longest dimension of the particle or, as the
second-largest dimension.
Sometimes, the size for irregular particles is defined in terms of the equivalent/
nominal diameter. Equivalent diameter is defined as the size of spherical particle
having the same controlling characteristics as the particle under consideration.
The controlling characteristics like volume, surface area, surface area per unit
volume, settling velocity, etc., depend upon the system and the process in which the
particle is involved. Different ways to express the particle size depending on the vari-
ous controlling characteristics are surface diameter, mass diameter, volume diameter,
and volume–surface (or Sauter) diameter.
Particle sizes are expressed in different units depending on their size and are
presented in Table 2.3.
Particle si e nits
Coarse Inches or millimetres (in or mm)
Fine Screen size
Very fine Micrometers or nanometres (μm or nm)
Ultra fine Surface area per unit mass (m2/g)
The particle size can be measured using a wide range of measuring techniques, such as
(i) Screening (for particles of size > 50 μm),
(ii) Sedimentation (for particles of size range of 1–100 μm),
(iii) Elutriation (for particles of size range of 5–100 μm),
(iv) Electron microscopy (for particles of size range of 0.0005–5 μm),
(v) Light scattering (for particles of size range of 0.1–10 μm),
(vi) Laser diffraction (for particles of size range of 0.1–600 μm), and
(vii) Photon correlation spectroscopy (for sizes ranging from a few nanometres to
a few μm).
Among all the methods mentioned above, one of the cheapest and easiest methods
of particle size determination is the screening.
A sample of solid particles contains a wide range of particle sizes and densities for
which their analysis becomes extremely difficult. For this reason, the whole sample
is separated into a number of fractions, each of constant density and nearly constant
size by some mechanical means and then each fraction is analysed separately, as
discussed below.
For a sample of uniform particles having diameter as p, total mass as m, and
density of each particle as rp, the total volume of the particles is
m
Vs = (2.4)
ρp
If the volume of one particle is vp then the number of particles in the sample is
V m
Ns = s = (2.5)
vp ρ p × vp
If the surface area of each particle is Sp then the total surface area of particles is
m × Sp
As = N s × Sp = (2.6)
ρ p × vp
Simplifying Eq. (2.1), we have
Sp 6
= (2.7)
vp Φ × Dp
Sp
Replacing the value of in Eq. (2.6), we have
vp
6m
As = (2.8)
ΦDp ρp
And for a mixture of particles the analysis is done for each fraction of constant
density and constant size. Equations (2.5) and (2.8) are applied to each fraction to
estimate the number of particles and the total surface area and the results are added.
In this text, we assume constant density for particles for ease of understanding.
Using Eq. (2.8), we can calculate the surface area of the particles in each fraction
provided the particle density and sphericity are known. The results for all the frac-
tions are added to give what is called the specific surface of the mixture, Ass, or total
surface area of a unit mass of particles.
For particles having constant density and sphericity, the specific surface of the
6 x1 6 x2 6 xn
sample is Ass = + + ...................... +
Φρp Dp1 avg Φρp Dp2 avg Φρp Dpn avg
i=n
6 xi
⇒ Ass =
Φρ p
∑D (2.9)
i =1 pi avg
where, xi = Mass fraction in a given increment,

n = Number of increments, and
pi avg = Average particle diameter (average of smallest and largest particle
diameter in the increment).
The specific surface is an important property of solids and is dependent on the
condition of the surface as well as the particle size. For regular particles, the estima-
tion of specific surface is easy, but the task is difficult for irregular particles. In this
connection, one parameter known as the specific surface ratio, NSSR, is popularly
used to overcome the difficulty, which is defined as the ratio of the specific surface
of the particle to the specific surface of a spherical particle of the same diameter.
The specific surface ratio is a function of average particle diameter.
If p avg is the average size of the particle then
Assp
N SSR = (2.10)
⎛ 6 ⎞
⎜ρ ×D ⎟
⎝ p p avg ⎠
where, Assp = Specific surface of the particle.
The specific surface for a mixture of particles containing many different sizes of
particles of same density can now be expressed as
i= n
6 N SSRi xi
A ss =
ρp
∑ Dpi avg
(2.11)
i =1
For spherical particles, NSSR = 1.

A plot of specific surface ratio versus average size of particles for a few common
materials is given as Fig. 17, page 22 of Unit Operations by G G Brown, et. al., Wiley,
New York, 1950.
To describe the particle size of a mixture, we use average size or mean diameters. It
should be remembered that a mean size will describe only one particular characteris-
tic of the sample and it is important to decide what that controlling characteristics is
before the mean is calculated.
The volume–surface mean diameter, Dvs, is

the most widely used among all average sizes and is related to the specific surface area
Ass. It is defined by
6
Dvs = (2.12)
ΦAss ρp
Substituting the value of Ass from Eq. (2.9) in Eq. (2.12), we have
1
Dvs = i= n
(2.13)
xi
∑D
i =1 pi avg
This is also known as the Sauter mean diameter.
It is defined by
i= n
(
Dm = ∑ xi × Dpi avg ) (2.14)
i =1
This is also known as the mass mean diameter.
This is the diameter of the average volume of particles

found in the mixture and is found by dividing the total volume of the sample by the
number of particles in the mixture.
It is defined by
1/ 3
⎡ ⎤
⎢ ⎥
⎢ 1 ⎥
Dv = ⎢ ⎥ (2.15)
⎢ i = n ⎛ xi ⎞ ⎥
⎢∑⎜ 3⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣ i =1 ⎝ Dpi avg ⎠ ⎥⎦
This is also known as the volume mean diameter.
It is defined by
i= n ⎛
Ni ⎞ i= n ⎛
Ni ⎞
∑ ⎜⎝ D ⎟ ∑ ⎜⎝ D ⎟
i =1 pi avg ⎠ i =1 pi avg ⎠
DA = i= n
= (2.16)
NT
∑ Ni
i =1
where, NT = Total number of particles.

This is also known as the arithmetic mean diameter.
All these mean diameters are based on different factors like volume–surface, mass,
volume, number of particles, etc. The values of the mean diameter differ and are suit-
able for specific applications. For example, the mean diameter based on surface area
is useful in the study of mass transfer, catalytic reactions, etc.; the mean diameter
based on volume or mass is useful in the study of spray drying, in the gravitational
free settling velocity of a particle in a liquid, etc.
The specific surface area and the Sauter mean diameters are given by
the relations
i= n
6 xi 1
Ass =
Φρ p
∑D and Dvs = i= n
xi
.
i =1 pi avg
∑D
i =1 pi avg
For finding these, we have to proceed as follows:
Average diameter Mass fraction xi g g xi

pi avg cm D pi avg
0.0252 0.088 3.492

0.0178 0.178 10.000
0.0126 0.293 23.254
0.0089 0.194 21.797
0.0038 0.247 65.000
xi
∑ xi = 1.000 ∑D = 123.543
pi avg
6 i= n
xi 6 (123.543)
Thus, the specific surface area, Ass =
Φρ p
∑ Dpi avg
=
0.5 × 1.2
= 1235.43 cm 2/g
i =1
and the Sauter mean diameter,
1 1
Dvs = i = n = = 0.008094 cm = 8.094 × 10 −3 cm (Ans)
x 123 .543
∑D i
i =1 pi avg
The volume–surface mean diameter is given by the relation

1
Dvs = i = n . For finding this, we have to proceed as follows:
xi
∑D
i =1 pi avg
xi
D pi avg
–710 + 300 505 30 0.117 0.00023

–300 + 180 240 35 0.137 0.00057
–180 + 90 135 65 0.255 0.00189
–90 + 38 64 70 0.275 0.00429
Pan 38 55 0.215 0.00566
xi
∑D = 0.01264
pi avg
1
Thus, Dvs = = 79.11 μm (Ans)
0.01264
The negative (–) sign indicates that the material passes through the screen and
the positive (+) sign indicates that the material is retained on the screen. The details
about screening are discussed in Chapter 5 .
(Continued )
1
The average particle size (Eq. 2.13) is given by Dvs = i= n
.
xi
∑D
i =1 pi avg
Hence, by plotting a graph between 1/ pi avg and the cumulative mass fraction, ,
and then taking the inverse of the area under the curve, we can estimate the average
particle size.
Mes Mes Avg particle Mass Mass Cumulative pi avg

no opening si e pi avg retained g fraction mass mm
mm mm overflo xi fraction
4 4.75 > 4.75
5 3.35 4.05 33.5 0.022 0.022 0.247
6 2.8 3.075 324 0.216 0.238 0.325
8 2 2.4 315.5 0.210 0.448 0.417
10 1.8 1.9 120 0.080 0.528 0.526
14 1.7 1.75 182 0.121 0.650 0.571
18 0.85 1.275 78 0.052 0.702 0.784
25 0.6 0.725 79 0.053 0.754 1.379
30 0.5 0.55 39 0.026 0.780 1.818
36 0.425 0.4625 29 0.019 0.800 2.162
44 0.355 0.39 26 0.017 0.817 2.564
50 0.3 0.3275 27 0.018 0.835 3.053
52 0.25 0.275 28 0.019 0.854 3.636
85 0.18 0.215 40 0.027 0.880 4.651
100 0.155 0.1675 26 0.017 0.898 5.970
120 0.125 0.14 27 0.018 0.916 7.143
150 0.106 0.1155 28 0.019 0.934 8.658
200 0.075 0.0905 29 0.019 0.954 11.050
Pan – 0.0375 69 0.046 1.000 26.667
From the graph (Fig. 2.1) we have the area under the curve = 2.0995 mm−1. Area
under t e curve as determined using rigin soft are
Thus the average particle size = (area)–1 = (2.0995)−1 = 0.476 mm (Ans)
25
20
−1
15
i
10
1/
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0. 1
iv i n
The Sauter mean diameter (Eq. 2.13) is given by

1
Dvs = i= n
.
xi
∑D
i =1 pi avg
Given that at x = 0, pi avg = 1 μm and

x = 1, pi avg = 101 μm
The pi avg vs xi line (Fig. 2.2) is given by pi avg = mxi + c (A)
100
0
n
60
i
40
i v
20
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0. 1
xi
101 − 1 100
Here the slope, m = = = 100.
1− 0 1
When pi avg = 1, xi = 0, then from Eq. (A), we have c = 1 micron.
Thus, Eq. (A) becomes:
pi avg = 100 xi + 1 micron (B)
Now, for various values of xi, pi avg is calculated and xi / pi avg for each fraction
was found out as follows:
xi pi avg xi pi avg
0 1 0.0000
0.1 11 0.0091
0.2 21 0.0095
0.3 31 0.0097
0.4 41 0.0098
0.5 51 0.0098
0.6 61 0.0098
0.7 71 0.0099
0.8 81 0.0099
0.9 91 0.0099
1 101 0.0099
Sum = 0.0972
1
Now, Sauter mean diameter, Dvs = i= n
xi
∑D
i =1 piavg
= 1/0.0972
= 10.29 microns (Ans)
The properties of solids in bulk are dependent on the properties of the individual parti-
cles including their shape and size, and the way in which they interact with each other.
When solid particles are dry and non-cohesive, they behave like a fluid, for exam-
ple, they flow through orifice or openings and exert pressure on the side walls of the
container. But they differ in many ways, like they pose greater problems in storage,
do not come out from the container like fluids, interlock under pressure, and do not
slide over one another unless the force applied reaches a certain magnitude.
The pressure on them in one direction creates some pressure in another direction
having lesser magnitude (than the applied pressure). For homogeneous solid par-
ticles, the ratio of the normal pressure, pN to the applied pressure, pA, is a constant.
It is given by
p
K= N (2.17)
pA
which is the characteristic of the material and it is nearly independent of particle size.
K is also known as the coefficient of flowability.
It (K ) depends on the three factors, such as
shape and interlocking tendencies of the particles,
degree of packing, and
stickiness of the particles.
The value of K is nearly equal to zero for cohesive solids and for free-flowing
granular materials it varies between 0.3 and 0.6.
The densities of the particles in bulk vary, depending on their physical properties
and the way they are packed in the container. Regular particles like: spheres, cubes,
etc., pack more densely than irregular ones. Both regular and irregular particles pack
more densely if the bulk mass is subjected to vibrations.
The frictional force within the particles is measured by using, the angle of internal fric-
tion, ai. The tangent of this angle is the coefficient of friction between two layers of par-
ticles. The angle of internal friction which
determines the flowing characteristics of
particles is important for the design of stor-
age vessels like bins, silos, and hoppers.
The angle of repose, ar is the angle at
which the sides of the pile make with the hor-
izontal when solids are piled up on a plane
surface, as shown in Fig. 2.3. It is useful for
determining the capacity of a bin or a pile a
and is also useful during transportation.
For homogeneous solid particles, these
two angles are nearly the same, but in practice, the angle of repose is less than the
angle of internal friction because the solid particles at the exposed surface are more
loosely packed than the materials inside the pile and, are drier and less sticky.
The values of ar are low for smooth and rounded particles, and it is high for sticky
and angular particles. In general, the values of ai vary between 15° and 30° for granu-
lar solids and it is as high as 90° for cohesive solids. Table 2.4 presents the values of
ai and ar for different materials.
When solid particles are poured on to a plane surface, they will form an approxi-
mately conical heap and the angle formed by the sloping side with horizontal plane
surface is called the dynamic angle of repose, a , or, the angle of repose of the mate-
rial when forming a pile. And when the solid is poured on to a sheet which is then
tilted slowly until the particles start sliding, the angle of slide is referred to as the static
Material Angle of Material Angle of internal

repose ar friction a i
Anthracite coal 27° Granular solids 15 to 30°
Fine sand 31° Cohesive solids ≅ 90°
Bituminous coal 35°
Wet clay 17°
Gravel 39 to 48°
Material Particle Si e mm ga a b
s ape ton m deg deg
Natural sand Round 0–3 1.6 35 40
Manufactured sand Cubic 0–3 1.6 35 40
Crushed stone Cubic 0 – 63 1.5 40 45
Crushed stone Slabby 0 – 63 1.4 40 45
Crushed stone Cubic 0 – 25 1.4 45 55
Crushed stone Slabby 0 – 25 1.5 30 35
Pebbles Round 0 – 63 1.5 30 35
Dry earth – – 1.4 40 40
Iron ore Slabby 0 – 63 2.7 40 45
Coal – 0 – 100 0.9 30 35
angle of repose, b, or, the angle of repose of the material when reclaiming under pile.
Table 2.5 shows some of the material features as provided by Metso Minerals Inc.
The relation between the material characteristic K and the angle of internal friction
ai is given by
1 − sin α i
K= (2.18)
1 + sin α i
Generally, a bulk solid is defined as numerous dry or wet solid particles ranging from
fine powder to coarse-sized particles that are being handled in bulk form. All these
materials are stored either outside in bulk manner or, in vessels like bins, silos, eleva-
tors, or process vessels.
Coarse solids like coal, gravel, sand, and water-insoluble materials are stored out-
side in open and large piles, usually unprotected from weather. At the same time,
outdoor storage leads to environmental
pollution like dusting or leaching of a
soluble matter from the solids.
Solids like rock salt, gunpowder, ind
solid chemicals which are either valu- in i
v
able or hazardous to be stored outside in v
bulk, are stored in bins or silos. These
are usually of cylindrical or rectangular
shape and made of metal, or reinforced
concrete. Bins are used to store abra-
sive materials and are wider and short
in height. Silos are tall and smaller in
diameter, as shown in Fig. 2.4. The ver-
tical portion of these vessels is the cylinder and the converging portion is the hopper, as
shown in Fig. 2.5. All these containers are charged through the open top and are usually
discharged through openings at the bottom.
With every storage vessel like a bin or a silo, there usually is friction between
the vessel wall and the solid particles. And due to interlocking of the particles,
the effect of this friction is observed throughout the solid mass. This frictional
force at the wall tends to reduce the weight of the solids and thus the pressure
exerted by the solids on the vessel floor gets reduced.
Apart from friction, the actual pressure depends on two other parameters, namely
• the K (= pN /pA ) values of the solids, and
• the manner in which solids are packed in the container.
It is interesting to note that when the height of the solids in the container exceeds more
than three times the diameter of the container, the additional solids have no effect on the
pressure at the vessel floor, rather increase the load on the foundation [McCabe, 1993].
Another important point to be noted is the increased pressure often packs the granular
solids more tightly and makes the flow more difficult, which is not the case for fluids.
At a same cross-section inside a bin or a silo, the lateral pressure on the bin wall is
less than the vertical pressure, as the ratio of normal pressure to the applied pressure
K is less than unity. Therefore, the bottom discharge of solids is generally preferred
over the side discharge.
It is essential for the design engineer to have knowledge of the properties of the bulk
material to be handled and the theory of flow of solids either in designing a new storage
vessel or modifying an existing structure to improve their flow. Specific factors affecting
the flowability of granular solids and powders are moisture content, humidity, tempera-
ture, pressure, and particle size. A few important flowability-related properties are angle
of repose, bulk density, frictional forces, and compressibility. Stainless steel is used as
the most common material of construction for storage vessels. Generally, people think
that if one beats the structure or shakes it, a proper flow can be obtained, but in actual
practice, these actions cause flow problem in a number of cases rather than solving it.
The flow rate of the bulk solids can be increased by increasing the size of the
outlet, by vibrating the vessels, and by an air injection system.
Generally, three types of flow patterns are observed
funnel flow, mass flow, and expanded flow. All these have
different characteristics that must be understood in order
to address the flow problems of bulk solids.
The funnel-flow pattern is best suited for free-flowing,
non-segregating bulk solids and not recommended for
cohesive solids. A cylindrical flow channel develops
at the centre of the bin above the discharge outlet while
the material against the bin walls remains stationary, as
shown in Fig. 2.6. Once the central portion of materials
is withdrawn, the material along the walls begins to flow
laterally into the central column at an angle nearly equal
to the angle of internal friction a i of the solids. In case of
cohesive solids, a rat-hole may develop at the centre. This
type of flow pattern can be referred to as first-in, last-out.
If the hopper walls are not steep or if the inside wall of
the vessel is rough, a funnel-flow pattern will develop and
stagnant areas will appear along the hopper walls. This is
the situation in many coal bunkers now-a-days, especially if
the coal contains high amount of moisture or a lot of fines.
Mass-flow pattern is ideal for cohesive solids and for
those solids which degrade with time. In this type of flow,
all of the bulk solids move whenever any of it is withdrawn,
as shown in Fig. 2.7. As there is a flow along the walls,
stagnant zones as well as rat-holes are also eliminated.
Also, the solids velocity in the cylinder section is low.
This type of flow can be referred to as first-in, first-out.
Expanded flow type is a combination of both mass and
funnel flow. In this case, funnel flow is observed in the upper
portion while mass flow is observed in the lower section of
the vessel. An expanded flow bin is shown in Fig. 2.8.
Whatever the flow type may be, the flow of bulk solids
includes the flow of air as all bulk solids have air between
the particles and when the solid particles move, the air in
the voids also moves along with them. Thus, the bulk den-
sity of solid mass gets affected by this air movement.
During the flow of bulk solids, the pressure of solid
particles increases from zero (i.e., atmospheric) at the top
surface to a maximum at the transition region between the
cylinder and the hopper sections. As the bulk solids flow
down through the hopper, the solids pressure decreases
and again becomes zero at the discharge end.
In the cylinder section of the storage vessel, with the
increase in solids pressure, the bulk density increases as
the total volume of the voids decreases and at the same time, the air pressure in
the voids increases. But in the hopper section as the solids pressure decreases, the
volume of voids increases which reduces the bulk density and also the air pressure in
the voids decreases, as shown in Fig. 2.9.
id ′ d n i Ai
Certain problems associated with the flow of bulk solids are

no flow,
erratic flow,
flushing, and
segregation which are briefly discussed here.
All these problems are common in every process industry and can result in quality
problems, lost production, structural damages, personnel injuries, and loss of money
and time.
A high pressure often packs the solids more tightly rather increasing the
flow. In some cases, a stable arch is formed over the hopper outlet and solids do not
fall even when the material below them is removed. The arch is strong enough to sup-
port the weight of the material above it and it must be broken either by arch breakers
or by air jets to induce flow again. It must be noted that vibrations tend to strengthen
the arch as they cause more compaction of solid particles.
Frequent formation and collapse of arches result in fluctuating dis-
charge causing uneven vibrations which can lead to structural damage and personnel
injuries.
When an arch collapses, the solids fall uncontrollably into the open
channel under pressure. This situation is referred to as flushing or flooding.
During the filling of a storage vessel, the finer particles move towards
the central portion while the larger particles move towards the wall which causes
finer particles to discharge first and coarser particles last.
❑
6 ⎛ Vp ⎞
Φ= .
Dp ⎜⎝ S p ⎟⎠
particle
❑
Vpα Dp3 ⇒ Vp = aDp3
π
a= .
6
1
❑ Φs = .
Φ
❑
❑
V m
Ns = = .
v p ρp × v p
❑
m × Sp 6m
As = Ns × S p = = .
ρp × v p ΦDp ρp
❑
6 i =n xi
Ass = ∑
Φρp i =1 Dpi avg
.
Assp
❑ , NSSR = .
⎛ 6 ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎝ ρp × Dpavg ⎠
❑
6 i =n NSSRi xi
Ass = ∑
ρp i =1 Dpi avg
.
❑
1
Dvs = i=n
xi
∑D
i =1 pi avg
i=n
(
Dm = ∑ xi × Dpi avg
i =1
)
1/3
⎡ ⎤
⎢ ⎥
⎢ 1 ⎥
Dv = ⎢ ⎥
⎢ i=n ⎛ x ⎞ ⎥
⎢ ∑⎜ i
⎟⎥
⎢ i =1 ⎜⎝ Dpi avg3 ⎟⎠ ⎥
⎣ ⎦
i=n ⎛
Ni ⎞ i=n ⎛
Ni ⎞
∑ ⎜⎝ D ⎟ ∑ ⎜⎝ D ⎟
i =1 pi avg ⎠ i =1 pi avg ⎠
DA = i=n = .
NT
∑ Ni
i =1
pN
❑ K= ,
pA
❑
❑
1 − sinα i
K= .
1 + sinα i
❑
1. What is the importance of internal 5. What are the common types of flow
friction encountered in bulk solids handling
It determines the flowing characteristics Funnel flow, mass flow, and expanded
of the particulate solids and is important flow.
for the design of the storage vessels. 6. Which type of flow is seen in case
2. Which type of solids has a higher of flow of wheat grain from a storage
value of internal friction granular or bin
cohesive Funnel flow.
Cohesive type of solids. 7. What type of flow pattern is
3. Why is it necessary to determine observed in case of pulverized coal
the angle of repose for solids Mass flow.
It is useful to determine the storage 8. What is the sphericity of a cuboid
capacity for solids. whose length, breadth, and depth are
4. Depending on the flowability, how in the ratio of 3 : 2 : 1
are the particles classified The volume of the cuboid is = 3 × 2 × 1 =
Cohesive (reluctant to flow through the 6 cubic units and surface area of this
openings) and non-cohesive (readily cuboid = 2 (3 × 2) + (3 × 1) + (2 × 1) =
flowable out of the storage). 22 area units.
Let, p = diameter of the equivalent The factors are (i) moisture content,
sphere. (ii) particle size, (iii) temperature,
π 3 (iv) pressure, and (v) humidity.
Then, D = 6 ⇒ Dp = 2.254
6 p 10. Give a few flow-related properties
Area of the sphere = p p2 = 15.96 for the granular solids.
Thus, sphericity = 15.96 / 22 = 0.726. (i) angle of repose, (ii) bulk den-
9. Name the important factors on sity, (iii) frictional forces, and
which flowability of solids depend. (iv) compressibility.
1. Why is it necessary to characterise 9. Are all the mean diameters same

solid particles 10. How do the solid particles behave in
2. Define shape and size for solid bulk
particles. 11. What are the angle of repose and
3. Mention sphericity values for angle of internal friction Write
particles of various shapes and give their importance. Also, mention
some practical examples. their values for different materials.
4. Is sphericity independent of particle 12. How are bulk solids stored
size 13. Write briefly about the pressure
5. Name the methods available to developed by solid particles in bins
measure the particle size along with or silos.
their size range. 14. Write in detail about the flow of bulk
6. How are the total surface area and solids from bins or silos.
number of particles in a given 15. Briefly explain the problems
sample of uniform size and density associated with bulk-solid flow.
determined 16. Why is it generally preferred to take
7. How is the specific surface of a the discharge from the bottom of the
given sample having mixed particle container rather than from its side
sizes determined walls
8. What are the different ways to 17. How to increase the solid-flow rate
represent particle size of a mixture out of bins
1. Find the shape factor of a cylindrical 2. What is the sphericity of a cylindrical

particle of 3-mm diameter and 3-mm particle whose length is equal to its
length. diameter
1.145 0.873
3. Calculate the Sauter mean diameter and mass-mean diameter for the following
screen analysis.
Si e mm Mass retained g
– 1.70 0.85 25
– 0.85 0.60 30
–0.60 0.50 40
–0.50 0.425 35
Pan 20
[D vs = 0.585 mm and Dm] = 0.670 mm
4. Calculate the volume–mean and the volume–surface mean diameter for the
following screen analysis.
Mes No Mes opening mm Mass fraction
4 4.75 –
5 3.35 0.15
6 2.80 0.45
8 2.00 0.30
10 1.80 0.10
[D v = 2.644 mm and
v D s = 2.77 mm]
5. Calculate the range of the values for internal friction for which a material is
flowable.
14.48° to 32.58°
1. Arrange the following particle shapes 3. When compared to cohesive solids,

in order of increasing sphericity: cube, the value of internal friction for granular
sphere, cylinder, and hemisphere. solids is
(a) cylinder, cube, hemisphere, sphere (a) higher
(b) hemisphere, cube, cylinder, sphere (b) lower
(c) cube, cylinder, hemisphere, sphere (c) nearly equal
(d) cube, hemisphere, cylinder, sphere (d) none of the above
2. Which of the following shapes has 4. The value of internal friction for
the highest shape factor granular solids varies from
(a) Cylinder (a) 5°–10°
(b) Cube (b) 10°–15°
(c) Hemisphere (c) 15°–30°
(d) Sphere (d) 40°–50°
5. Which of the following is a (a) height equal to width (diameter)
non-cohesive material (b) height more than width
(a) Plastic chips (c) height less than width
(b) Dehydrated peas (d) nothing in particular
(c) Dry sand 9. Which of the following particle has
(d) All of the above the lowest value of sphericity
6. For a cylindrical particle of height (a) Rounded sand
equal to twice the diameter, the sphericity (b) Pulverized coal
value is (c) Tungsten powder
(a) 0.655 (b) 0.728 (d) Mica flakes
(c) 0.832 (d) 0.915 10. For measurement of particle size in
7. The shape factor for a hemisphere is the range of 0.1–10 μm, the technique
(a) equal to 1 adopted is
(b) greater than 1 (a) sedimentation
(c) less than 1 (b) screening
(d) none of the above (c) elutriation
8. A bin is a rectangular or cylindrical (d) light scattering
storage vessel with
1(d); 2(b); 3(b); 4(c); 5(d); 6(c); 7(b); 8(c); 9(d); 10(d)
DA
Dm
Dv
D vs
id
i d i n
i n
Fin id
Size reduction of solids is carried out in almost all the process industries for a number
of reasons. A few of them are
(i) to increase the surface area, because in most chemical reactions and some unit
operations (drying, adsorption, leaching, etc.) involving solid particles, the
reaction/transfer rate is directly proportional to the area of contact between
the solid and the second phase,
(ii) to produce solid particles of desired shape, size or size ranges, and specific
surface,
(iii) to separate unwanted particles effectively,
(iv) to dispose solid wastes easily,
(v) to mix solid particles more intimately, and
(vi) to improve the handling (storage and transportation) characteristics.
Various size-reduction equipments employ different actions to solid particles for size
reduction, which is customer tailored. There are four basic ways to reduce the size of
a material— impact, compression, attrition, and shear Pennsylvania, 2006 . Most
of the size-reduction equipments employ a combination of all these size reduction
methods. Apart from the above, another, but less popular, size-reduction method is
cutting, which gives a particle of definite size and shape.
Here, the particle is subjected to a single violent force and in crushing terminology,
it refers to the sharp, instantaneous collision of one moving object against another.
Both objects may be moving, such as a cricket bat connecting with a fast moving ball,
or one object may be motionless, such as a rock being struck by a hammer blow.
There are two varieties of impact—gravity impact and dynamic impact. In gravity
impact, the free-falling material is momentarily stopped by the stationary object. Coal
dropped onto a hard steel surface is an example of gravity impact. It is most often used
when it is necessary to separate two materials which have relatively different friabil-
ity. The more friable material is broken first, while the less friable material remains
unbroken. Materials dropping in front of a moving hammer is an example of dynamic
impact. When crushed by dynamic impact, the material is unsupported and the force
of impact accelerates movement of the reduced particles towards the breaker plate
and/or other hammers.
The use of dynamic impact is advantageous for size reduction of many materials
and it is specially needed when
(i) a cubical particle is needed,
(ii) finished product must be well graded and must meet intermediate sizing
specifications, as well as top and bottom specifications,
(iii) ores must be broken along natural cleavage lines in order to free and separate
undesirable particles, such as mica in feldspars, and
(iv) materials are too hard and abrasive [Pennsylvania, 2006].
Here, the particle is broken by two forces and the size reduction is done between two
surfaces, with the work being done by one or both surfaces. aw crushers (discussed
later in this chapter) using this method of size reduction are suitable for reducing
extremely hard and abrasive rock. As a mechanical reduction method, compression
is chosen
(i) if the material is hard and tough,
(ii) if the material is abrasive,
(iii) if the material is not sticky,
(iv) where the finished product is to be relatively coarser in size, and
(v) when the material will break cubically [Pennsylvania, 2006].
Attrition is a method of size reduction by rubbing or, scrubbing the materials between
two hard surfaces. Hammer mills (discussed later in this chapter) operate with close
clearances between the hammers and the screen bars, reduce the size of materials by
attrition combined with shear and impact actions. Though attrition consumes more
power, it is preferred for crushing the less abrasive materials such as pure limestone
and coal. Attrition crushing is most useful when
(i) the material is friable or not too abrasive, and
(ii) a closed-circuit system is not desirable to control the oversize [Pennsylvania,
2006].
Shear consists of a trimming or cleaving action rather than the rubbing action
associated with attrition. It is usually combined with other size-reduction actions,
e.g., single-roll crushers (discussed later in this chapter) employ shear together
with impact and compression. Shear method of size reduction is needed for
(i) friable material,
(ii) primary crushing with a reduction ratio (disscussed later in this chapter) of
6 to 1, and
(iii) production of a relatively coarse product [Pennsylvania, 2006].
For a particular size-reduction operation, the choice of machine to be used mainly
depends on
(i) the size and the quantity of material to be handled, and
(ii) the nature of the product required.
But, the more important aspects about the feed material apart from its size and
quantity are its properties such as hardness, toughness, stickiness, moisture content,
friability, explosive nature, soapiness, crystallinity, and temperature sensitivity.
The hardness of the material is its resistance to scratching and it affects
the power consumption and the wear on the grinding machine. The Mohs Scale
(Table 3.1) which was created in 1812 by the German mineralogist Friedrich Mohs,
is commonly used to measure the hardness of minerals and many other solids.
Toughness is the resistance of a material to impact. It is the reverse of

friability or brittleness.
Granular materials (such as coal or rock) can be easily crushed while
fibrous materials need tearing action.
The friability of the material is its tendency to fracture during normal
handling. Generally, crystalline materials will break along well-defined planes.
Materials do not flow well if the moisture content is higher
(more than 3 to 4% by weight). They tend to cake and clog the machine which reduces
the crushing effectiveness. Too dry a condition can result in excessive dust.
Explosive materials must be ground under wet conditions or in
the presence of an inert environment.
Soapiness is the measure of the coefficient of friction, m, of the surface
of the material. If m is low, the crushing will be more difficult.
Mo ardness number Materials Category of materials

1 Talc, waxes, soapstone
2 Rock salt, gypsum, soft coal Soft materials
3 Calcite, chalk, marble
4 Fluorspar, magnesite, limestone
5 Apatite, chromite, bauxite Intermediate hardness
6 Felspar, ilmenite
7 Quartz, granite
8 Topaz
9 Corundum, sapphire, emery Hard materials
10 Diamond
Every solid material has a specific crystalline pattern. The atoms
in the crystal are arranged in a definite, repeating geometric pattern and there are
certain planes in the crystal, called cleavage planes, along which the breakage occurs
when sufficient pressure is applied on the solid.
The heat generated during size reduction can result in
loss of heat-sensitive components from solids. Softening or melting may also be
important-leading to clogging. In some cases, cryogenic crushing may be necessary
using liquid nitrogen or, dry ice, e.g., in milling of spices or size reduction of meat.
Apart from the properties of solids, certain factors affecting the size-reduction
process in terms of capacity and the performance are Metso, 2007
(i) presence of moisture and sticky materials in equipments feed,
(ii) presence of fines in the feed,
(iii) segregation of feed particles in the crushing chamber,
(iv) lack of feed control,
(v) wrong motor size,
(vi) insufficient crusher discharge area,
(vii) insufficient capacity of the crushers discharge conveyor,
(viii) materials being extremely hard to crush,
(ix) surface energy of solids,
(x) power consumption, and
(xi) selection of an appropriate crushing chamber.
When external stress/force is applied for size reduction, the solid particles at first
are twisted and strained. The work required to strain them is stored temporarily in
the solids as the mechanical energy of stress. When additional force is applied to
these already stressed particles, they are distorted beyond their ultimate strength and
are suddenly broken into smaller particles, which ultimately generate new surfaces.
The unit area of solid has a definite amount of surface energy and when its size
is reduced, the surface area per unit mass, specific surface, increases. This creation
of a new surface requires work, which is supplied by the release of energy of stress
at the time of rupture.
But, it is important to note that only a small portion out of the total energy sup-
plied to the equipment is utilised for the creation of a new surface and most of the
energy is lost to overcome the friction (in the bearings and other moving parts of the
machine); as heat (because by the principle of conservation of energy, all energy of
stress in excess of new surface energy created are converted to heat); and as sound.
Thus, the energy efficiency is less and when most of the energy is lost, the cost of
power becomes a major constraint. A schematic diagram for the creation of a new
surface is shown in Fig. 3.1.
The crushing or grinding efficiency is one of the most important parameters in the
subject of size reduction as the cost is represented in terms of energy, which draws
much attention to the design engineers. But no such exact definition is available to
define this entity.
nd
id
i i
n
in i d i n
i n
d
M ni
We know that energy is required to effect size reduction/comminution, or in other

words, comminution may be a process of conversion of energy from one form to
another. The energy is utilised in the form of kinetic energy and the energy recovered
is in the form of potential (surface) energy, heat, and sound. But only the potential
energy is needed for use. Hence, the crushing efficiency can be defined as the ratio of
the surface energy created to the energy absorbed (kinetic energy) by the solid.
In another way, this may be defined as the ratio of the energy absorbed by the solid
to form heat and the energy input to the machine.
The crushing or grinding efficiency ranges from a value as low as 10−3 per cent to
a maximum of one per cent. The remainder of the total energy input is converted to
heat, sound, and the rest is wasted. It is of much interest to note that when wheat flour
comes out of a flour mill, the temperature of the mass rises by 10 to 20 C.
The quantities needed to calculate the efficiency are
total energy input,
energy lost during size reduction,
total new surface created , and
specific surface energy.
The total energy input can be measured either by mechanical means or by electri-
cal instruments. The energy lost is difficult to measure but it may be measured in
terms of energy consumption.
Surface area may be determined from size distribution data or measured directly
by flow through a powder bed or by the adsorption of gas molecules on the powder
surface. Other methods such as gas diffusion, dye adsorption from solution, and heats
of adsorption can also be used.
The specific surface energy of liquids can be measured with precision as it is
numerically the same as the surface tension. But for solids, indirect methods based
on mathematical utilisation of physicochemical quantities only are available whose
accuracy largely depends on the assumptions made in measuring it Gaudin, 1971 .
The determination of power consumption is important in the sense that the cost of
power is a major expense in any size-reduction operation, and it is determined using
crushing or grinding efficiency.
As per definition, crushing efficiency is
Surface energy created by crushing
ηc = (3.1)
Total energy absorbed by the solid
If, Wa = Total energy absorbed by a unit mass of solid, J/kg
Es = Surface energy per unit area, J/m2 and
Assf, Assp = Areas per unit mass of feed and product respectively,
(or, the specific surfaces), m2/kg,
then, the surface energy created by crushing will be
Es (Assp − Assf) (3.2)
Thus, using Eq. (3.1) and the above notations, the crushing efficiency, hc, becomes
s ( Assp − Assf )
ηc = (3.3)
a
But, we know that the energy absorbed by unit mass of the solid (Wa) is less than
the energy fed (W ) for the purpose to the machine. A portion of the total energy input
is used to overcome friction in the bearings and other moving parts, and the rest is
available for size reduction, which leads to mechanical efficiency.
Mechanical efficiency, hm, is defined as the ratio of energy absorbed and the
energy fed to the machine. Thus,
ηm = a (3.4)
From Eq. (3.4), the total energy input is
= a
(3.5)
ηm
Now, putting the expression for Wa from Eq. (3.3) in Eq. (3.5), we have
=
s (Assp − Assf ) (3.6)
ηmηc
If m is the flow rate of solids to the machine then the power required, P, by the
machine is the product of the total energy input and the flow rate. Thus,
= ×m (3.7)
Using the expression for W from Eq. (3.6), we have
=
s (A ssp )
− Assf m
(3.8)
ηmηc
The expressions for the specific surfaces of feed and product materials (as per the
Eq. 2.11) are
6 6
Assf = and Assp = (3.9)
Φ f Dvsf ρpf Φ p Dvsp ρpp
where, Φf, Φp = Sphericity of the feed and the product materials,
Dvsf , Dvsp = Sauter mean diameter for the feed and the product, m and
rpf, rpp = Density of the feed and the product materials, kg/m3.
For the homogeneous materials,
rpf = rpp = rp (say) (3.10)
Using equations (3.9) and (3.10) in Eq. (3.8), we have
6 sm ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
= ⎜ − ⎟ (3.11)
ηm ηc ρp ⎝ Φ p Dvsp Φ f Dvsf ⎠
This relation tells us that the power requirement for crushing will be more for
particles having higher surface energy and also for the higher flow rate.
All the particles (each having certain surface area) in an unit mass of solid par-
ticles have a definite amount of surface energy and when their size is reduced, their
surface area as well as the surface energy per unit mass increases. And when this
occurs, the power requirement becomes more and more for reducing fine particles to
still finer ones than for breaking down large pieces of rock.
It is almost impossible to find out the accurate amount of energy requirement in order
to effect size reduction of a given material, mainly because
(i) there is a wide variation in the size and shape of particles both in the feed and
product, and
(ii) some energy is wasted as heat and sound, which can t be determined exactly.
But, a number of empirical laws have been proposed to relate the size reduction
with the energy input to the machine. They are Rittinger s Law (1867), Kick s Law
(1885), and Bond s Law (1952).
According to this law, the wor re uired for size reduction is pro-
portional to the new surface area created. Mathematically, this law can be written as
R =
m
=K S (A
ssp − Assf ) (3.12)
1
where K = constant = .
ηc
Using Eq. (3.9), Rittinger s law can be written as
⎛ 1 1 ⎞
R = = 6K S ⎜ − ⎟ (3.12a)
m ⎝ Φ p Dvsp ρpp Φ f Dvsf ρpf ⎠
For particles of constant sphericity and density, the work required will be
6K S ⎛ 1 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
R = ⎜ − ⎟ = KR ⎜ − ⎟ (3.13)
Φρp ⎝ Dvsp Dvsf ⎠ ⎝ Dvsp Dvsf ⎠
6K S
where, K R = , is known as ittinger s constant.
Φ ρp
Sometimes the expression KES is used as Rittinger s constant. But in the present
6K S
text both the expressions and KES are used as Rittinger s constant. However,
Φρ p
6K S
the expression K R = is more valid as it involves both sphericity and density
Φρ p
terms. The inverse of Rittinger s constant is known as ittinger s number.
Rittinger s law is applicable mainly to that part of the process, where new surface
is being created and holds most accurately for fine grinding where the increase in
surface per unit mass of material is predominant. Also, this law is applied in cases
where the energy input per unit mass of material is not too high. This law is appli-
cable for feed size of less than 0.05 mm.
This law states that the wor re uired for crushing a given mass
of material is constant for a given reduction ratio irrespective of the initial
size. The reduction ratio is the ratio of initial particle size to final particle size.
Mathematically,
P ⎛ ⎞
WK = = K K ln ⎜ vsf
⎟ (3.14)
m ⎝ vsp ⎠
where, KK = ic s constant.
For example, if a given quantity material is being crushed from 100 mm to 20 mm
or, from 30 mm to 6 mm then in both the cases the energy requirement will be the
same as the reduction ratio (100/20 = 30/6 = 5) is same for both the cases.
Kick s law is based on stress analysis of plastic deformation within the elastic
limit. This law is more accurate than Rittinger s law for coarse crushing where the
surface area produced per unit mass is considerably less. This law is applicable for
feed size of greater than 50 mm.
Neither of the two laws mentioned above (Rittinger s or Kick s) give

the accurate energy requirement and both the laws are applicable over a limited range
of particle size, and hence, they have limited utility. But in the year 1952, F C Bond
suggested an intermediate law, which states that the wor re uired to form particles
of size Dpp from a very large particle size is proportional to the s uare root of the
surface to volume ratio sp vp of the product. This law is applicable for feed size
between 0.05 and 50 mm.
Using Eq. (2.1), we have
Sp 6
= (2.1a)
Vp Φ Dp
Mathematically, Bond s law can be written as
⎡⎛ S ⎞ ⎤
6 6 1 1
= K ⎢⎜ ⎥=K
p
= ⎟ =K × = Kb (3.15)
B
m ⎢⎝ Vp ⎠ ⎥ ΦDpp Φ Dpp Dpp
⎣ p⎦
6
where, K is some constant and K b = K = ond s constant.
Φ
But more precisely, Bond s law can be written as
⎛ 1 1 ⎞
B = = K b ⎜ − ⎟ (3.16)
m ⎜⎝ Dpp Dpf ⎟⎠
When feed size is very large, the term 1

becomes negligible and the expres-
Dpf
sion for Bond s law remains same as shown in Eq. (3.15).
The Bond s constant (Kb), is dependent on the type of machine used and on the
material to be crushed. And it is found more accurately using wor index, i. It is
defined as the gross energy re uirement in ilowatt hour per short-ton of feed
h ton of feed to reduce a very large particle to such a size that % of the
product will pass through a - m or . -mm screen.
From the Eq. (3.15), we have
1
i = Kb ⇒ K b = i Dpp (3.17)
Dpp
Now, if P is in kW, m is in tons per hour, and
(i) pp is in μm then Kb = 10 Wi, and
(ii) pp is in mm then K b = 0.1 i = 0 .3162 i.
Thus, if 80% of feed particles pass through a pf mm screen and 80% of product
particles pass through a pp mm screen then Eq. (3.16) can be written as
⎛ 1 1 ⎞
B = = 0.3162 i ⎜ − ⎟ (3.18)
The Bond work index provides a measure of how much energy is required to grind
a sample of materials. Table 3.2 indicates some typical figures, a relative measure of
what they mean. These values are for wet grinding and generally do not vary from one
machine to another. For dry grinding the materials, these values are multiplied by 4/3.
Property Soft Medium ard ery ard

>20
Bond WI, ⎛⎜
kWh ⎞ 7–9 9–14 14–20
⎝ tonne ⎟⎠
All the above three laws can be derived from a generalised

differential equation relating to work required for crushing and the particle size.
Mathematically, this can be written as
⎛ ⎞
( ) = ⎜ ⎟ = −K
Dvs ( ) (3.19)
⎝ m⎠
( )
n
Dvs
Putting n =2, 1, and 1.5 in Eq. (3.19) and integrating between suitable limits, we
will get Rittinger s, Kick s, and Bond s laws respectively.
⎛ 1 1 ⎞
Rittinger s law (Eq. 3.13) is = KR ⎜ − ⎟.
m ⎝ Dvsp Dvsf ⎠
Given in this problem are Dvsf = 50 × 10 −4 m, Dvsp = 10 × 10 −4 m, and m = 20
onne / h.
As 5 kW of power is consumed for running the mill empty out of 40 kW of power
fed to the mill, the actual power consumption is P = 40 – 5 = 35 kW.
Putting all these values in the above equation, we have
35 ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
= KR ⎜ −
20 ⎝ 10 × 10 −4 50 × 10 −4 ⎟⎠
⇒ 1.75 = K R (1000 − 200) = 800 K R

kWh.m
⇒ K R = 2.1875 × 10 −3
tonne
This value of KR is constant for the machine. Now, for Dvsf = 10 × 10 −4 m,
Dvsp = 5 × 10 −4 m, and m = 12 tonne / h, we have
⎛ 1 1 ⎞
= 2.1875 × 10 −3 ⎜ − −4 ⎟
12 ⎝ 5 × 10 −4
10 × 10 ⎠
⇒ = 2.1875 × 10 −3 × 12 ( 2000 − 1000)
⇒ = 26.25 kW (Ans)
Rittinger s law (Eq. 3.12 and 3.13) is
(A − Assf )
m
(
= K R Assp − Assf = ) ssp
Rittinger's number
.
Given in this problem are m = 5 tonne/h = 1.39 kg/s, Assf = 100 m2/kg, Assp = 200
m /kg, and Rittinger s number = 0.0765 m2/J.
2
Thus, the power required for crushing is

200 − 100
= = 1307.19
1.39 0.0765
⇒ = 1816.99 J/s = 1816.99 W
1816.99
⇒ = hp = 2.43 hp (Ans)
745.7
The efficiency of the machine is
2.43
× 100 = 60.75% (Ans)
4
Given in this problem are

Volume surface mean diameter of feed materials, Dvsf = 50 mm,
Volume surface mean diameter of crushed materials, Dvsp = 10 mm, and
kWh
Energy consumption, = 13.0 kW /( kg/s) = 3.61 .
m tonne
Case–I
⎛ 1 1 ⎞
Rittinger s law (Eq. 3.13) is = KR ⎜ − ⎟.
m ⎝ Dvsp Dvsf ⎠
⎛ 1 1⎞
Thus, 3.61 = K R ⎜ − ⎟ = 0.08 K R
⎝ 10 50 ⎠
kWh.mm
K R = 45.125 .
tonne
(
When the same machine is used to crush the same material from 75 mm = Dvsf )
( )
to 25 mm = Dvsp size, then
⎛ 1 1⎞
= 45.125 ⎜ − ⎟ = 45.125 × 0.027
m ⎝ 25 75 ⎠
kWh
⇒ 1.218 (Ans)
tonne
Case–II
⎛D ⎞
Kick s Law (Eq. 3.14) is = K K × ln ⎜ vsf ⎟ .
m ⎝ Dvsp ⎠
⎛ 50 ⎞
Thus, 3.61 = K K × ln ⎜ ⎟ = 1.609 K K
⎝ 10 ⎠
kWh
⇒ K K = 2.24 .
tonne
Now the energy consumption for crushing the same material from 75 mm = Dvsf( )
( )
to 25 mm = Dvsp size, is
⎛ 75 ⎞ kWh
= 2.24 × ln ⎜ ⎟ = 2.46 (Ans)
m ⎝ 25 ⎠ tonne
Rittinger s law (equations 3.12 and 3.13) is

(
Assp − Assf )
m
(
= K R Assp − Assf = )
Rittinger's number
Given in this problem are m = 2700 kg/h = 0.75 kg/s and Rittinger s number for
limestone = 77.4 m2/kJ = 0.0774 m2/J.
For Crusher Assf = 2.9 m2/kg, Assp = 103 m2/kg
Thus, power required, (
= m × K R Assp − Assf )
0.75 × (103 − 2.9)
⇒ = = 969.96J/s = 969.96 W
0.0774
As the efficiency of the crusher is 20 %, the actual power requirement is
969.96
= 4849.8W ≅ 4.85 kW.
0.20
For Grinder Assf = 103 m2/kg, Assp = 865 m2/kg.
Thus, power required, (
= m × K R Assp − Assf )
0.75 × (865 − 103)
⇒ = = 7383.72 J/s = 7383.72 W
0 0774
As the efficiency of the grinder is 25 %, the actual power requirement is
7383.72
= 29534.88 W ≅ 29.53 kW.
0.25
Hence, the total power requirement for the drive to run both the crusher and
grinder is
(Actual Power)Crusher + (Actual Power)Grinder = 4.85 + 29.53 = 34.38 kW (Ans)
⎛ 1 1 ⎞
Bond s law (Eq. 3.18) is = 0.3162 i ⎜ − ⎟.
(i) Given in this problem are m = 150 tonnes/h, P = 270 kW, pf = 50 mm, and
pp = 3 mm.
Thus, work index, i =

⎛ 1 1 ⎞
0.3162 × m × ⎜ − ⎟
⎜⎝ Dpp Dpf ⎟⎠
270
⇒ i = = 13.06 kWh/tonne (Ans)
⎛ 1 1 ⎞
0.3162 × 150 × ⎜ − ⎟
⎝ 3 50 ⎠
(ii) For the same feed at same feed rate, if pp = 1.5 mm, the power required
will be
⎛ 1 1 ⎞
= 0.3162 × m × i ⎜ − ⎟
⎜⎝ Dpp Dpf ⎟⎠
⎛ 1 1 ⎞
= 0.3162 × 150 × 13.06 ⎜ − ⎟ = 418.16 kW (Ans)
⎝ 1.5 50 ⎠
The amount of unground materials (220 microns), the cumulative

amount of ground materials, and the amount of materials ground with time are given
in the table below.
Amount of unground materials 60 20 15 10 8 4

(220 μm), g
Time, s 0 60 90 120 150 240
Cumulative amount of materials 0 40 45 50 52 56
ground (W), g
Amount of materials ground 0 40 5 5 2 4
(ΔW), g
Now, the percentage of materials ground can be calculated by the formula:
⎛ Weight in grams taken − Weight in grams remaining ⎞
⎜⎝ Weight in grams taken ⎟⎠ × 100 = (say)
Now, the incremental % material ground and incremental time are presented in
the following table.
M Δt sec
60 − 20
× 100 = 66 % 60 – 0 = 60
60
20 − 15
× 100 = 25% 90 – 60 = 30
20
15 − 10
× 100 = 33.3% 120 – 90 = 30
15
10 − 8
× 100 = 20% 150 – 120 = 30
10
8− 4
× 100 = 50% 240 – 150 = 90
8
The specific rate of grinding can be found using the following formula:
∑( ⋅ Δ )
∑ (Δ )
=
(66 × 40) + ( 25 × 5) + (33.3 × 5) + ( 20 × 2) + (50 × 4)
56
= 56.63 % per second (Ans)
Size-reduction equipments are classified (Table 3.3) on the basis of:

(i) the mode of operation,
(ii) the method by which a force is applied, and
(iii) the size of feed and product.
(i) Mode of operation

→ Batch operated
→ Continuous operated
(ii) Method by which a force is applied
→ Impact
Impact at one surface
Impact between particles
(Continued )
→ Compression bet een t o solid surfaces
Crushing
Grinding
→ Rubbing t e materials bet een t o surfaces
→ S ear action of t e surrounding medium
→ Nonmec anical introduction of energy
Thermal shock
Explosive shattering
Electrohydraulic crushing
Cryogenic crushing
Ultrasonic grinding
(iii) Size of feed and product
→ Coarse crus ers large feed si e to mm product si e
Jaw crusher (Blake and Dodge)
Gyratory crusher
Cone crusher
Crushing rolls (smooth and toothed rolls)
Bradford breaker
→ Intermediate Crus ers mm to mm product si e
Roller mill
Cage mill
Granulator
Hammer mill
Impactor
Vertical shaft impactor
→ Fine crus ers Grinders mm to ≅ mes
Ball mill
Pebble mill
Rod mill
Tube mill
Attrition mill/Pulveriser
→ ltrafine grinders mm to mm
Fluid energy or jet mill
Colloid mill
Classifying hammer mill
Fine impact mill
→ Cutting mac ines definite si e bet een to mm lengt
Knife
Cutter
Scissors
While selecting a size-reduction equipment, the following criteria must be consid-

ered Pennsylvania, 2006 :
(i) It should produce the materials of desired shape and size or the size distri-
bution desired.
(ii) It should accept the maximum input size expected.
(iii)
It should have a large capacity.
(iv)It should not choke or plug.
(v)It should pass unbreakable materials without causing damage to itself.
(vi)It should operate economically with minimum supervision and maintenance.
(vii)The power input per unit weight of product should be small.
(viii)It should resist abrasive wear.
(ix)It should be dependable and have prolonged service life.
(x)The replacement parts should be readily available at cheaper rate.
(xi)The initial fixed cost and the operating cost should be minimum.
(xii)It should be easy and safe to operate.
(xiii)It should have easy access to internal parts for maintenance and last but not
the least.
(xiv) It should be a versatile one.
The coarse crushers (jaw, gyratory, and crushing rolls) employ mainly the compression
action to large lumps of solid materials and are slow-speed machines. In these machines,
the size reduction results from stresses that are applied to the solid particles to be crushed
by some moving part in the machine and against a stationary part or against some other
moving part. This compression action builds up strain within the particles to be broken,
which results in fracturing whenever they exceed the elastic limit of the materials. And
the coarse crushing is always conducted on dry materials. Another coarse crusher, the
Pennsylvania Bradford Breaker, also widely used, crushes by gravity impact only.
Jaw crushers consist of two crushing faces (jaws) — one of them is fixed vertically to
the frame, while the other one is movable, which is either pivoted at the top or at the
bottom. Depending on the type of arrangement of the movable jaw, the jaw crushers
are classified into two types — bla e and dodge. In the blake type, the movable jaw is
hinged at the top so that the greatest movement at the bottom is given to the smallest
lumps. In the dodge type, the movable jaw is pivoted at the bottom giving minimum
movement of jaw at the bottom by which more uniform products are obtained. But this
type is less widely used because of its tendency to choke. In this text, the discussion
about jaw crushers is kept limited to the Blake type only.
It works on the principle of compression and there are no rubbing

or grinding actions, and it generally produces cubical products with minimum fines.
Generally, the Blake type of jaw crushers has cast-steel

lined supporting frames for a vertical fixed jaw and for a movable jaw pivoted at the
top such that they form a V-opening at the top. The crushing faces of the jaws are
made of manganese steel so as to make them abrasion resistant. The movable jaw
moves in a horizontal plane usually making an angle of 20 to 30 with the fixed jaw.
The jaw faces are of several patterns for gripping the material and for concentrat-
ing the pressure on smaller areas. Figure 3.2 shows some of the jaw-plate profiles. The
nd d d v d
by permission, Metso Minerals Inc.
v d
by permission, Sandvik Mining & Construction, Sweden
standard profile is suitable for both rock and gravel crushing, while heavy-duty profile
is recommended for extremely hard materials. When a high production rate is needed, a
corrugated profile is recommended. Sandvik s jaw plates have the additional advantage
that they are reversible, i.e., they can be used on both the stationary and moving jaws.
In addition to the jaw plates, jaw crushers consist of eccentric, pitman, toggles,
flywheel, shaft, draw back rod (tie rod), and spring. The eccentric causes the pitman to
oscillate vertically, and this vertical motion of the pitman is transmitted to the movable
jaw to have a back-and-forth motion horizontally by the toggles. The movable jaw is
held against the toggle by a tie rod and spring.
Depending upon the number of toggles used, jaw crushers are further classified
into single- and double-toggle aw crushers, as shown in Fig. 3.3 Metso, 2007 .
In the single-toggle jaw crusher, an eccentric shaft is positioned on the top of the
crusher. Shaft rotation causes, along with the toggle plate, a compressive action.
While the double-toggle crusher has two shafts and two toggle plates. The first shaft
in
is pivoted at the top of the crusher, while the second shaft is an eccentric shaft that
drives both toggle plates. The moving jaw has a pure reciprocating motion towards
the fixed jaw. The single-toggle jaw crusher has better capacity compared to a double-
toggle crusher of similar size because the chewing movement in a single-toggle jaw
crusher causes compression at both material intake and discharge regions.
Because the crushing action is intermittent, the loading on the machine is uneven,
and hence a heavy flywheel is incorporated.
The material to be crushed is fed through a hopper between the two jaw plates from
the top. The materials caught between the upper part of the jaws are crushed to smaller
size during the forward motion of the movable jaw. The crushed materials then drop
down to the narrower space during the backward motion of the movable jaw and are
re-crushed during the next forward motion. The materials come out of the bottom of the
machine after sufficient size reduction.
It must be noted that the speed should not be so high that the materials get crushed
several times and produce large quantity of fines.
The Sandvik Jaw Crusher (Fig. 3.4) is a single toggle type of jaw crusher having
the deep symmetrical crushing chamber designed for maximising feed size, capacity,
and size reduction. The nip angle is so adjusted that the material progresses smoothly
down through the crushing chamber to enable high reduction, productivity, and proper
utilisation of jaw plates.
The specialty in Sandvik jaw crushers is that the feed openings are effective and active,
as shown in Fig. 3.5. Due to the symmetrical arrangement of the crushing chamber, the
effective feed opening becomes equal to the nominal feed opening. A replaceable deflec-
tor plate is attached to the top of the moving jaw, which protects the top of the moving
jaw from the impact of the feed materials. The use of a deflector plate is advantageous
as large lumps fall straight into the active region of the crushing chamber, so there is
1.
1. 2.
2. i nd
in i n
in in
ix
.
i n id
4. i
nd
in d
i
5.
7. n nd
6. n di
in
7. i i n
6. 5. 4. .
no need for a stationary cross-wall in
the feed hopper area. Here, all of the
effective feed opening is active and in
material is crushed right at the top
of the crushing chamber. Sandvik
jaw crusher models accept feed
sizes of 800 to 1500 mm and operate
between 200 to 300 rpm.
The Pennsylvania Jaw Crusher
(Fig. 3.6) is a double-toggle type of
jaw crusher accepting feed sizes up
iv d A iv d nin
to 1200 mm and produces a nomi- nin
nal product size as small as 19 mm.
The product size is determined by
the distance between lower ends of
the two jaws which is adjustable.
The moving jaw moves at 250 to
400 strokes per minute.
The theoretical capacity of a jaw

crusher is
ρp A jN j (1 − ε )
= kg/h (3.20)
60
where, rp = density of materials,
kg/m3
A = area of swing, m2
Wj = jaw width, m
Nj = number of swings per minute, min–1, and
e = porosity of particles
The machine must be protected from damage if acci-
dentally some unbreakable materials like nuts, bolts, or iron pieces enter into the crush-
ing zone. This is usually done by making one of the toggles in the driving mechanism
relatively weak, so that if any large stresses are build up, the toggles break first.
Jaw crushers are widely applied to crush rocks of high
or mild hardness to soft ones, and ores as well as to slag, construction materials,
marbles, and many more. They can be used in mining and metallurgical industries,
construction, road, and railways.
Gyratory crushers were developed more recently in order to have greater capacity
over jaw crushers. The crushing process of gyratory crushers is similar to that of
jaw crushers in that the maximum movement is at the bottom but the face is made to
gyrate inside a stationary shell.
Gyratory crushers,
like jaw crushers, employ compressive force
for size reduction.
The gyratory
crusher (Fig. 3.7) consists of two vertical
conical shells, the outer shell having its apex
in downward direction while the inner cone
is positioned with its apex upward. The inner
shell acts as the crushing head, which is in
the form of a truncated cone and is mounted
on an oscillating shaft. The upper end of
this cone is held in a flexible bearing while
the lower end is connected to an eccentric.
The eccentricity causes the conical crushing
head to oscillate between open side setting
(o s s) and closed side setting (c s s) discharge
openings. Hence, the crushing action takes
place around the whole of the cone and is
continuous. The eccentricity also determines
the capacity of gyratory crushers.
The material to be crushed is fed from
the top and is crushed between the stationary outer shell and the crushing head. They
are crushed several times before being discharged from the bottom. An additional
crushing effect occurs between the compressed particles, resulting in less wear of
the crusher materials. This is known as interparticular crushing Metso, 2007 .
As the crushing action is continuous, the fluctuations in stresses are smaller than that
in the jaw crushers. Also, the load on the motor is uniform and the power consumption
is less. These crushers have a large capacity per unit area of grinding surface if used to
produce a small size reduction. Further, these crushers do not take large feed as the jaw
crushers do and produce a more uniform product. Because of high initial investment, to
optimise operating costs, and to improve the product shape, it is recommended to use
gyratory crushers under choke-feed conditions. This can be done using a stockpile or a
silo, which reduces the fluctuations of feed material flow.
Primary gyratory crushers form a critical transition between the mine or quarry
and the plant. They reduce a wide range of feed to a manageable size suitable for fur-
ther processing. Primary gyratory crushers are taller, heavier, and require a massive
foundation than primary jaw crushers. Secondary gyratory crushers are normally
used in the second crushing stage.
In traditional gyratory crushers, the hydraulic adjustment of the main shaft is
used only to compensate for wear. But Sandvik applies modern crusher control
systems, known as utomatic Setting egulation-intelligent S i1 , to fine
tune throughput as well as the size distribution. Sandvik s CG Series of primary
gyratory crushers are available in five sizes. Table 3.4 gives capacity data for the
Sandvik s CG Series gyratory crushers. The CG650 particularly matches the need
1
Trademark of Sandvik Mining and Construction, Sweden.
Model Reference Approximate Feed opening Maximum feed si e ori ontal Motor W pen side Capacity
eig t mm inc mm inc s aft RPM setting range
tonnes mm inc tonnes our
CG650 46 – 71 181 1150 × 3170 800 × 1100 × 1600 460 375 105 – 190 1140 – 2430
(45 × 125) (31 × 43 × 63) (4.1 × 7.5)
CG820 54 – 75 276 1350 × 3350 950 × 1300 × 1900 440 450 125 – 230 1730 – 3620
(53 × 132) (37 × 51 × 75) (4.9 × 9.1)
CG840 61 – 96 451 1550 × 4140 1050 × 1500 × 2100 430 600 150 – 260 2750 – 5420
(61 × 163) (41 × 59 × 83) (5.9 × 10.2)
CG850 61 – 106 523 1550 × 4140 1050 × 1500 × 2100 420 800 180 – 290 4170 – 7750
(61 × 163) (41 × 59 × 83) (7.1 × 11.4)
CG880 65 – 119 748 1650 × 4410 1130 × 1600 × 2260 410 1100 200 – 305 6160 – 10940
(65 × 174) (44 × 63 × 89) (7.9 × 12.0)
of large-scale quarries. The CG800 family covers the broad range of capacities
needed in mining.
The Nordberg Superior MK-II Primary Gyratory Crushers (Fig. 3.8) are based on
the Super Spider concept consisting of an additional top shell using the same base
to obtain a large feed opening and higher capacity. These crushers are equipped with
id in
nd
v d in
in
in
i n
M n n
in M in nd
d n
x n nd
ini n d n
n n d
d i n
M in
ii n
n n n d
in
ii n n
a hydraulic method of vertical adjustment for the main shaft to compensate for wear
and control the product size. The main shaft position system is also used to clear the
crushing chamber. In case of a sudden power failure, the mantle can be lowered to
release the load. These crushers are available in six sizes. Table 3.5 gives capacity
data for the Superior MK-II Gyratory Crushers Metso, 2007 .
Unbreakable materials must be prevented entry into
the crushing zone so as to protect the machine from damage.
The history of roll crushers is more than 200 years old but in recent years they lost
their popularity over jaw and gyratory crushers due to their poor wear characteristics
with hard rocks. Depending on the number of rolls employed, roll crushers are of two
types — single-roll crushers and double-roll crushers. The single-roll crusher is one
of the oldest and the simplest crushers which are mainly used for primary crushing,
whereas double-roll crushers are used for secondary crushing.
Single-roll crushers employ three different methods of size

reduction — impact, shear, and compression.
Single-roll crushers are typically used as primary

crushers. Pennsylvania single-roll crushers (Fig. 3.9) have a roll assembly consisting
of a roll shaft and a fabricated roll shell with integral fixed teeth.
Entering the crusher through the feed hopper, the feed material is struck by the
teeth of the revolving roll. While some breakage occurs here by impact, the rotation
of the roll carries the material into the crushing chamber formed between the
breaker plate and the roll itself. As the turning roll compresses the material against
the stationary breaker plate, the teeth on the roll shear the material.
Sized materials fall directly out through the discharge end of the crusher which is
completely open. As there are no screen bars, there is no re-crushing of the already
sized materials, which helps to reduce the power demand while minimising the fines.
The clearance between the breaker plate and the roll determines the product size
and this clearance is adjustable from outside the machine by a shim arrangement.
The Pennsylvania Crusher Corporation builds several types of single-roll crush-
ers in a great number of sizes and capacities, with product sizes ranging from 75 to
300 mm depending on machine size.
For protection against uncrushable materials, the

breaker plate assembly of Pennsylvania single-roll crushers is attached to an auto-
matic release device. As pressure from the uncrushable is exerted against the plate, the
device allows the entire breaker plate assembly to move away from the roll instantly.
The uncrushable drops out of the machine by gravity and the breaker plate assembly
returns back to its normal position immediately.
Pennsylvania single-roll crushers are used in crushing

petroleum coke, coal, limestone, chemicals, phosphate rock, shale, and many other
materials Pennsylvania, 2006 .
Si e Feed Pinion pen side settings of disc arge opening millimeters inc es
opening RPM
Max KW
mm in
P mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm
42–65 1065 600 375 1635 1880 2100 2320

(42) (500) (1800) (2075) (2315) (2557)
50–65 1270 600 375 2245 2625 2760
(50) (500) (2475) (2895) (3040)
54–75 1370 600 450 2555 2855 3025 3215 3385
(54) (600) (2820) (3145) (3335) (3545) (3735)
62–75 1575 600 450 2575 3080 3280 3660 3720
(62) (600) (2840) (3395) (3615) (4035) (4205)
60–89 1525 600 600 4100 4360 4805 5005 5280 5550
(60) (800) (4520) (4805) (5295) (5520) (5820) (6115)
60–110 1525 514 1000 5575 5845 6080 6550 6910 7235 7605
(60) (1400) (6150) (6440) (6705) (7520) (7620) (7975) (8385)
Note: The above capacities are based on an assumed feed where 100% of the feed passes 80% of the feed opening, 80% of the feed passes 50% of the feed opening and 30%
of the feed passes a sieve size that is 10% of the top size. The capacities are for feed materials with a bulk density of 1,6 tonne/m3 (100 pounds per cubic foot). All capacities are
calculated at maximum throw for each respective machine.
Here, the crushing is primarily accomplished by compression.
Pennsylvania double-roll crushers (Fig. 3.10) consist
of two heavy metal rolls of equal diameter placed horizontally which are rotated
towards each other at same or at different speeds. The rolls are mounted on heavy
shafts. One of the rolls is motor driven while the other roll rotates due to friction. The
gap between the two rolls is adjustable because of two reasons—the product size is
determined by the size of the gap between the rolls and to compensate for wear.
The rolls have narrow faces and are large in diameter so that they can squeeze
sharply (nip) the large lumps. The roll surfaces may be smooth, corrugated, or,
toothed. A number of roll tooth patterns are shown in Fig. 3.11.
The materials to be crushed are fed from the top. As the rolls rotate they are nipped
between them and get crushed by compression, and are discharged from the bottom.
Compression crushing is extremely efficient, as energy is only used to crush those
particles larger than the gap between the rolls. Fines are minimised because already
crushed materials pass freely through the crusher with no further size reduction.
Typical roll dimensions vary from 600 mm (24 in) in diameter with a 300-mm
(12 in) width face to 2000 mm (78 in) in diameter with a 914-mm (36 in) width face.
The speed of rolls varies from 50 to 300 rpm. These machines give a reduction ratio
of 4 to 1 with few fines McCabe, 1993 . Pennsylvania double-roll crushers accept
feed sizes up to 150 mm, though larger feed can be effectively handled in certain
applications Pennsylvania, 2006 .
The machine is protected against damage due to
unbreakable materials like nut or bolts, by spring mounting at least one of the rolls.
It retracts instantly when an unbreakable is encountered, then reverts to its original
position once the unbreakable passes through the crushing chamber with no stoppage
of the crusher.
id id
Double-roll crushers are typically used in situations in

which fines are to be minimised. They are employed for crushing of oil seeds, coal,
phosphate rocks, abrasive materials, lime, limestone, petroleum coke, and explosive
materials in gunpowder industries.
While selecting the rolls for a certain duty, it is necessary to know

(i) the size of feed,
(ii) the size of the product, and
(iii) the amount of material to be handled.
The coefficient of friction between the roll surface and the material to be crushed,
incorporated with a relation between the size of the feed and the size of the product
fixes the diameter of rolls and also determines whether a particle will be drawn into
the rolls and gets crushed or not Brown, 1995 .
The assumptions followed for the calculations are
(i) the particle to be crushed is spherical,
(ii) the roll surfaces are smooth, and
(iii) the gravity of the feed particle is negligible.
Consider a spherical particle of diameter 2 that is to be crushed. It is positioned
between a pair of crushing rolls of diameter 1 as shown in Fig. 3.12. Let 3 be
the minimum spacing between the rolls which is also the maximum dimension of
the crushed particles and AN be the angle between the two common tangents to the
particle and each of the rolls.
Let FT and FN be the tangential and normal forces acting on the particle respectively
at a point of contact with the rolls, and let FR be the resultant force of these two forces.
It may be noted that the particle will be nipped and gets crushed if the resultant
force FR is directed downwards. Otherwise the particle will ride on the rolls or be
thrown up and will not be crushed at all. In other words, if the vertical component
⎛ ⎛ A ⎞⎞
of the tangential force, FTV ⎜ = FT cos ⎜ N ⎟ ⎟ is greater than the vertical component
⎝ ⎝ 2 ⎠⎠
⎛ ⎛ A ⎞⎞
of the normal force, FN ⎜ = FN sin ⎜ N ⎟ ⎟ then only the particle will be nipped and
V
⎝ ⎝ 2 ⎠⎠
crushed between the rolls.
Mathematically, this condition may be written as
TV > N V
⎛A ⎞ ⎛A ⎞
⇒ cos ⎜ N ⎟ > sin ⎜ N ⎟
T
⎝ 2 ⎠ N
⎝ 2 ⎠
D2
AN
FT id
i
C
E R
2
FR
FN AN F
in
2
A D B
R1 R
D1 D
AN
⇒ T
> tan (3.21)
N 2
But, the ratio of the tangential force to the normal force is the coefficient of fric-
A
tion, m. Thus, from Eq. 3.21, we have μ > tan N (3.22)
2
when,
A
μ = tan N (3.23)
2
under this limiting condition of crushing, the angle AN is called the angle of nip. For
all practical purposes, the value of the angle AN is usually taken as 32 .
Now from the triangle AC , we have
⎛ A ⎞ AD
cos ⎜ N ⎟ =
⎝ 2 ⎠ A
AN +
⇒ cos = 1 3
(3.24)
2 1 + 2
D3
where R3 = half the distance between two rolls =
2 .
Equation 3.24 gives the relationship between the size of feed, radius of rolls, and
the gap between the rolls with the angle of nip.
For AN = 32°, we have
⎛ 32° ⎞ + 3
cos ⎜ = cos16° = 0.961 = 1 (3.25)
⎝ 2 ⎟⎠ 1+ 2
Equation 3.24 can also be written in terms of diameters as

A D + D3
cos N = 1 (3.26)
2 D1 + D2
AN
The limiting value for the angle at which the resultant force FR acts horizon-
2
tally is called the angle of bite and under this condition, there will be little or no
crushing at all.
The theoretical capacity of a crushing roll Q in kg/h is given by

= 60 π D1 D3 Nρ (3.27)
where, b = breadth of roll face, m
N = number of revolutions per minute, rpm, and
r = density of the material to be crushed, kg/m3.
The volumetric capacity is affected by speed, nip, diameter, and breadth of roll face.
And, the actual capacity is usually between 10 to 30 per cent of the theoretical one.
AN D1 + D3
(i) From Eq. (3.26) we have cos = .
2 D1 + D2
Given in this problem are AN = 30°, 1 = 150 cm = 1.5 m, and 3 = 1 cm = 0.01 m.
30° 1.5 + 0.01
Thus, cos =
2 1.5 + D2
1.51
⇒ 0.965 =
1.5 + D2
⇒ D2 = 0.0647 m = 6.47 cm is the maximum feed size to the crusher. (Ans)
(ii) The theoretical capacity of crushing rolls (Eq. 3.27) is
= 60π D1D3 Nρ kg / h.
Given in this problem are 1 = 1.5 m, 3 = 0.01 m, b = 50 cm = 0.5 m, N = 100 rpm,
and specific gravity = 2.66.
Thus, the density of limestone = 2.66 × 103 kg/m3.
Now, the theoretical capacity, = 60 × π × 1.5 × 0.01 × 0.5 × 100 × 2.66 × 103
⇒ = 376048.64 kg/h ≅ 376.049 tonne/h (Ans)
Angle of nip (Eq. 3.23) is AN = 2 tan −1 μ and from Eq. (3.26) we have
A D + D3
cos N = 1 .
2 D1 + D2
Given in this problem are m = 0.28, 1 = 140 cm = 1.4 m, and 2 = 60 cm = 0.6 m.
Now, AN = 2 tan−1 m = 2 tan−1 (0.28) = 31.28°.
31.28° 1.4 + D3
Thus, cos =
2 1.4 + 0.6
⇒ D3 = 0.526 m = 52.6 cm is the maximum size of product obtained from this
crusher. (Ans)
And when m = 0.32, the angle of nip, AN = 35.48°.
35.48° 1.4 + D3
Thus, cos =
2 1.4 + 0.6
⇒ D3 = 0.228 m = 22.8 cm is the maximum size of product obtained from this
crusher. (Ans)
NOTE: It is evident from the above results that with the increase of coefficient of
friction, smaller and smaller product size can be obtained using the same feed size
and the same crusher.
2
Bradford breakers crush by gravity impact only.

The Pennsylvania Bradford breaker consists of a
large cylinder made of perforated screen plates, fitted with internal shelves. In many
respects, this crusher resembles with a ball mill without balls. As the cylinder rotates,
the shelves lift the feed and, in turn, the feed slides off the shelves and drops onto the
screen plates below, where it shatters along natural cleavage lines. A roller-mounted
Bradford breaker is shown in Fig. 3.13. Breaker cylinders rotate at slow speeds at 12
to 14 rpm depending upon cylinder diameter. Compared with most other crushers, a
Bradford breaker is extremely long lived.
The size of the screen-plate openings determines the product size.The sized prod-
uct falls through these openings while the oversized pieces will again be lifted and
dropped by the shelves until they too pass through the screen plates.
Uncrushable debris like tramp iron or lumber that enters the breaker along with
the feed is transported to the discharge end of the cylinder. There, these uncrushables
are scooped out continuously by a refuse plow which channels this debris out of the
cylinder and into a disposal bin.
Bradford breakers are used for crushing of coal and
other friable materials. They are used to produce a product that is relatively coarse,
with minimum fines, and that is 100% to size [Pennsylvania, 2006].
In practice, the size-reduction machines used for intermediate crushing are charged
with the product obtained from coarse crushers. The common intermediate crushers
are roller mills, cage mills, granulators, hammer mills, and impactors.
Size reduc-
tion is effected purely by impact.
The
Pennsylvania Cage Mill (Fig. 3.14)
consists of a casing inside which rows
of sleeves are arranged in a circular
manner which are attached to a number
of rotating disks. Feed enters the inner-
most cage where it is initially struck by
the first row of sleeves. They scatter the
shattered materials toward the next row
which rotates in the opposite direction.
Further reduction occurs in the second
row and each successive row until
the material exits the final row, to be
thrown against impact plates that line
the crushing chamber. The sized mate-
rial then discharges through the open
bottom of the mill.
Fine, medium, or coarse size prod-
ucts can be obtained by selecting the
spacing between sleeves on each row.
Product size is also dependent on the
speed of the cages.
Cage mills
are employed for size reduction of
friable, dry bulk substances such as chemicals, grain, fertilizer, coal, slag, glass,
soap and many more, and for the beneficiation of materials that vary in hardness
[Pennsylvania, 2006].
Granulators crush by a combination of impact and rolling

compression.
The Pennsylvania Granulator (Fig. 3.15) uses rows
of ring hammers which crush with a slow, positive rolling action. This produces a
granular product with minimum fines. Granulators produce high reduction ratios at
high capacities. The product size is determined by the screen opening which forms
the bottom of the casing. The product size can also be adjusted by changing the
clearance between the cage and the path of the ring hammers.
For protection against uncrushables, these granulators have a tramp iron pocket
for continuous removal of uncrushables from the crushing zone.
These are used for crushing coal, particularly for power plants.
They are also used for gypsum, salt, chemicals, and for moderately hard materials.
i n
Coalpactors were originated by the Pennsylvania Crusher Corporation to crush

coking coals and to produce an optimum percentage of product below 3 mm (1/8 in),
but with a minimum amount of fines (100 mesh or smaller).
Impact is the main method of size reduction in coalpactors.
A Pennsylvania Coalpactor (Fig. 3.16) is similar to

a simple impactor, but it has breaker plates that are fully adjustable from the outside
of the frame to enable operators to vary the degree of pulverisation. This allows
the maintenance of a uniform
product size throughout the life
of hammers and breaker plates.
The Coalpactor rotor can rotate
both clockwise and counter-
clockwise to provide for equal
wear on both hammer faces. This
helps to extend hammer life and
to reduce maintenance problems.
The Coalpactor is not affected by
uncrushables.
These
are used to crush coking coals
and petroleum coke for fluid bed
boilers. These can be used even
when the coal is wet.
Hammer mills are among the oldest, yet still the most widely used crushers.
Pennsylvania Hammer mills crush the materials in two stages—first, the size reduc-
tion occurs by dynamic impact and then the sizing occurs in the second zone, where
small clearances exist between hammers and screen bars, by attrition and shear.
The advantages of Pennsylvania hammer mills are their ability to produce the spec-
ified top size without the need for a closed-circuit crushing system and to produce a
cubical product with a minimum of flats. Large particles cannot escape the screen bars
until sized, resulting in great product uniformity with a minimum of oversize.
The product size can be controlled by a number of factors, such as
(i) the feed rate,
(ii) the speed of rotation of disk,
(iii) the number and types of hammers used,
(iv) the clearance between the hammers and breaker plates, and
(v) the size of screen opening.
Hammer mills have high reduction ratios and have high capacities whether used
for primary, secondary, or tertiary crushing. Due to excessive wear, these are not
recommended for the fine grinding of very hard and abrasive materials.
In hammer mills, the hammer design plays a significant role as the hammers do
most of the work. The factors taken into consideration while designing the hammers
are mass, general shape, the air paths created by hammer sweep, and heat treatment
Pennsylvania, 2006 .
The centre of gravity determines the focus of impact and must be controlled to
utilise the full mass of the hammer against the feed materials. The shape of the ham-
mers is also important. The hammers may be of T-, bar-, or, of ring-shaped (plain
and toothed) as shown in Fig. 3.17. The hammer heads must be extremely hard and
resistant to wear—this can be done by heat treating the hammer materials.
During rotation of hammers, a large current of air is produced which carries away
a certain amount of fines. These must be directed away from the rotor disk and other
vital parts to prevent premature wear.
Hammer mills are classified into reversible and nonreversible types based on
the rotation of rotor in clockwise or counter-clockwise direction, or in both direc-
tions. Though their construction differs in many respects, their working and crushing
actions remain similar.
In general, the hammer mills consist of a cylindri-

cal casing inside which a high-speed rotating disk (rotor) is incorporated, to which
a number of swing hammers are pinned / hinged. A cylindrical screen or grating is
attached to the bottom of the casing, which encloses all or, part of the rotor.
The material to be crushed is fed either at the top or at the centre through a hopper, and
is thrown out centrifugally and crushed either by hammers or against breaker plates fixed
around the periphery of the casing. The material is beaten several times until it passes
through the screen opening. Due to excessive wear, hammer mills are not recommended
for fine grinding of very hard materials.
In reversible hammer mills, the rotor can run clockwise or counter-clockwise.
Reversal of the rotor permits the operator to utilise the opposite face of the hammer
Basic hammer types
in
d in
for maximum hammer sharpness. Reversal also brings the opposite set of breaker
plates and screen bars into use.
Pennsylvania reversible hammer mills are available in a great variety of sizes and
are used for the size reduction of coal; fuels and sorbents in fluid-bed boiler appli-
cations; and rock, limestone, min-
erals, and chemicals. Reversible
hammer mills for coal (Fig. 3.18)
have more rows of hammers than
found in the reversible hammer
mills used for stone or rock. The
reversible hammer mills for rock
and minerals (Fig. 3.19) have mas-
sive breaker plates and screen bars
than those used for crushing coal
and have fewer rows of hammers
than the coal version. The bottom
of these mills is open and the sized
material passes through almost
instantaneously.
Pennsylvania nonreversible
hammer mills (Fig. 3.20) consist
of a cylindrical grating below the
rotor for product discharge. Size
reduction starts by impact when
the hammer strikes the material
as it enters the crushing zone.
Shattered fragments are swept
down into the final crushing zone
for further reduction at the pinch
points between the hammers and
screen bars. The oversize material
remains in the machine until it is
reduced sufficiently to fit through
the screen bar openings. These
crushers accept feed sizes of up to
750 mm (30 in).
The tighter the clearance
between the screen bars and ham-
mers, the smaller the particle size
of the crushed product.
The
hammers are not fixed to the disk
rather they are hinged, so that the
presence of any hard material does not cause any damage to the machine and if the
hammers are worn out, they can easily be replaced. In these mills tramp iron pockets
are provided for continuous removal of uncrushables from the crushing zone.
The large current of air produced during hammer sweep makes the environment dusty.
Hence, a cyclone separator or a bag filter is used to separate dust from the product.
Reversible hammer mills are employed for reduction of
coals, limestone, rock, minerals, and chemicals; while nonreversible hammer mills
are used for primary or secondary reduction of dry, friable, low abrasive rocks, ores,
and chemicals Pennsylvania, 2006 .
The Vertical Shaft Impactors (VSI) are one type of impact crushers, which
offer higher reduction ratios at a lower energy consumption. These impactors
can be considered as a stone
pump operating like a centrifugal
pump. The material is fed through
the centre of the rotor, where it is
accelerated to high speed before
being discharged through openings
in the rotor periphery. The material
is crushed as it hits the liners of the
outer body at high speed and also
due to the roc -on-roc action, as
shown in Fig. 3.21. These crushers
are mainly used in the production of
fine materials, including sand, with
a good cubical shape.
A number of VSIs are available
in the market. The most popular
VSIs are the Sandvik s CV Series by
Sandvik Mining and Construction,
Sweden, and the Barmac B and VI
Series by Metso Minerals, Finland.
These crushers use the impact and rock-on-rock crushing principle for size reduc-
tion, which minimise wear costs.
Sandvik s CV range of VSI crushers are autogenous VSI crushers covering a capac-
ity range extending to 600 tph nominally. The whole range has been designed to ensure
maximum production and yield of product for the lowest possible power consumption.
Sandvik s VSI crusher is primarily a third or fourth stage crusher. The rock-on-rock
crushing principle offers two main advantages: (i) product gradation remains constant,
even as rotor-wear parts wear, and (ii) contamination rates are extremely low, as no wear
parts are used to directly crush the rock.
Feed material enters the crusher via a rock-lined hexagonal feed hopper, as shown
in Fig. 3.22. Rotor-material feed rate is controlled by the hydraulically operated rotor
throttle gate. This material falls by gravity into the feed tube, which subsequently
feeds the hurricane3 rotor. The crusher uses a rock-lined hurricane rotor to accelerate
material. This material is accelerated by centrifugal force to typically 45 to 62 m/s.
The crushing chamber is lined with a solid bed of material against which the ener-
gised rotor material impacts. It is this high-velocity autogenous impaction that causes
impact, cleavage and attrition of the feed material.
The computer-designed crushing chamber geometry of these crushers give improved
crushing action within the chamber when combined with the i- low3 system. The path
of the material from entry (feed hopper) to exit (discharge chute) is controlled via autog-
enous rock-lined pockets within the crusher. This improved design further reduces points
of contact within the crusher, resulting in extremely low crusher component wear.
Sandvik VSIs have the ability to handle hard, abrasive, fine, moist, or sticky feed
materials, which makes them suitable for all of applications, such as quarries and gravel
plants (production of premium-shaped aggregates for concrete and asphalt); recycling
3
Trademark of Sandvik Mining and Construction, Sweden.
x n
d i i n in
din nd
in
i iv
v
i i d i
i in v dd i n
nd
nd d in id
d n
(processing glass bottles, etc., to sand specification and recycling of ceramics); mines
(liberation of ores for heap leaching and differential liberation of hard particles, e.g.,
gemstones from softer matrix); cement works (crushing cement clinker to maximise
fines prior to milling); and industrial minerals (crushing of highly abrasive minerals,
e.g., fused alumina, silicon carbide, zirconia, mulochite, calcined bauxite, etc.).
Sandvik s CV series of VSI crushers are available in six different sizes accepting
maximum feed sizes from 40 to 55 mm. Their capacity ranges from 10 –50 tph for
CV115 to 445–600 tph for CV129.
Grinders are a variety of size-reduction machines employed for fine grinding which
reduces the intermediate product to a finer size. The common grinders are autog-
enous/semi-autogenous mills and tumbling mills (ball, rod, and pebble mills). These
mills are different in their ratio of diameter-to-length of the cylinder and the type of
grinding media used.
Autogenous (AG) and Semi-Autogenous (SAG) mills are currently the industry stan-
dard for primary milling. These are a type of tumbling mill having a large diameter
relative to their length, generally in the ratio of 2:1 to 2.5:1. Figure 3.23 shows a
10.36 m × 5.18 m (34 ft. × 17 ft.) – 12,500 HP SAG Mill.
Autogenous grinding is the size reduction of material in a tumbling mill utilising
the feed material itself as the grinding media. But the product obtained from AG
mills is inconsistent. The problem is rectified in semi-autogenous grinding, which
is the size reduction of material utilising the feed material plus the supplementary
grinding media, usually steel balls in the range of 5 to 10 per cent of the volume of
the tumbling mill.
AG/SAG mills are normally used to grind run-off-mine ore or primary crusher
product. Feed size to the mill is limited to that size which can be practically conveyed
and introduced into the mill. The mill product can either be finished size ready for
processing, or an intermediate size ready for final grinding in a rod, ball, or pebble
mill. In recent years these mills are finding an increased use in mineral processing
industries like gold, copper, alumina, lead, and zinc.
A cylindrical shell rotating with its axis either horizontal or at a small angle to the
horizontal and charged with a grinding medium to about half its volume constitutes
a tumbling / revolving mill.
Tumbling mills are widely used as fine grinding machines. Generally, tumbling
mills are categorised into four types—ball, rod, tube, and pebble mills, which are
charged with specific grinding media like: steel balls, rods, small balls, and ceramic
pebbles respectively. They may be operated batchwise or continuously. Different
characteristics of these mills are presented in Table 3.6.
In each of these mills, grinding is achieved due to one common action, i.e., the
tumbling action of the grinding media over the feed particles. Among all these, the
ball mill is easy to operate and is the most versatile one for fine grinding, which is
discussed here in detail.
C aracteristics Ball mill Rod mill Tube mill Pebble mill
Principle of Impact Rolling Impact Impact
comminution compression
and attrition
Grinding Balls Steel rods Small balls Pebbles
media and pebbles
Material of Steel High carbon Steel Ceramic pebbles
construction of steel made of flint or
grinding media porcelain
Diameter of 12–125 mm 50 mm – –
grinding media
Feed size Up to 50 mm Up to 25 mm Up to 25 mm Up to 25 mm
Product sizes Fine Uniform fine Fine Fine
L/D ratio 1 to 1.5 : 1 1.5 to 3 : 1 3 to 4 : 1 1 to 2 : 1
Applications Coal, Particularly Same as ball In paint and
pigment, for sticky mill, but the pigment industries,
feldspar for materials and residence and in cosmetic
pottery not suitable for time is more industries where
tough materials here iron contamination
is objectionable.
And also for high
specific gravity
feed
Ball mills are popular due to their low operating and maintenance costs regardless
of whether the material displays Mohs hardness values of over 4 or is soft — such as
limestone or barite.
The principle of size reduction in ball mills is impact of balls,
which fall from the top of the shell on to the feed particles near the bottom of the shell.
In general, ball mills consist of a hollow cylindrical or
conical shell, made of steel or rubber-lined steel, with approximately half-full of steel
balls, rotating about its axis, either horizontal or at a small angle to the horizontal. The
grinding media is the balls, which may be made of steel or stainless steel. The mate-
rial to be ground may be fed in through an opening at one end and the product leaves
through a similar opening at the other end, which is covered with a coarse screen to
prevent the escape of balls. Figure 3.24 shows a ball mill, as provided by Hosokawa
Micron India, Pvt. Ltd., India.
The inner surface of the mill is lined with an abrasion-resistant material such as
manganese steel or rubber. For rubber-lined mills, less wear takes place than steel-
lined mills. Another advantage in case of rubber-lined mills is that due to higher
coefficient of friction between the balls and the cylinder, the balls are carried to a
greater height in contact with the cylinder and thus drop on to the feed particles
from a greater height causing the size reduction to be more effective.
The length of the ball mill is nearly equal to its diameter ( / D ratio varies from 1
to 1.5:1). The balls occupy about 30 to 50 %of the volume of the mill. The diameter
of the balls used varies between 12 to 125 mm. The optimum ball diameter is nearly
proportional to the square root of the size of the feed and the proportionality constant
is a function of the nature of the material to be ground Coulson, 1991 .
The mill is rotated at low speed between 60–100 rpm through a drive gear. During
grinding, the balls themselves wear (wear rate varies from 450 to 1350 g per ton of
product) Brown, 1995 and are constantly replaced by new ones. So, at any point of
time, balls of different ages and various sizes are found inside the mill. This is advan-
tageous because the larger balls crush the coarse feed and the smaller balls grind the
material to a finer product.
For finer grinding, a compound ball mill can be used which consists of two to four
cylindrical compartments separated by grates. Each successive compartment is of
small diameter and contains balls of smaller size Brown, 1995 .
Super-Orion4 Ball Mills (Fig. 3.24) are designed to ensure low-wear and
cost-effective processing. These mills have cast side plates bolted to a rolled-steel
drum with an integrated manhole. Mills are driven by ring and pinion gear with auto-
matically controlled tooth lubrication. The product is discharged through adjustable
slots located around the periphery of the drum.
The speed of rota-
tion is a crucial factor for
ball mills. At low speeds of
rotation, the balls are lifted
and simply roll back over
feed materials. Size reduc-
tion is caused by attrition
and little crushing action
takes place. Under this con-
, dition, the mill is said to be
cascading.
At slightly higher speeds,
the balls are carried up fur-
ther inside the mill and fall
back due to gravity on to the
feed particles at the bottom.
Grinding takes place by
impact and the mill is said to
be cataracting. The ball mill
operating at different speeds
is shown in Fig. 3.25.
din i n F i n If the speed of rotation is
increased further and further,
a stage is reached when the
balls are carried along with
the inside walls of the mill
4
Trademark of Hosokawa Alpine Aktiengesellschaft & Co. OGH, Germany.
due to higher centrifugal force and mv 2
do not fall at all, and the mill is said R−r
to be centrifuging. The minimum D
A r
speed at which centrifuging occurs
B
is called the critical speed of the R
q
mill. mg q
At the critical speed, the balls q
mg
will be at the uppermost position of
the mill and there will be no resul- C
tant force acting on the ball as the
centrifugal force will be balanced
by the weight of the ball. This can
be understood from the following i
mathematical expressions.
Consider at any point of time the
ball is at a point A inside the mill, as
shown in Fig. 3.26.
Let, R = Radius of the ball mill,
m (= AC ),
r = Radius of the ball, m (= AB),
q = Angle between AC and C ,
v = Peripheral speed, m/s, and
m = Mass of the ball, kg.
At location A, the forces acting on the ball are
(i) Force of gravity, mg and

2
(ii) Centrifugal force, m v .
( − )
The component of gravity force opposing the centrifugal force is mg cos q. As long
as the centrifugal force is more than the component of gravity force, the ball will not
loose its contact with the inside wall of the mill. Whenever and wherever these two
opposing forces become equal, the ball will loose contact and will fall down onto the
particles. At this condition,
m v2
mg cos θ =
−
v2
⇒ cosθ = (3.28)
( − )g
But, the peripheral speed is related to the speed of rotation, N by
v = 2π N ( − ) (3.29)
4π 2 N 2 ( − )
Thus, cos θ = (3.30)
g
At critical speed , N = NC and q = 0 . Thus, cos q = cos 0 = 1.
Thus, from Eq. (3.30), we have
4π 2 N C2 ( − )
cos θ = cos 0° = 1 =
g
1 g
⇒ NC = (3.31)
2π ( − )
It is clearly evident from Eq. 3.31 that for increased size of ball, the critical speed
increases for a given size of the mill.
The ball mill finds its application in a great number of
industries, including coal, pigments, feldspar for pottery, food, pharmaceuticals, and
chemicals.
With high feed rates, less size reduction is achieved as the mate-
rial remains inside the mill for a relatively shorter time.
For hard materials, less size reduction is
achieved under a given operating conditions.
Heavyweight balls produce a fine product, which can
be increased either by increasing the number of balls or by using materials of high
densities. And as the optimum grinding condition is achieved when the volume of
balls is half the volume of the mill, the weight of balls is being varied using materials
of different densities.
With small size balls the production of fine size materi-
als is more and they are not effective for larger feed particles. For a given size of balls,
the limiting size reduction achieved is known as the free grinding limit.
With the increase in the slope of the mill, the capacity
increases, at the same time a coarser product is obtained.
As discussed earlier in this section, at low
speed, the balls simply roll over one another and little crushing is achieved and at very
high speed centrifuging occurs and little grinding takes place. For effective grinding, the
ball mills are usually operated between 50 to 75% of the critical speed, i.e., in the fringe
area between cascading and free-fall. This is often referred to as the angle of brea .
With the increase in level of material inside
the mill, the cushioning action increases causing wastage of power, which produces
excessive quantity of undersize materials.
The use of ball mills is advantageous due to the following reasons:

(i) The low cost of installation and of power requirements,
(ii) The cheap grinding medium,
(iii) The mill can be operated batchwise or continuously, and wet or dry,
(iv) The mill is suitable for materials of all degrees of hardness,
(v) As grinding takes place inside the mill where an inert environment can be
easily maintained and, therefore, a ball mill can be used for grinding of
explosive materials, and
(vi) The mill can be used for open and closed-circuit grinding.
1 g
The critical speed from Eq. (3.31) is N C = .
2π ( − )
Given in this problem are = 1000 mm and d = 70 mm.
Thus, R = /2 = 500 mm = 0.5 m and r = d/2 = 35 mm = 0.035 m.
1 9.81
Now, the critical speed, N C = = 0.730 rps = 43.85 rpm .
2π (0.5 − 0.035)
But, the operating speed of the ball mill is 50 to 75% of the critical speed. Hence,
the operating speed is 21.90 to 32.88 rpm. (Ans)
4π 2 N 2 ( − )
We know for a ball mill from Eq. (3.30) cos θ = .
g
Given in this problem are = 2000 mm, d = 100 mm, and N = 15 rpm.
Thus, R = /2 = 1000 mm = 1 m, r = d/2 = 50 mm = 0.05 m, and N = 0.25 rps.
4 × π 2 × ( 0.25) × (1 − 0.05)
2
Now, cos θ = = 0.238.
9.81
Now, the 100-mm steel balls are replaced with 50-mm balls. Hence, r = 50/2 =
25 mm = 0.025 m.
g cos θ
Thus, N=
4π 2 ( − )
9.81 × 0.238
⇒N = = 0.0606
4π 2 (1 − 0.025 )
⇒ N = 0.2461 rps = 14.77 rpm is the speed of the ball mill when the balls are
replaced with 50-mm balls. (Ans)
Rod mills are almost similar to ball mills in appearance and working principle with
the exceptions that the grinding medium here is the rods and the length of the mill is
greater than its diameter. Rod mills can also be cylindro-conical with the cylindrical
section being relatively long and smaller in diameter.
The grinding action in a rod mill is a little different in that the rods are kept apart
by the coarsest particles. Further, the grinding action is exerted on the coarsest par-
ticles preferentially. Thus, the product from a rod mill contains less amount of fines
compared to a ball mill.
Consumption of rods is nearly the same as in case of a ball mill employed for a
similar duty using steel balls Gaudin, 1971 .
A great variety of ultra-fine grinding machines are on the market to grind both dry
as well as wet materials. These reduce the solids to an average particle size of 1 to 20
microns. Some of the popular ultra-fine grinding machines are: Fine Impact Mills,
Spiral Jet Mills, Fluidized-Bed Opposed Jet Mills, Fluid-Energy Mills, Classifying
Hammer Mills, etc. and a few are discussed here.
The Hosokawa Alpine Fine Impact Mills UPZ5 offer versatility and simplicity, because
of the wide variety of materials to be ground, where every size-reduction task demands
its own solution. UPZ is also called Universal Mill, since it can be used to grind all
kinds of materials. UPZ grinding technology delivers excellent product quality on a
constant basis over extensive production periods. A decisive factor for their efficiency
and operating safety is not only the high mechanical robustness, but also the ease with
which the wear parts can be exchanged and the possibility of thoroughly cleaning the
machine during product change. The UPZ models range from the size of 100 to 1400
(model number refers to the approximate diameter of the grinding media in mm).
Impact mills work on the principle by impact of fast revolv-
ing hammers with the particle and by collision of particles over the specially designed
stationary grinding tracks on the walls of the grinding chamber.
Hosokawa Alpine Fine Impact Mills UPZ are
high-speed impact mills with one rotating and one stationary stud disk, as shown
in Fig. 3.27. According to the system, the material is fed through the front door at
the middle, directly into the grinding chamber of the UPZ. Due to impact and col-
lision, the particle size-reduction occurs in the grinding chamber. The chamber has
been designed to accommodate interchangeable size-reduction elements, such as
beater and pin disks, swing and plate beaters, sieves, and grinding tracks accord-
ing to the different kinds of material, capacity, and fineness required by the manu-
facturers. The mill also has inbuilt interchangeable sieving screens by which the
particle size can be maintained with reference to the size of the mesh chosen. The
end product has the fineness in the range of 50 μm to 5 mm.
The Alpine Fine Impact Mills UPZ can be employed for
different products and applications—even under extreme conditions. Typical appli-
cation areas and some of the materials are chemical industries (fertiliser, pesticide,
paints and pigments); pharmaceutical industries (antibiotics, herb teas, roots, rose
5
Trademark of Hosokawa Alpine Aktiengesellschaft & Co. OGH, Germany.
hips); herbs and spice industries (savoury, rosemary, onions, turmeric); food and
confectionery industries (oat and potato flakes, casein, skimmed milk powder, sugar,
starch, food colourings); animal feed industries (soya meal, freeze-dried meat, corn
cobs); wood and chipboard industries; mineral powder industries; plastics industries
(PVC, PTFE, PE); etc.
UPZ can also be used with the system of cryogenic grinding with liquid nitrogen and
it also comes with a special design of a 10-bar (over pressure) grinding system for grind-
ing dust explosive materials, acrylic resin, cornstarch, sugar, insecticides, vitamins, etc.
The Alpine Spiral Jet Mill 50 AS is ideal for the ultrafine comminution of dry substances
with a crystalline structure to a Mohs hardness of 3, whereby particle sizes in the range
between 5 μm and 30 μm are achieved. Even extremely small amounts can be processed
easily with maximum yield. Thus, it finds its use mainly in pharmaceutical industries.
Impact and attrition are the main mode of size reduction.
In the Alpine Spiral Jet Mill 50 AS, the grinding air flows
through the socket into the air ring ducting, as shown in Fig. 3.28. As a result of the spiral
arrangement of the nozzles, the grinding air enters the grinding bin at high velocity. The
propellant air enters the injector via the socket. The feed material is suction-transferred
out of the feed chute into the grinding chamber by the propellant air exiting the injector.
The material is immediately caught up in the grinding air in the area where the air-flow
spirals. The particles are comminuted as a result of their impacting against each other and
against the nozzle ring. The fines are conveyed by the grinding air to the discharge port,
whereas coarse material is catapulted to the periphery again where it is re-ground.
These units are extremely compact and lightweight and are ideal for laboratory
applications. These mills achieve particles with a fineness of nearly 5 μm at pressures
as low as 4–5 bar.
These mills are suitable for the processing of numerous
pharmaceutical substances including parenterals, DPI (Dry Powder Inhalants), and
other active substances.
The fluidised-bed opposed jet mills are better and more versatile solutions for ultra-
fine size reduction of materials up to a Mohs hardness of 10. These mills are used
for manufacturing powders with a steep particle size distribution and sharp top size
limitation in the range < 5 μm to 200 μm. These mills require less energy than any
other conventional jet mills and the noise emission is less than 8 dB(A).
Inter-particle attrition and impact are the main mode of size

reduction in these mills.
The material is fed either by gravity from the side or

via a rotary valve, as shown in Fig. 3.29. First, a bed of material is prepared and the
compressed air (called grinding gas) through the nozzle is switched on. The air is of
20 C and 6 bar over pressure and comes out of the nozzle with a tip speed of around
500 m/s. As a result of this, the fluidisation of bed material takes place which enables
inter-particle collision, i.e., particles hit against each other and micronisation takes
place.
Due to the high-speed classifier which is rotating on the top, the classifying air
flows through the classifying wheel in centripetal direction; the fines are sucked/
extracted and conveyed to the fines discharge. The coarse material is rejected back
to the milling area for further milling. The fineness is controlled by the speed of
the classifying wheel using a frequency converter, i.e., at different speeds, different
micron sizes.
The micronisation in AFG is exclusively the result of particles impacting
against each other in the gas jets and is therefore contamination-free. This means,
extraordinary purity can be achieved using these mills. That is also the reason why
many pharmaceutical companies in India as well as worldwide have this system for
contamination-free grinding of pharmaceutical powders.
Typical application areas of fluidised-bed opposed jet mills
are grinding of highly pure substances such as fluorescent powders, silica gels, silicic
acids for chromatographic applications, etc.; highly abrasive materials such as tungsten
carbide, silicon carbide, boron carbide, corundum, etc.; temperature sensitive substances
like plant protectives, wax, resins, fats, hydrogenated oils, etc.; minerals like talcum,
mica, graphite, quartz; cryogenic grinding with liquid nitrogen; and toner grinding.
In almost all the size-reduction equipments, most of the input energy is lost and the
crushing efficiencies are less, as discussed earlier in this chapter. Thus, the cost of size-
reduction process is comparatively high. Hence, there is a need to operate the machines
effectively and efficiently, so as to prevent further loss of power and money.
A size-reduction equipment, whether crusher or grinder, cannot work effectively,
unless
(i) the method of feeding the solids is proper (the feed should be of suitable size
to a particular equipment and the feed should enter at a uniform rate),
(ii) the crushed products are removed as soon as they are produced ,
(iii) the heat generated is removed , and
(iv) the unbreakable material is kept out of the crushing zone.
The solids can be fed to a machine in two distinct ways:
(i) The first case, where the material is fed at a low rate so that the product can come
out easily, is known as free crushing or free feeding. Here, the retention time is
short and hence, the product contains less quantity of undersize materials.
(ii) The second case, where the machine is kept full of materials so that the
materials remain in the machine for a long time, is known as cho e feeding.
This method results in a high degree of crushing as the materials are crushed
several times, resulting into production of large quantity of undersize materials.
Hence, in this method the large reduction ratio is achieved. But at the same
time, the capacity of the machine is reduced and the energy consumption is
high because of the cushioning action produced by the fine materials accumu-
lated. This method is, therefore, used in a limited number of cases, like when
it is desired to complete the size-reduction process in one operation and when
a small amount of materials is to be crushed.
In many industrial practices, the feed material is reduced to the desired size by pass-
ing it once through the machine. And when no attempt is made to return the oversize
material back to the machine, the process is known as open-circuit crushing grinding.
On the other hand, if partially ground material from the machine is screened, from
where the oversize material is fed back to the machine again for further reduction,
the process is known as closed-circuit crushing grinding. This process requires
less energy as compared to open-circuit grinding and is widely used in industries.
MA OF
A O
M
Ov i
F d
nv
Fini d d
i d 0 5 d 100 200 d i n vi in
d n nd n
i nd
i i
A typical set of size-reduction machines and separators operating in closed circuit
is shown in Fig. 3.30 and a portable plant consisting of a vibrating feeder, grizzly,
primary jaw crusher, secondary cone crusher, vibrating screen, and belt conveyors
operating in a closed circuit is shown in Fig. 3.31.
The crushing/grinding operation can be carried out either as wet or dry, but wet
grinding is generally applicable only with low-speed mills. Wet grinding is preferred
over dry grinding due to
(i) low power consumption (nearly 20 to 30% less),
(ii) increased capacity of the plant,
(iii) easy removal of the product,
(iv) amount of fines is reduced,
(v) ease in solids handling,
(vi) reduction in dust formation, and
(vii) low heat generation.
At the same time the disadvantages of wet grinding are
(i) it may be necessary to dry the products after grinding, and
(ii) high wear on grinding medium.
Es ( Assp − Assf )
❑ ηc =
Wa
Wa
❑ ηm =
W
6E s m ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
❑ P= ⎜ − ⎟
ηmηc ρp ⎝ Φp Dvsp Φ f Dvsf ⎠
❑
⎛ 1 1 ⎞
WR = K R ⎜ − ⎟.
⎝ Dvsp Dvsf ⎠
P ⎛D ⎞
WK = = K K ln ⎜ vsf ⎟ .
m ⎝ Dvsp ⎠
P ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
WB = = 0.3162 Wi ⎜ − ⎟
m ⎝ Dpp Dpf ⎠
d (W ) = d ⎛ ⎞ = − K
P ( )
d Dvs
⎝ m⎠
( )
n
D vs
ρp AWj N j (1 − ε )
❑ Q= kg/h.
60
❑
❑ Q = 60π D1D3 bN ρ
1 g
❑ NC =
2π ( R − r )
❑
❑
1. Why is size reduction carried out the friction, as heat, and as sound. Thus,
Size reduction of solids is carried out for the energy efficiencies are less.
a number of reasons: 5. Discuss the range of applicability of
(i) to increase the surface area, crushing laws.
(ii) to produce solid particles of desired Rittinger s law holds most accurately for
shape, size or size ranges, and specific fine grinding where the increase in surface
surface, per unit mass of material is predominant.
(iii) to separate unwanted particles This law is applicable for feed size of less
effectively, than 0.05 mm. Kick s law is more accu-
(iv) to dispose solid wastes easily, rate than Rittinger s law for coarse crush-
(v) to mix solid particles more ing where the surface area produced per
intimately, and unit mass is considerably less. This law
(vi) to improve the handling is applicable for feed size of greater than
characteristics. 50 mm. Bond s law is applicable for feed
2. Differentiate between gravity impact size between 0.05 and 50 mm.
and dynamic impact. 6. Give examples of a few cases of size
In gravity impact, the free-falling mate- reduction involving nonmechanical
rial is momentarily stopped by the sta- introduction of energy.
tionary object. Coal dropped onto a hard Size-reduction methods involving non-
steel surface is an example of gravity mechanical introduction of energy are
impact; while materials dropping in explosive shattering, cryogenic crush-
front of a moving hammer is an example ing, ultrasonic grinding, electrohydraulic
of dynamic impact. When the materi- crushing, and thermal shock.
als are crushed by dynamic impact, the
7. How does a dodge-type of jaw crusher
materials are unsupported and the force
differ from that of a Blake type
of impact accelerates the movement of
In Blake types of jaw crushers, the mov-
the reduced particles towards the breaker
able jaw is hinged at the top so that the
plate and/or other hammers.
greatest movement at the bottom is given
3. Name the properties of solids to the smallest lumps; while in Dodge-
affecting the size-reduction operation. types, the movable jaw is pivoted at the
Properties of solids affecting the bottom giving minimum movement of
size-reduction operation are hard- the jaw at the bottom by which more
ness, toughness, stickiness, moisture uniform products are obtained. But, this
content, friability, explosive nature, type is less widely used because of its
soapiness, crystallinity, and temperature tendency to choke.
sensitivity. 8. Differentiate between single- and
4. Why are the crushing efficiencies double-toggle jaw crushers.
low In the single-toggle jaw crusher, an
Out of the total energy supplied, only a eccentric shaft is positioned on the top
small portion (maximum one per cent) is of the crusher. Shaft rotation causes,
utilised for the creation of a new surface along with the toggle plate, a compres-
and rest of the energy is lost to overcome sive action. The double-toggle crusher
has two shafts and two toggle plates. where it is accelerated to high speed
The first shaft is pivoted at the top of before being discharged through open-
the crusher, while the second shaft is an ings in the rotor periphery. The material
eccentric shaft that drives both toggle is crushed as it hits the liners of the outer
plates. The moving jaw has a pure recip- body at high speed and also due to the
rocating motion towards the fixed jaw. rock-on-rock action.
The single-toggle jaw crusher has better 13. Suggest size reduction equip-
capacity compared to a double-toggle ments to reduce 2 mm size coal
crusher of similar size because the particles to 200 mesh.
chewing movement in a single-toggle Ball mill, rod mill, pebble mill, pulver-
jaw crusher causes compression at both iser, and tube mill.
material intake and discharge regions.
14. What do you understand by
9. What is the difference between a
cascading, cataracting, and centri-
crusher and a grinder
fuging
The crushers employ mainly the com-
For a ball mill operating at low speeds of
pression action to large lumps of solid
rotation, the balls are lifted and simply
materials and are slow-speed machines.
roll back over feed materials. Size reduc-
These reduce materials of large feed
tion is caused by attrition and little
size to (50–5) mm product size, while
crushing action takes place. Under this
grinders are employed for fine grind-
condition, the mill is said to be cascad-
ing of intermediate products of 5 to 2
ing. At slightly higher speeds, the balls
mm size to finer ones of ≅ 200 mesh
are carried up further inside the mill and
size.
fall back due to gravity on to the feed
10. Give four examples of interme- particles at the bottom. Grinding takes
diate crushers. place by impact and the mill is said to
Cage mill, roller mill, hammer mill, and be cataracting. If the speed of rotation
impactor. is increased further and further, a stage
11. What are angle of nip and angle of is reached when the balls are carried
bite along with the inside walls of the mill
A due to higher centrifugal force and do
When coefficient of friction, μ = tan N , not fall at all, and the mill is said to be
2
under this limiting condition of crush- centrifuging.
ing, the angle AN is called the angle of 15. Why is the closed circuit grinding
nip. For all practical purposes, the value generally chosen over open-circuit
of the angle AN is usually taken as 32°. grinding method
And when the limiting value for the In open-circuit grinding no attempt is
A made to return the oversize material
angle N for which the resultant force
2 back to the machine. While in closed-
FR acts horizontally, it is called the angle circuit grinding, partially ground mate-
of bite, and under this condition there rial from the machine is screened,
will be little or no crushing at all. from where the oversize material is fed
12. Discuss the operating principle of back to the machine again for further
vertical-shaft impactors. reduction, and this process requires
The vertical-shaft impactors are a type less energy as compared to open-
of impact crushers to which the mate- circuit grinding and is widely used in
rial is fed through the centre of the rotor, industries.
1. What do you understand by the term 11. Explain in detail the construction
size-reduction’? and working of various coarse
2. What are the objectives behind size crushers with neat sketches. Mention
reduction? their advantages, disadvantages, and
3. What are the different actions industrial applications.
commonly employed by the size 12. Explain in detail the construction
reduction equipments? Classify them. and working of various intermediate
4. What should be the criteria for the crushers with neat sketches. Mention
selection of size-reduction equip- their advantages, disadvantages, and
ments? industrial applications.
5. Discuss the properties of the material 13. Discuss the construction and operation
and the factors that affect the size- of vertical-shaft impactors.
reduction process. 14. Explain in detail the construction
6. How do the solid particles break into and working of various grinders with
smaller fragments? neat sketches. Also, mention their
7. How the energy and power advantages and disadvantages along
consumption play an important role with their industrial applications.
in size reduction? 15. Distinguish between autogenous and
8. What is crushing or grinding semi-autogenous grinding mills.
efficiency? How are the energy and 16. Explain in detail the construction
power consumption are related to and working of various ultra-fine
crushing or grinding efficiencies? grinders with neat sketches. Also,
9. Why do we require more and more mention their advantages and disad-
power to grind smaller and smaller vantages along with their industrial
particles? applications.
10. Discuss the empirical laws for size 17. How should the comminuting equip-
reduction. ments be operated?
1. A certain crusher accepts the feed rock 800 kg/h from the initial diameter of 12
having a volume–surface mean diameter mm to the final diameter of 2 mm. If it is
of 20 mm and discharges a product having required to produce particles of 1-mm size,
a volume–surface mean diameter of 5 mm. what would be the output rate of the grinder
The power required to crush 1200 kg/h (in kg/h) for the same power input?
of material is 9.5 kW. What would be 470.32 kg/h
the power consumption if the capacity is 3. What will be the power required to
reduced to 100 kg/h and the product size crush 150 ton/h of limestone (work index
to 4 mm? Assume mechanical efficiency for limestone is 12.74) if 80% of the feed
to be same in both the cases. passes a 60-mm screen and 80% of the
1.054 kW product passes a 6-mm screen?
2. A continuous grinder obeying the Bond 168.68 kW
crushing law grinds a solid at the rate of
4. What should be the diameter of a set screen is washed to a product with 80 %
of rolls to take feed of a size equivalent passing through a 5-mm screen. If power
to 0.04 m sphere and crush to 0.01 m, if required for crushing is 80 kW, what is
the coefficient of friction is 0.35 the capacity of the crushing unit Work
0.484 m index for gypsum is 6.73 kWh/tonne.
5. A double-roll crusher having a set 122.9 tonnes/h
of crushing rolls of 100-cm diameter 10. A set of crushing rolls of 50-cm
and 35-cm width face are set so that the diameter takes a feed of a size equivalent to
crushing surfaces are 1.4 cm apart at the 5 cm sphere to crush to 12 mm. What is the
narrowest point. Find out the maximum value of coefficient of friction of the rolls
permissible feed size to the crusher if the = 0.392
angle of nip is 32 . 11. 2 tonnes of galena is to be reduced
5.51 cm to fine powder by passing through a
6. Derive the three laws of size crusher and a grinder in succession,
reduction from the generalised equation: drawing power from the same drive.
⎛ ⎞ ( )
Dvs Screen analysis of feed, product from the
⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ = − K . crusher, and product from the grinder
( )
n
m Dvs indicated surface areas of 3, 114, and 900
m2/kg respectively. If the power required
7. Power required to crush 100 tonnes/h by the drive to run the crusher–grinder
of limestone is 123 kW. If 80% of the feed assembly is 18 kW and efficiency of the
passes through a 50-mm screen and 80% crusher is 25 %, find the efficiency of
the product passes through a 5 mm screen, the grinder. Rittinger s number of galena
find out the work index of limestone. = 95.7 m2/kJ.
12.72 kWh/tonne
29.6 %
8. Particles of the average feed size of
12. A cement manufacturing unit
3 mm are crushed to an average product
uses a set of crushing rolls to crush
size of 0.6 mm at the rate of 15 tonnes/h. dolomite (specific gravity = 2.85)
At this rate, the crusher consumes
from a maximum feed size of 6.5 cm
35 kW of power of which 5 kW are to a product size of 1 cm. The rolls
required for running the mill empty. If with a width of 50 cm run at 90 rpm
the same material is crushed further to
and have a clearance of 1 cm between
0.1-mm size at the same rate, what is the
them. If the angle of nip is 30°, find
additional power requirement the diameter of the rolls and the actual
187.5 kW capacity, if the actual capacity is 15 %
9. A feed of gypsum with 80 % of of the theoretical one.
material passing through a 50-mm 1.552 m, 56.28 tonne/h
1. Rittinger s law is best applicable to 2. For feed size greater than 50 mm, the
feed materials of crushing law applicable is
(a) fine size (a) Rittinger s law
(b) coarse size (b) Kick s law
(c) intermediate size (c) Bond s law
(d) coarse and intermediate sizes (d) all the above laws
3. The value of work index (kWh/tonne) (c) fine crusher
for hard material is: (d) ultrafine grinder
(a) 7 – 9 11. The method(s) by which size
(b) 9 – 14 reduction of solids takes place in the
(c) 14 – 20 equipments is/are
(d) greater than 20 (a) compression and impact
4. Jet mill comes under the category of (b) attrition
(a) grinder (c) cutting
(b) intermediate crusher (d) all of the above
(c) coarse crusher 12. Rittinger s number has the unit of
(d) ultra fine grinder (a) m2/J
5. An example of an intermediate (b) kJ/cm2
crusher is a (c) m.kgf /kgm
(a) roll crusher (d) m.kgf /m2
(b) cage mill 13. Bond s law is applicable for feed sizes
(c) rod mill (a) greater than 50 mm
(d) ball mill (b) less than 50 microns
6. Reduction ratio of a coarse crusher (c) greater than 50 micron and less than
varies from 50 mm
(a) 1 – 2 (d) greater than 50 micron and less than
(b) 3 – 7 5 mm
(c) 8 – 12 14. An example of a crushing equipment
(d) >12 in which size reduction as well as screening
7. The hardness of the following materials of the product can be achieved is a
expressed in Mohs scale in the increasing (a) Bradford breaker
order will be (b) cone crusher
(a) diamond, bauxite, marble, talc (c) cage mill
(b) bauxite, diamond, talc, marble (d) granulator
(c) talc, bauxite, diamond, marble 15. Soft material like ice can be crushed
(d) talc, marble, bauxite, diamond to smaller size by a
8. An example of an ultrafine grinder is (a) jaw crusher
(a) semi-autogenous mill (b) Cage mill
(b) ball mill (c) crushing rolls
(c) fluidised-bed opposed jet mill (d) hammer mill
(d) pebble mill 16. Reduction ratio is the ratio of
9. Size-reduction equipment required to (a) initial particle size to final particle size
get a product of 0.2-mm size from a feed (b) final particle size to initial particle size
of 2-mm size is a (c) none of the above
(a) hammer mill (d) all the above
(b) Bradford breaker 17. An example of a size-reduction
(c) semi-autogenous mill equipment in which feed materials itself
(d) fluidised-bed opposed jet mill is used as grinding media is
10. Cone crusher is reduction equipment (a) pebble mill
under the category of (b) autogenous mill
(a) intermediate crusher (c) semi-autogenous mill
(b) coarse crusher (d) vertical shaft impactor
18. For effective grinding, the ball mills (c) fluidised bed opposed jet mill
are usually operated between to (d) rod mill
% of the critical speed. 20. In a double-roll crusher, little or no
(a) 60 to 90 crushing is observed when the resultant
(b) 30 to 50 force (of tangential and normal forces
(c) 40 to 80 acting on a particle at a point of contact
(d) 50 to 75 with the rolls) acts
19. The grinding mill used for size (a) vertically upwards
reduction of materials up to a Mohs (b) vertically downwards
hardness of 10 is (c) horizontally
(a) ball mill (d) none of the above
(b) spiral jet mill
1(a); 2(b); 3(c); 4(d); 5(b); 6(b); 7(d); 8(c); 9(a); 10(b); 11(d);
12(a); 13(c); 14(a); 15(c); 16(a); 17(b); 18(d); 19(c); 20(c)
Dvs
vsf vsp
m
Mix
i i
di n i
n
I
Depending on the raw mixture, various separation processes are employed, which are
broadly categorised into two groups—chemical diffusional and mechanical.
In chemical separations, the transfer of material takes place from one phase to another
through various unit processes, for example, distillation, gas-absorption, adsorption,
drying, and are based on the differences in physico-chemical properties like boiling
point and solubility, which are beyond the scope of discussion of this text.
Mechanical separation techniques are based on the differences in phase density, and
phase fluidity, and in such mechanical properties of particles as size, shape, colour,
and density; and on such particle characteristics as wettability, surface charge, mag-
netic susceptibility, and electrical conductivity. Such techniques are applicable to the
separation of phases in a heterogeneous mixture; however, they may be applied to all
kinds of mixtures containing two or more phases: S–S, S–L, S–G, L–L, L–G, G–G,
or S–L–G.
Various types of chemical and mechanical separation processes are given in
Table 4.1. The choice of separation depends on the pros and cons of these two meth-
ods. The mechanical separation methods are usually favoured, if possible, due to the
lower cost of the operations as compared to the chemical methods. Mixtures that
cannot be separated by purely mechanical means are treated by chemical methods.
1
S = Solid, L = Liquid, G = Gas phases
Sometimes, a combination of these two is employed for better efficiency and
economic reasons.
C emical met ods Mec anical met ods

Absorption Centrifugal separations
Adsorption Chromatography
Crystallisation Classification
Distillation Decantation
Drying Electrostatic separation
Electro-phoresis Elutriation
Evaporation Filtration
Extraction (L-L and S-L) Floatation
Stripping/Desorption Flocculation
Sublimation Fractional freezing
Winnowing Jigging
Magnetic separation
Precipitation
Scrubbing
Sedimentation
Sieving
Sorting
Tabling
The mechanical separation techniques are broadly classified as

(i) those employing a selective barrier such as a screen or a filter media,
(ii) those depending on the difference in phase density alone,
(iii) those depending on the fluid and particle mechanics, and
(iv) those depending on the surface, electrical, or magnetic properties of
particles.
Separation by a certain process depends on some physical properties of the
solids. For example, if a material is to be separated into various size fractions on
dry basis, a screening method is chosen as this method mainly depends on the
size of solid particles. The separation based on the differences in the behaviour
of solids in a static or moving fluid (on wet basis) depends mainly on the density.
Generally, large particles are separated into size fractions by screening and small
particles which may clog the fine screens are separated by using fluid or fluid
motion. But, density separation becomes ineffective with decrease in particle size.
For particles below 100 μm size, separation methods use magnetic, electrical, and
surface properties. A great variety of mechanical separation devices are in current
use and a few of them are listed in Table 4.2, grouped according to the phases
involved.
P ases separated E uipments
L from L Settling tanks/Coalescers/Liquid cyclones/Centrifugal
decanters
G from L Foam breakers/Deaerators/Still tanks
L from G Settling chambers/Cyclones/Electrostatic precipitators
(ESPs)/Impingement separators
S from L Filters/Clarifiers/Thickeners/Hydrocyclones/Wet screens/
Centrifuges
L from S Presses/Centrifugal extractors
S from G Settling chambers/Air filters/Bag filters/Cyclones/
ESPs/Scrubbers/Impingement separators/High-tension
precipitators
S from S
– by size Screens/Air and wet classifiers/Centrifugal classifiers
– by density Jigs/Tables/Spiral concentrators
– by magnetic and Magnetic separators/Electrostatic separators
electrical properties
– by surface properties Floatation cells
❑
1. What are the benefits of a separation Due to the lower cost and ease of the
process operations, mechanical separation meth-
(i) Produces valuable components ods are preferred over the chemical
(ii) Discards undesirable components ones.
of the mixture
(iii) Reduces transportation and han- 4. Name a few equipments used for the
dling costs separation of solids from a solid–gas
mixture.
2. Discuss the parameters which
(i) Settling chamber (ii) Bag filter (iii)
constitute the basis for mechanical
Electrostatic precipitator (iv) Cyclone
separations.
(v) Scrubber
Any difference in physical properties like
size, shape, density, colour, and surface, 5. Name the properties upon which
magnetic, and electrical properties can the separation of finer particles below
be the basis for mechanical separations. 100-micron size depends.
3. Why are the mechanical separation Finer particles below 100-micron size
methods favoured over the chemical are separated using surface, electrical,
ones and magnetic properties.
1. What do you understand by separation 3. Discuss in detail about mechanical

process Discuss its importance. separation techniques and classify
2. Discuss in detail the various separation them.
processes. 4. Write in brief about the separation
of solids from different phases by
mechanical means.
1. The basis for mechanical separation is (c) jigging

(a) size (d) flocculation
(b) density 3. A clarifier is used to separate
(c) electrical conductivity (a) a liquid from a liquid–liquid
(d) all of the above mixture
2. An example of a chemical separation (b) a solid from a solid–liquid
process is mixture
(a) evaporation (c) a solid from a solid–solid mixture
(b) filtration (d) a solid from a gas–solid mixture
4. For solid particles below 100 μm size, 5. Separation of solid from a solid–liquid
the property used for separation is mixture is achieved by
(a) density (a) foam breaker
(b) size (b) settling chamber
(c) magnetic property (c) cyclone
(d) shape (d) hydrocyclone
1(d); 2(a); 3(b); 4(c); 5 (d)

Mix
i
F id
in
n v nd n di i nd in
i i i
Screening is the process of separating a mixture of particles of different sizes into
two or more number of fractions, each of which is more uniform in particle size
than the original mixture. In screening practice, a mixture of particles is taken and
separated into multiple grades on the basis of particle size, as shown in Fig. 5.1.
This practice is followed in a great
variety of industries, such as mining
and mineral processing, food, chemi-
cal, agriculture, plastics, recycling, and
pharmaceuticals. Figure 5.2 illustrates
the screening operation.
The purpose of screening need not
to be over emphasized, but to recall, a
few important purposes of screening
are
(i) to remove the coarse particles
for further size reduction,
(ii) to remove the fine particles
from crusher feeds to save power by
F din : i preventing over-grinding,
d (iii) to grade the crushed products
into commercial sizes, and
nin
(iv) to perform a step in a concen-
F d x tration process.
Screening is accomplished by pass-
in d in d ing the material in an open cylindri-
d cal container with uniformly spaced
openings of the desired size at the base
called the screen. The screen through
which the particles have passed is called the limiting screen and which has retained
them is called the retaining screen. Material that remains on a given screening surface
is the oversize (>) or plus (+) material and that passing is the undersize (<) or minus
(−) material Taggart, 1945 .
Screening falls under two general categories — dry and wet. Dry screening refers
to the treatment of a material containing a natural amount of moisture or a material
that has been dried before screening. Products like cement, talcum powder, or alu-
minum powder are screened dry. et screening refers to an operation in which water
is added to the material on the screen to remove undesirable materials, mostly clay
and extremely fine particles. Wet screening is also employed for the classification
of fines and moist materials whose screening is very difficult without washing.
Till today, screening is the easiest, rapid , and cheapest method of size separation
and also, widely used means of size analysis. Other sophisticated techniques are
available for measuring particle sizes, such as: electron microscopy, ultra micros-
copy, light scattering, and X-ray scattering, but they are not the subject of discussion
of this text.
The fundamental function of screening is to pass the undersize particles through the
apertures and to reject the oversize particles for some meaningful purpose. Thus, for
the screening operation, the particles must be brought to the screen openings and be
presented at such a velocity and in such a direction that the passage of undersize par-
ticles is not affected by the edges or walls of the openings. For the screening surface
having least thickness, if every individual particles are brought to the opening at zero
velocity and in a direction perpendicular to the plane of the screen opening then all
such particles will pass through it readily.
But due to tonnage requirements, we use thicker screening surfaces and give some
kind of motion to the screens. Practically, particles are crowded; they rebound and
continuously interfere at the openings. Particles come to the opening from such a
direction, with such an orientation, and at such a velocity that they fail to pass and
for this reason many undersize particles stay away from the access of screen openings
for a considerable time Taggart, 1945 .
Though screening is the easiest and rapid method of size separation, from the above
discussion, the mechanism of screening seems to be very complex and confusing.
Thus, to make the readers understand the screening phenomenon in a simple
manner, it is divided into two processes: stratification and separation probability,
which together make the separation possible Metso, 2007 .
Material to be screened is delivered to the screen surface at a continuous rate.
Dropped on to the screen surface or feed box, it loses its vertical component of veloc-
ity and undergoes a change in direction of travel. By vibration or some other kind
of motion, the bed of material tends to develop a fluid state. Due to this, the large
particles rise to the top of the material bed while the smaller particles sift through
the voids and find a way to the bottom of the bed to reach the screen openings,
as shown in Fig. 5.3. This characteristic of particle orientation in the bed is called
stratification. Stratification is essential for transport of oversize particles and for
the prevention of blinding of screen openings. But excessive movement decreases
screen efficiency.
The factors affecting stratification process are Metso, 2007
(i) material travel flow, which is a function of material stratification, bed

thickness, and screen slope,
(ii) stroke characteristics, which includes amplitude, direction, rotation, type of
motion and frequency, and
(iii) surface particle moisture — high surface moisture content makes stratifi-
cation difficult.
Separation probability is the pro-

cess by which the particles reach the
screen opening and are rejected if they
are larger than the openings or pass
through them if they are smaller than
the openings. The separation probabil-
ity of a particle is a function of the par-
ticle size and the screen opening. The
larger the difference between these,
the easier it is for them to pass through
or to be rejected totally. For a smaller
difference, their passage is difficult.
Particles having a dimen-
sion greater than 1.5 times the
screen opening (dp > 1.5w) are less
important for the screening result as these particles will not at all pass through.
At the same time, their presence causes wear and increases power consump-
tion. Particles having a dimension less than half the size of screen opening
(dp < 0.5w) are also of lesser importance as they will pass through easily. But par-
ticles of 0.5w < dp < 1.5w are of much interest, known as critical class, which deter-
mine both efficiency and capacity. Particles of
(i) 0.5w < dp < w, require several attempts before passing through and
(ii) w < dp < 1.5w, clog many openings before leaving the screen as they are
oversized material Metso, 2007 .
The throughput along the length of a screen surface depends both on the strati-
fication and the separation probability. When the material is fed to the screening
surface using a feed plate, stratification occurs both on the feed plate and at the
feed end of the screening surface, as shown in Fig. 5.4, and this section is between
points A and B, with the maximum stratification occurring at B. Maximum particle
removal occurs from B to C because of high percentage of fines and thus having a
high separation probability. The next section C to represents the larger percentage
of particles in the critical class and the probability of the particles passing through
the screen is less Metso, 2007 .
Perfect separation or 100 per cent screen efficiency is not practically possible
because from point onwards, the probability of particles passing through the screen
opening becomes extremely low and for this reason perfect screening is normally
regarded as of around 90 to 95 per cent efficiency. For absolutely perfect separation,
the screen would have to be infinitely long Metso, 2007 .
F din
n
d
A B C D
Another easy-to-understand and self-explanatory plot on the throughput along the

length of a screen as provided by Sandvik Mining and Construction, Sweden, is shown
in Fig. 5.5. The speciality of this plot is the throughput along the length of the screen
is given for different range of particle sizes which constitutes the whole sample.
Once the particle has sifted through the bed of materials and reached the screen
opening, the principle of probability becomes significant. As it is conveyed from feed
end to the discharge end of the screen surface, the particle is subjected to the probability
of either passing through the opening or striking the wires of the screening surface.
ii i n
n nin i n
nin
ii i n
n d
F d i i
nin
= Fin 25
i n ii n i
= nd i
70 i n nd i i
= ii n i
Fin i
70−100
Material much smaller than the screen opening (fines < 25 per cent of holes and
easy undersize < 70 per cent of holes) easily passes through the screen aperture. This
is depicted by the first two regions of the plot. Maximum particle removal occurs in
these sections. Due to the high percentage of fines, the probability is the highest.
For critical nearsize particles (70 to 100 per cent of holes) the degree of probabil-
ity of screening reduces as depicted by the last region of the plot. This is due to the
fact that the relation of the particle size to the screen openings is closer. Hence, more
near size particles means the chances of material passing through is less.
The important factors affecting the
passage of undersize particles are
(i) the size of the screen openings,
(ii) the size of particles with respect to the screen openings,
(iii) the percentage of openings with respect to the total screening surface,
(iv) the moisture content of the particles,
(v) the direction from which the particles come to the openings,
(vi) the velocity with which the particles strike the surface,
(vii) the motion given to the bed of materials — sinusoidal vibration or gyratory
vibration,
(viii) the density of the material — for heterogeneous materials density causes
stratification on the screening surfaces,
(ix) the gravity — pulls the particles through the screen,
(x) the electrostatic force — arises when particles are extremely dry, and
(xi) the blinding, dampening, and screen tearing also affect the screening
operation.
Screening surfaces — important for the study of industrial screening equipments —

are generally of three types: parallel bars/rods, punched plates, and woven wires.
Parallel bar/rod screens are usually made of steel bars, discarded rails, or cast-iron
bars, fixed in parallel positions by cross-bars and spacers. These types of screens are
used for coarsest work and not intended for close/fine size separations.
Punched plate screens are made of metal/plastic sheets punched by dies of various
patterns — circular, square, rectangular, hexagonal, and slotlike. They are arranged
on the surface either in staggered manner or in straight rows. And the slotted open-
ings have the additional arrangement in a diagonal manner. Figure 5.6 shows some
punched plate screens.
For coarse-size separations, circular opening punched-plate screens are chosen;
while for fine-size separations, slotted openings are preferred over the circular
openings due to lesser tendency to blind with slotted types.
The advantages of punched screens include
wear is evenly distributed and hence longer life;
lesser tendency to blind; and
the discharge of the oversize at a given rate requires lesser slope.
But the major drawback with these screens is its low percentage of open area.
Woven-wire screens are woven of gauged wires, generally made of steel to
produce either square or rectangular openings and in different manners intended to
i x n i
d n n
i i
i n n
prolong their life or to prevent displacement of the wires. In all woven-wire screens,
both the warp and shoot wires are crimped to prevent distortion under impact of
load. Figure 5.7 shows some wire-cloth weaving patterns.
Woven-wire screens can be made of any length and in width up to 5 feet. Greater
widths can be made depending on the requirement. The percentage of openings with
respect to the total screening surface is greater in rectangular types than in square types.
But square openings make a more rigid cloth. For this reason, square opening woven-
wire screens are preferable for very coarse screening while for intermediate and fine
screening, rectangular opening screens are chosen.
Figure 5.8 shows two types of rectangular opening screens — Trellex Rek-Tang
and Sta-Clear. When greater production is desired along with accurate sizing, Trellex
Re Tang is preferred. The rectangular opening forms a large open area allowing more
material to pass through while maintaining accurate sizing of the desired product.
When the screening material has a tendency to adhere to the wire (blinding), or
become wedged ( pegging) in square opening or rectangular opening screens with
a short slot length, Sta Clear screens are chosen. The Sta-Clear screens offer longer
slotlike openings without the loss in strength by using three cross-wires.
Materials for screening

surfaces include cast iron, steel, manganese steel, chrome–nickel (stainless) steel,
A i v v i v
brass, bronze, Monel metal, and
some alloys. Currently, synthetic
screens are available in rubber and
poly-urethanes to optimise both wear
resistance and performance.
The screening surface must be
x n
strong enough to carry its load.
A fine screen is often reinforced by
laying it on the top of a coarser and
stronger screen. The screen should
resist abrasion and corrosion and at
the same time it should be cheap.
When corrosion is not a factor, high-
carbon steel and alloy steel are used
as screen material. Steel also resists
x
abrasion. When corrosion is a factor,
iron, copper, bronze, and Monel
metals are used, but these are not
highly resistant to abrasion. When both corrosion and abrasion is to be resisted, stain-
less steel is chosen Taggart, 1945 .
The minimum clear space between the edges of

the opening in a screening surface is called the aperture, w. Generally, aperture
is expressed in inches, centimetres, or millimetres. Aperture for parallel bar
screens is expressed in inches as they are meant for coarsest work. The aperture
of punched-plate screens has a dimension near that of some woven-wire screen
of same designation. The aperture of woven-wire screens is expressed as mesh,
meaning, the number of apertures per linear inch, counting from the centre of
any wire to a point exactly 1 inch distant. For example, a 20-mesh screen will have
20 openings per inch. But this kind of designation is valid only when the wire size
is defined. Mesh, therefore, gives a nominal figure of the screen opening.
If d is the diameter of the wire, and m is the mesh then the aperture can be
found by
1
= − (5.1)
m
This kind of screen designation is followed by American Standards (ASTM and
W S Tyler Co.), British Standards (BS), and German Standards (DIN). Clearly, in all
these standards, higher the mesh number, smaller will be the screen aperture. In some
countries, especially in South Africa, mesh is defined as the number of openings per
square inch and in continental Europe, it is defined by the number of openings per square
centimetre Taggart, 1945 . ISO, DIN, BS, and AFNOR are based on aperture. ASTM
and Tyler are based on the meshcount, using number of wires per linear inch Haver .
However, the Indian Standards (IS) follow a different definition — the mesh is equal
to its aperture size expressed to the nearest deca-micron. Thus, an IS screen of 100 mesh
will have an aperture of approximately 1.00 mm. Clearly, in IS screen series, higher the
mesh number higher is the screen aperture and vice-versa Narayanan, 2003 . Table 5.1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
ISO 565 . ISO 3310 DEU FRA GBR NLD USA CAN TYLER
Table 1, Millimetre sizes
Principal Supplementary DIN ISO AFNOR BS 410 NEN ASTM E 11 , 2004 CAN/CGSB- TYLER
sizes sizes 3310 NF ISO 3310 ISO 3310 2560 ASTM E 323 , 1980 8.2-M88 Screen scale
(2004) metric
R 20/3 R 20 R 40/3
2000 2001 2000 2000 1998 1988 1910
ISO 3310-1 Woven Wire Cloth 125–1 125–1 125–1 125–1 125–1 125–1 26,5–1
Round Holes � 125–1 125–1 125–1 125–1 125–1
ISO 3310-2
Square Holes � 125–4 125–4 125–4 125–4 125–3.35
w w w w w w w w No. w Mesh
125 125 125 125 125 125 125 125 5 in. 125
112 112 112 112 112 112
106 106 106 106 106 106 4.24 in.
100 100 100 100 100 100(b) 4 in.(b) 100
Continued
90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 3.1/2 in. 90.0
80 80 80 80 80 80.0
75 75 75 75 75 75 3 in.
71 71 71 71 71 71.0
63 63 63 63 63 63 63 63 2.1/2 in. 63.0
56 56 56 56 56 56.0
53 53 53 53 53 53 2.12 in.
50 50 50 50 50 50(b) 2 in.(b) 50.0
45 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 1.3/4 in. 45.0
40 40 40 40 40 40.0
37,5 37,5 37,5 37,5 37,5 37.5 1.1/2 in.
35,5 35,5 35,5 35,5 35,5 35.5
31,5 31,5 31,5 31,5 31,5 31,5 31,5 31.5 1.1/4 in. 31.5
28 28 28 28 28 28.0
26,5 26,5 26,5 26,5 26,5 26.5 1.06 in. 1.05 in.
25 25 25 25 25 25.0(b) 1 in.(b) 25.0
22,4 22,4 22,4 22,4 22,4 22,4 22,4 22.4 7/8 in. 22.4 .883 in.
20 20 20 20 20 20.0
19 19 19 19 19 19.0 3/4 in. .742 in.
18 18 18 18 18 18.0
16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16.0 5/8 in. 16.0 .624 in.
14 14 14 14 14 14.0
13,2 13,2 13,2 13,2 13,2 13.2 0.530 in. .525 in.
12,5 12,5 12,5 12,5 12,5 12.5(b) 1/2 in.(b) 12.5
11,2 11,2 11,2 11,2 11,2 11,2 11,2 11.2 7/16 in. 11.2 .441 in.
10 10 10 10 10 10.0
9,5 9,5 9,5 9,5 9,5 9.5 3/8 in. .371 in.
9 9 9 9 9 9.0
8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8.0 5/16 in. 8.0 2.1/2
7,1 7,1 7,1 7,1 7,1 7.10
6,7 6,7 6,7 6,7 6,7 6.7 0.265 in. 3
6,3 6,3 6,3 6,3 6,3 6.3(b) 1/4 in.(b) 6.30
5,6 5,6 5,6 5,6 5,6 5,6 5,6 5.6 3.1/2 5.60 3.1/2
5 5 5 5 5 5.00
4,75 4,75 4,75 4,75 4,75 4.75 4 4
4,5 4,5 4,5 4,5 4,5 4.50
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4.00 5 4.00 5
3,55 3,55 3,55 3,55 3,55 3.55
3,35 3,35 3,35 3,35 3,35 3.35 6 6
3,15 3,15 3,15 3,15 3,15 3.15
Continued
2,8 2,8 2,8 2,8 2,8 2,8 2,8 2.80 7 2.80 7
2,5 2,5 2,5 2,5 2,5 2.50
2,36 2,36 2,36 2,36 2,36 2.36 8 8
2,24 2,24 2,24 2,24 2,24 2.24
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2.00 10 2.00 9
1,8 1,8 1,8 1,8 1,8 1.80
1,7 1,7 1,7 1,7 1,7 1.70 12 10
1,6 1,6 1,6 1,6 1,6 1.60
1,4 1,4 1,4 1,4 1,4 1,4 1,4 1.40 14 1.40 12
1,25 1,25 1,25 1,25 1,25 1.25
1,18 1,18 1,18 1,18 1,18 1.18 16 14
1,12 1,12 1,12 1,12 1,12 1.12
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1.00 18 1.00 16
Woven Wire Cloth Round Holes � Square Holes � (b) ASTM Supplementary Values
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
ISO 565 . ISO 3310 DEU FRA GBR NLD USA CAN TYLER
Table 2, Micrometre sizes
Principal Supplementary DIN ISO AFNOR BS 410 NEN ASTM E 11 , 2004 CAN/CGSB- TYLER
sizes sizes 3310 NF ISO 3310 ISO 3310 2560 ASTM E 161 , 2000 8.2-M88 Screen scale
(2004) metric
R 20/3 R 20 R 40/3
2000 2001 2000 2000 1998 1988 1910
ISO 3310-1 Woven Wire Cloth 900–20 900–20 900–20 900–20 850–20 850–20 900–32 850–20
ISO 3310-3 Electroformed 500–5 500–5 500–5 500–5
w w w w w w w w No. w Mesh
900 900 900 900 900 900
850 850 850 850 850 850 20 20
800 800 800 800 800 800
710 710 710 710 710 710 710 710 25 710 24
630 630 630 630 630 630
600 600 600 600 600 600 30 28
560 560 560 560 560 560
500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 35 500 32
450 450 450 450 450 450
425 425 425 425 425 425 40 35
400 400 400 400 400 400
Continued
355 355 355 355 355 355 355 355 45 355 42
315 315 315 315 315 315
300 300 300 300 300 300 50 48
280 280 280 280 280 280 280
250 250 250 250 250 250 250 250 60 250 60
224 224 224 224 224 224
212 212 212 212 212 212 70 65
200 200 200 200 200 200
180 180 180 180 180 180 180 180 80 180 80
160 160 160 160 160 160
150 150 150 150 150 150 100 100
140 140 140 140 140 140
125 125 125 125 125 125 125 125 120 125 115
112 112 112 112 112 112
106 106 106 106 106 106 140 150
100 100 100 100 100 100
90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 170 90 170
80 80 80 80 80 80
75 75 75 75 75 75 200 200
71 71 71 71 71 71
63 63 63 63 63 63 63 63 230 63 250
56 56 56 56 56 56
53 53 53 53 53 53 270 270
50 50 50 50 50 50
45 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 325 45 325
40 40 40 40 40 40
38 38 38 38 38 38 400 400
R’10 36 36 36 36 36 36
32 32 32 32 32 32 450 32 450
25 25 25 25 25 25 500 500
20 20 20 20 20 20 635 635
16 16 16 16 15
10 10 10 10 10
5 5 5 5 5
Woven Wire Cloth Electroformed

shows the comparison table of different
standard sieves. Tyler sieve series and its
Indian equivalents and particle size con-
version chart are given in appendix.
The evaluation of a screening opera-

tion is best determined by size analysis
using testing screens, hereafter, sieves,
in terms of given percentages of mate-
rials passing or retained on specified
testing sieves. Testing sieves are used
for control and analytical purpose, for
example, determining the efficiency
of screening devices and the work of
crushing and grinding equipments.
Testing sieves (Fig. 5.9) are constructed of woven-wire cloths as per some speci-
fied standard. These wire cloths form the bottom of circular metal pans about 8
inches in diameter and 2 inches high whose sides are so designed that the bottom of
one sieve sits on the top of the next sieve.
It is essential that standard sieves with standard size openings be used for sieve
analysis, otherwise the analysis may be misleading as the opening of all the sieves are
dependent on both the number and the diameter of the wires of which they are made.
Sieve analysis is also dependent on the time of sieving and the method of agitating
the materials on the sieve — both these should also be standard.
For sieve analysis, a sieve scale is used which consists of a series of testing
sieves having openings in a fixed succession. The first known standard sieve
scale was introduced by W S Tyler Co. in the early 1900 s, having the widths of
the successive openings with a constant ratio of 2 2 or 1.414, such that the areas
of the successive openings have a constant ratio of 2. The Tyler Standard sieve
scale series is based on a 200-mesh screen in which the opening is 0.075 mm
(0.0029 inch) with a wire diameter of 0.053 mm (0.0021 inch).
Years later, the Tyler scale has been enlarged to include intermediate openings so that
the entire scale has successive openings with a constant ratio of 4 2or 1.189. Standards
like National Bureau of Standards, American Standards for Testing Materials, American
National Standards Institute, and many others are based on fourth-root-of-2 principle.
In making a sieve analysis, the individual test sieves of one specified sieve scale
series are stacked one above the other in the ascending order of their openings. A pan
at the bottom and a cover at the top are put to make a complete set. A weighed amount
of material is fed to the topmost sieve and the cover is replaced. The whole assembly
can be shaken continuously, either manually by hand or by machines. Machine sieving
is preferable over hand sieving because the hand method is open to error. One popular
machine used for such analysis is the Ro Tap Sieve S a er (Fig. 5.10). The whole
assembly of sieves is fastened into a vertical framework of the shaker which provides a
circular motion in a horizontal plane and a blow at the top for each revolution. Shaking
is continued for 5 to 10 minutes. Then the material retained on each sieve including
the pan are weighed. The sieving procedure is illustrated in Fig. 5.11.
The material, for example, which has Mix
passed the 20-mesh sieve but is retained i
on the 24-mesh sieve, is designated as
(20/24) or (−20 + 24) fraction.
i in
i v
The sieving results obtained

i v
from sieve analysis can be compiled in

three different ways:
nd Fin
i in
nd
(i) by calculating the mass

percentage of each size fraction,
Fin
(ii) by calculating the cumulative

percentage of size fractions
retained on each sieve, and
(iii) by calculating the cumulative i in
percentage of size fractions
passing through each sieve.
A typical example is given in Table 5.2 and the graph for this compiled data is
shown in Fig. 5.12, which represents the cumulative percentage of material passing
each sieve.
In order to visualise the size fractions, the compiled data can be presented graphi-
cally in different ways. The most common plots are differential and cumulative plots.
Differential plots are the plots of the mass fraction (or the percentage of mass
fraction) retained on each sieve versus average sieve size, while cumulative plots are
the plots of the mass fraction (or the percentage of mass fraction) passing through or
retained on each sieve versus particular sieve aperture.
Microns Si e Si e Wt Cum
t roug mes t roug mes on on gr t ru Bet een
sieves
– – 1.050 – – –
26500 1.050 0.742 0 100.0 0.0
19000 0.742 0.525 0 100.0 0.0
13200 0.525 0.371 0 100.0 0.0
9500 0.371 3 2 100.0 0.4
6700 3 4 7 99.6 1.1
4750 4 6 13 98.5 1.3
3350 6 8 36 97.2 4.9
2360 8 10 71 92.4 7.4
1700 10 14 160 84.9 18.9
1180 14 20 254 66.0 20.0
850 20 28 319 46.1 13.8
600 28 35 352 32.3 7.0
425 35 48 381 25.3 6.2
300 48 65 407 19.1 5.5
212 65 100 429 13.6 4.7
150 100 150 444 8.9 3.2
106 150 200 461 5.7 3.6
75 200 270 463 2.1 0.4
53 270 PAN 471 1.7 1.7
( Mat:Petroleum Coke, H2O:15.3 %, Rate:10 TPH, Equip:Coalpactor, Speed:1350 RPM)
50.0 100.0
45.0 0.0
40.0 0.0
% Between sieves*
5.0 70.0
Cum % thru
0.0 60.0
25.0 50.0
20.0 40.0
15.0 0.0
10.0 20.0
5.0 10.0
0.0 0.0
270 150 65 5 20 10 6 0.525 1.050
Mesh, Tyler
% Between sieves Cum % thru
* n i v
Screen Tyler screen Average Mass Mass % Cumulative Cumulative
opening scale diameter retained retained mass % mass %
mm of particles g retained passing
mm t roug
− +1.050 >26500 − − − −
26500 −1.050 + 0.742 22750 0 0.000 0.000 100.000
19000 −0.742 + 0.525 16100 0 0.000 0.000 100.000
13200 −0.525 + 0.371 11350 0 0.000 0.000 100.000
9500 −0.371 + 3 8100 2 0.425 0.425 99.575
6700 −3 + 4 5725 5 1.062 1.487 98.513
4750 −4 + 6 4050 6 1.274 2.761 97.239
3350 −6 + 8 2855 23 4.883 7.644 92.356
2360 −8 + 10 2030 35 7.431 15.075 84.925
1700 −10 + 14 1440 89 18.895 33.970 66.030
1180 −14 + 20 1015 94 19.958 53.928 46.072
850 −20 + 28 725 65 13.800 67.728 32.272
600 −28 + 35 512.5 33 7.006 74.734 25.266
425 −35 + 48 362.5 29 6.157 80.891 19.109
300 −48 + 65 256 26 5.520 86.411 13.589
212 −65 + 100 181 22 4.671 91.082 8.918
150 −100 + 150 128 15 3.185 94.267 5.733
106 −150 + 200 90.5 17 3.609 97.876 2.124
75 −200 + 270 64 2 0.425 98.301 1.699
53 −270 + PAN <53 8 1.699 100.000 0.000
The differential data give different curves for different screen intervals, thus,
applicable to particular sieve series used. This restriction is not valid for plots of the
cumulative data, which give the same values for any sieve scale series used. Another
advantage of cumulative plots is that these plots do not require the calculation of
average sieve size.
Graphical representation of screen analysis can be done on rectangular coordinate
graph papers but more conveniently on logarithmic graph papers where the aver-
age size or sieve opening is taken on a logarithmic scale, as logarithmic plots avoid
crowding of many points into a smaller section of the curve.
Figures 5.13 to 16 illustrate differ-
ential and cumulative analysis on rect-
25.000
angular as well as on logarithmic scales
Mass % retained
20.000
using the data given in Table 5.3, which
15.000
is a modified form of Table 5.2.
10.000
5.000
0.000
−5.000
One of the major concerns 0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000
in screening operations is the screen Average particle diameters, microns
efficiency and at the same time it is
difficult to quantify. Screen efficiency,
hereafter, effectiveness, is not an
25.000 efficiency but the separation quality
Mass % retained
20.000 of a screening operation. In other

15.000 words, effectiveness is a measure of
10.000 the success of a screen in separating
5.000 undersize and oversize materials from
0.000 a mixed feed.
−5.000
1 10 100 1000 10000 100000 The effectiveness largely depends
Average particle diameters, microns on the product (oversize or undersize)
taken into consideration. If the over-
size is considered to be the product
then it is desirable to have a mini-
mum of undersize material and vice-
versa. Thus, effectiveness is based
120.000 upon both the recovery in the prod-
Cumulative mass %
100.000 uct of the desired material in the feed

0.000
60.000 and the re ection from the product
40.000 of the undesired material in the feed.
20.000
Effectiveness of screen (E) is gener-
0.000
−20.000 ally expressed by
0
00
00
00
00
00
00
50
00
= ( Recovery) × ( Rejection )
10
15
20
25
(5.2)
Screen opening, microns
M in d M in Let F, , and B be the mass (kg) or
mass flow rate (kg/h) of the feed, prod-
uct, and reject streams respectively. If
xF, xD, and xB are the mass fractions of
the desired material (either oversize or
undersize) in feed, product, and reject
streams respectively, then (1 − xF),
Cumulative mass %
120.000
100.000 (1 − xD), and (1 − xB) will be the mass
0.000 fractions of the undesired material in
60.000
40.000 their respective streams.
20.000 Now, the recovery is defined as the
0.000
−20.000
ratio of amount of desired material in
1 10 100 1000 10000 100000 the product to the amount of desired
Screen opening, microns material in the feed. And rejection is
M in d M in defined as the amount of undesired
material in the reject to the amount
of undesired material in the feed.
Mathematically, recovery and rejection
are expressed in the following manner.
x D
Recovery = (5.3)
x
and Rejection =
(1 − xB ) (5.4)
(1 − x )
xD (1 − xB ) ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ B ⎞
Thus, the effectiveness, E= × × (5.5)
xF (1 − xF ) ⎜⎝ F ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ F ⎟⎠
The ratio F and B F can be expressed in terms of mass fractions by making a
material balance around the screen.
Overall material balance gives F= +B (5.6)
and material balance for the desired material gives x = x D + xB (5.7)
Replacing B from Eq. 5.7 using Eq. 5.6, we have
x = x D + xB ( − D )
⇒ (x − xB ) = ( x − xB ) D
x − xB
D
⇒ = (5.8)
x − xB
Similarly, eliminating from Eq. 5.7, we have
x −x
= (5.9)
x − xB
Now, Eq. 5.5 can be written in terms of mass fractions as
x (1 − xB ) ( x − xB ) ( x − x )
= (5.10)
x (1 − x ) ( x − xB )
2
Equation 5.10 can be written in another way, as
=
x (x − xB ) ⎡ (1 − x )(x − xB ) ⎤
⎢1 − ⎥ (5.11)
x (x − xB ) ⎣ (1 − x )(x − xB ) ⎦
For a given set of screen and material

characteristics, the effectiveness is markedly decreased by high feed rates, as shown
in Fig. 5.17. At low feed rates, to the left of
point a , the efficiency increases with feed
rate. This is because at low feed rates, the
percentage of screen openings with respect
to the total screening surface is more
which increases the number of attempts
for undersize materials to pass through
the screen. But with the increase of feed
rates, beyond the point a , the undersize
particles stay away from the access of
i i n
screen opening for a considerable time,

causing rapid decrease in effectiveness.
With the increase in screen length, the
effectiveness increases, but again with F d /
the increase in feed rate, the effectiveness
decreases for a similar reason as explained
above.
It is the mass of material that can be treated per unit time to a unit area
of the screen to satisfactorily perform the desired size separation and this may be
different from the actual feed rate.
The factors affecting the capacity

as well as the effectiveness of screens are
(i) the feed rate to the screen,
(ii) the total area of the screening surface,
(iii) the size of the screen openings,
(iv) the number of contacts between the particle and the screen surface,
(v) the type of screening mechanism used,
(vi) the cohesion of particles to each other,
(vii) the blinding of screening surface,
(viii) the adhesion of particles to the screening surfaces,
(ix) the oblique direction of approach of particles, and
(x) the other particle characteristics such as density and moisture content.
The capacity and effectiveness are closely related. Large capacity can be obtained
only at the expense of a reduction in effectiveness and for an improvement in effi-
ciency, a reduction in capacity is required.
The capacity and effectiveness are used to measure the performance of indus-
trial screens and a reasonable balance is made between them in actual industrial
practices.
From the table, we have xF = 0.47, xD = 0.85, and xB = 0.195.

D x − xB
(i) The mass ratio of overflow to feed (Eq. 5.8) is = .
x − xB
D 0.47 − 0.195
Thus, = = 0.42 (Ans)
0.85 − 0.195
x −x
(ii) The mass ratio of underflow to feed (Eq. 5.9) is = .
x − xB
0.85 − 0.47
Thus, = = 0.58 (Ans)
0.85 − 0.195
(iii) The overall effectiveness of screen (Eq. 5.10) is
( x )(1 − xB )( x − xB )( x − x )
= .
( x )(1 − x )( x − xB ) 2
(0.85) (1 − 0.195) (0.47 − 0.195) (0.85 − 0.47)
Thus, = = 0.6692
(0.47) (1 − 0.47) (0.855 − 0.195) 2
The overall effectiveness of the screen is 66.92% (Ans)
The screen effectiveness (Eq. 5.10) is

( x ) (1 − xB ) ( x − xB ) ( x − x )
= .
( x ) (1 − x ) ( x − xB ) 2
Given in this problem are xF = 0.4, x = 0.8, and xB = 0.2.
(0.8) (1 − 0.2) (0.4 − 0.2) (0.8 − 0.4)
Thus, = = 0.5926
(0.4) (1 − 0.4) (0.8 − 0.2) 2
The overall effectiveness of screen is 59.26% (Ans)
The pictorial representation of this problem is given below.

Given that the furnace production rate,
F = 100 tonne/h, mass fraction of oversize in
F = 100 nn /
feed, xF = 1 − 0.25 = 0.75, mass fraction of 25 in
oversize in underflow, xB = 1 − 0.95 = 0.05, F n
and screen efficiency, E = 50%.
The screen effectiveness (Eq. 5.10) is
( x )(1 − xB )( x − xB )( x − x )
= . nd B
d D
( x )(1 − x )( x − xB ) 2 5 in
( x )(1 − 0.05)(0.75 − 0.05)( x − 0.75)
Thus, 0.5 =
(0.75)(1 − 0.75)( x − 0.05) 2
⇒ x 2 − 0.855 − 0.00041 = 0
⇒ x = 0.8555 = the amount of oversize in product.
Thus, the amount of fines in the product = 1 − 0.8555
= 0.1445 = 14.45% (Ans)
D x − xB
The mass ratio of overflow to feed (Eq. 5.8) is = .
x − xB
Thus, the product rate, D =
( x − xB )
( x − xB )
100 × ( 0.75 − 0.05)
=
(0.8555 − 0.05)
= 86.60 tonne/h (Ans)
The total surface area of mixture (Eq. 2.11) is
i=n
6 N SSRi xi
A ss =
rp
∑ Dpi avg
.
i =1
Screen aperture Specific surface ratio Mass fraction x N SS i x i

pi avg cm NSSR
D pi avg
42.6 10.0 0.16 0.038

30.1 9.7 0.34 0.110
21.3 9.5 0.24 0.107
15.07 9.0 0.17 0.102
10.66 8.6 0.09 0.073
Total = 1.00 0.430
Screen aperture pi avg Specific surface ratio Mass fraction N SS i x i

cm NSSR x
D pi avg
10.66 8.6 0.06 0.048

7.54 8.0 0.19 0.202
5.33 7.2 0.44 0.594
3.77 6.6 0.24 0.420
2.67 6.2 0.07 0.163
Total = 1.00 1.427
45 × 1000 × 1000
(a) The feed rate = 45 tonne/h = = 12500 g/s
3600
6 i = n N SSRi x1i 6
The feed surface area = ∑ = × 0.430 = 0.952 cm 2 /g
rp i =1 Dpi avg 2.71
6
The product surface area = × 1.427 = 3.159 cm 2 /g.
2.71
Thus, the new surface created = 3.159 − 0.952 = 2.207 cm2/g.
The new surface created/s = 2.207 × 12500 = 27587.5 cm2/s.
The Rittinger s Number = 76.05 cm2/kg.cm.
27587.5
The, work done = = 0.048 hp.
76.05 × 76.2 × 100
The power supplied = 1/6 × 30 = 5 hp.
0.048
Thus, the efficiency of the crusher = × 100 = 0.96%.
5
(b) The Rittinger s number for quartz = 17.51 cm2/kg.cm.
⎡⎛ i = n N x⎞ ⎛ i=n N x⎞ ⎤
The new surface created = 6 ⎢⎜ ∑ SSRi i ⎟ − ⎜ ∑ SSRi i ⎟ ⎥
ρp ⎢⎝ i =1 Dpi avg ⎠ ⎝ i =1 Dpi avg ⎠ feed ⎥
⎣ product ⎦
6
= (1.427 − 0.430) = 2.257 cm 2/g.
2.65
Let the crushing capacity for quartz = W tonne/h.
× 106
Thus, the new surface created/s = 2.257 × = 626.94 cm 2.
3600
626.94
The work done = = 0.048 hp.
17.51 × 76.2 × 100
0.048 × 17.51 × 76.2 × 100
So, = = 10.22 tonne/h.
649.39
Thus, the amount of quartz that could be fed to the crusher and reduced on the
same size range with the same power = 10.22 tonne/h (Ans)
The specific surface ratio for quartz is taken from Figure 17 (p. 22)
[Brown, 1995].
Mes number si e pi avg NSSR xi N SS i xi
limit cm
D pi avg
− 48 + 65 0.0252 2.70 0.09 9.64

− 65 + 100 0.0178 2.50 0.17 23.88
− 100 + 150 0.0126 2.30 0.29 52.94
− 150 + 200 0.0089 2.15 0.19 45.90
80 − 60 μm 0.0070 2.07 0.11 32.53
60 − 40 μm 0.0050 2.00 0.08 32.00
40 − 20 μm 0.0030 1.85 0.05 30.83
20 − 0 μm 0.0010 1.55 0.02 31.00
Total = 1.0 Total = 258.72
i=n
N SSRi xi
The specific surface (Eq. 2.11) is A ss = 6 ∑
rp i =1 Dpi avg
6 cm 2
= × 258.72 = 1241.86 (Ans)
1.25 g
i=n
The mass mean diameter (Eq. 2.13) is Dm = ∑ xi × Dpi avg . ( )
i =1
The value is obtained from the table below.
xi pi avg cm xi pi avg
0.09 0.0252 0.00227

0.17 0.0178 0.00303
0.29 0.0126 0.00365
0.19 0.0089 0.00169
0.11 0.0070 0.00077
0.08 0.0050 0.00040
0.05 0.0030 0.00015
0.02 0.0010 0.00002
From the above table, ∑ ( xi Dpi avg ) = 0.01198 cm = 0.1198 mm.

Thus, the mass mean diameter = 0.1198 mm = 119.8 microns (Ans)
From the mesh number, the average diameter for each of the fractions
is calculated with the help of Table 4 (p. 17) [Brown, 1995]. With the help of
the average diameter, the specific surface ratio for each of the fractions is taken from
Figure 17 (p. 22) [Brown, 1995]. These, along with other quantities, are tabulated
below.
Mes pi avg NSSR Feed Product
number cm
x N SS i x i x N SS i x i
D pi avg D pi avg
−6+8 0.2845 6.40 0.14 3.149 – –

− 8 + 10 0.2007 5.10 0.21 5.336 – –
− 10 + 14 0.1410 4.30 0.23 7.014 – –
− 14 + 20 0.1001 3.90 0.19 7.403 0.10 3.896
− 20 + 28 0.0711 3.50 0.12 5.907 0.23 11.322
− 28 + 35 0.0503 3.10 0.07 4.314 0.28 17.256
− 35 + 48 0.0356 2.85 0.04 3.202 0.15 12.008
− 48 + 65 0.0252 2.70 – – 0.10 10.714
− 65 + 100 0.0178 2.50 – – 0.07 9.831
− 100 + 150 0.0126 2.30 – – 0.04 7.302
− 150 + 200 0.0089 2.15 – – 0.03 7.247
Total = 1.0 Total = 36.325 Total = 1.0 Total = 79.576
i=n
6 N SSRi x1i 6
The surface area of feed =
rp
∑ Dpi avg
=
2.65
× 36.325 = 82.245 cm 2 /g and
i =1
i=n
6 N SSRi x2i 6
the product surface area =
rp
∑ Dpi avg
=
2.65
× 79.576 = 180.172 cm 2 /g.
i =1
Thus, the new surface created = 180.172 − 82.245 = 97.927 cm2/g.

9 × 1000
The new surface created/sec = 97.927 × × 1000 = 244817
. 5 cm 2 .
3600
244817.5
The work done = = 1.835 hp.
17.51 × 76.2 × 100
The efficiency of grinder = 10%.
1.835
The power input = = 18.35 hp.
0.1
Calculation of annual cost
18.35 × 24 × 300
The annual power cost = × Rs 3.0 = Rs 2, 95, 570.50
1.341
The maintenance, overhead, and replacement cost = 0.5 × Rs 295570.5 =
Rs 147785.25.
The purchase cost of grinder = Rs 240000.0
The life of grinder = 8 years
Rs 240000
The annual depreciation= = Rs 30, 000.0
8
The total annual cost = Rs 295570.5 + Rs 147785.25 + Rs 30,000.0 =
Rs 473355.75.
The ore processed per year = 9 × 24 × 300 = 64800 tonne
Rs 473355.75
Thus, the processing cost per tonne = = Rs 7.30 (Ans)
64800
The objective of a single-step screening operation is to separate a mixture of particles

into two parts: overflow containing mostly oversize and underflow containing mostly
undersize particles.
The ideal screening process i
is the one which separates the
0
feed mixture in such a way that 0
all the oversize particles in feed 70
60
go to the overflow and all the 50
undersize particles go to the
40
in
underflow streams. The ideal

screening process does not 0
exist in reality, it is a hypotheti- 20
cal one. This process makes the
separation between oversize 10
and undersize particles around
a cut diameter, Dc, which is
1
nearly equal to the size of the D
screen opening.
One typical screen analy-
sis of products (overflow and
underflow) from ideal screen-
ing is shown in Fig. 5.18. As i
there will be a sharp separa-
tion of overflow and under- 0
0
flow at c, the first point on 70
the curve for underflow and 60
50
the last point on the curve for DD
overflow will have the same 40
in
abscissa with no overlapping. 0

However, in actual screen-
20
ing, the overflow is found to
contain some particles smaller
than the cut diameter and the 10
underflow is found to contain
some particles larger than the 1
cut diameter, giving rise to
an overlap of the two curves,
as shown in Fig. 5.19. The
separation quality of an actual screening process can be judged from the overlap zone,
Δ D between the passing and the retained material curves. An increased Δ indicates
the existence of more contaminants in both the fractions, which is undesirable. This
happens in case of cohesive, fibrous, and needlelike particles and with the use of
thick rubber and polyurethane screening media with rectangular or slotted openings.
The overlapping of the two curves can be minimised by the use of standard sieves
with steel wire cloth.
Screens are classified on the basis of size of materials to be handled as coarse, inter-
mediate, and fine screens and on the basis of their method of support as stationary
and moving screens. Stationary screens can be used for both coarse and fine screen-
ing, but are most frequently used for coarse screening as coarse particles drop easily.
Moving screens mainly used for fine screening are agitated either mechanically or
electrically to give linear, circular, revolving, or vibrating motions to the screens. All
these types of screens can be operated either horizontally or at any angle.
Among the numerous screening equipments, the commonly used equipments are
grizzlies, trommels, vibrating, sha ing, gyratory, and banana screens. Grizzlies are
used mainly for separating coarse particles of 20 mm and over, while revolving and
shaking screens are used for separations above 13 mm (1/2 inch). Vibrating screens
are used for both coarse and fine size separations, while oscillating and gyratory
screens are used for finer separations. The description and operation of some of
the screens are discussed here.
Generally, the material containing a large percentage of coarse

particles is separated using grizzly screens, hereafter, grizzlies. These consist of a set
of parallel bars, evenly spaced at some predetermined opening by using spacers, and
are mounted on a frame. Grizzlies can be of stationary or moving types. The bars are
set with a slope of 20 to 50 degrees with the horizontal, depending upon the nature
of the materials to be treated. The slope and path of material flow are usually parallel
to the length of the bars. The usual cross-section of bars is trapezoidal with the wider
cross-section placed upwards to prevent clogging of materials between the bars. The
bars are usually made of manganese steel to reduce wear.
The material to be screened is introduced at the top of the slope. Large chunks
roll and slide to the lower end while smaller lumps having size smaller than the bar
openings fall through the bars and are collected separately. The capacity of a grizzly
increases with angle but its efficiency decreases. These are recommended for sepa-
rating particles from 20 to 300 mm and more in size. Grizzlies are characterised by a
very high capacity of up to 106 kg/h (1000 tonne/h) and a low efficiency.
The advantages of stationary grizzlies are simplicity, ruggedness, least expen-
sive to install and maintain, and no power requirement. The disadvantages are
inefficiency, blinding, difficult to change the opening between the bars, separa-
tions not effective, and in the case of coal screening, breakage of oversize particles
Taggart, 1945 .
Stationary grizzlies are adopted for dry and coarse materials and are not
satisfactory for moist and sticky ones. Grizzlies find their greatest application in the
separation of undersize from a feed to the primary crusher.
The moving grizzlies are of various types depending upon the type of motion,
either linear, circular, or vibrating given to them. These are mainly used to increase
capacity and to reduce headroom. The well-known moving grizzlies using circular
motion are the Sandvik SG-H Grizzly Screens (Fig. 5.20), used for tough primary
screening of blasted rock, ripped rock, or gravel with a high fines content. These
models have a second deck with a woven wire screen. Their inside dimensions have
a width of 1200 mm and the length varies between 3600 to 4000 mm. Like the sta-
tionary grizzlies, the moving grizzlies are also used for removing fines from the feed
before primary crushing.
Grizzlies can also be of vibrating type in which bars are mounted in a frame which
can be vibrated electromagnetically. Due to the rapid vibrations, oversize materials
travel along the length of the bars which are either set horizontally or at a small angle.
These screens overcome the difficulty of the stationary grizzlies. These are manufac-
tured by a number of companies and one such screen is the JOEST Vibrating Grizzly
as shown in Fig. 5.21. It is a three-stage grizzly screen in which bars are set at a dec-
lination of 8° and have a high capacity of 3.3 × 106 kg/h (3300 tonne/h). In modern
practice, vibrating grizzlies are also used as feeder to crushing equipments.
Revolving screens or trommels consist of rotating cylindrical,

conical, or prismatic frames/shells surrounded by wire cloth or punched plate screens,
which act as the screening surfaces. These shells are fastened to a central shaft by
4 or 6-armed spiders. The central shaft is supported in bearings at the two ends and is
driven from a pulley by means of a bevel gear. Trommels are usually open at both the
ends and inclined at a slight angle so that the material can be advanced by the rotation
of the cylinder. A cylindrical trommel is shown in Fig. 5.22.
The material to be screened is fed into the cylinder at the higher end to favour
the displacement of material down to the outlet. The retained particles slide on the
inside surface of the screen following a helicoidal trajectory caused by the rotation
of the cylindrical screening surface. The undersize particles fall through the screen
openings and are collected separately.
The operating speed of the trommel is generally 15 to 20 rpm or 30 to 40 per cent
of the critical speed. Their capacity is not higher and efficiency is also low. These
are recommended for separating particles from 6 to 55 mm and the screening can be
carried out either dry or wet Taggart, 1945 .
For separation of a given material into various
sized fractions, several trommels are operated in different combinations, by which
the efficiency can be increased manifold. Several arrangements are possible, out of
which a few are mentioned here.
In one such arrangement, (a) a single trommel may have different screen open-
ings arranged in their increasing order. In the second type, (b) the first trommel
of the series may have the largest screen openings so that the undersize prod-
ucts become the feed to the next trommel, and so on. In the third type, (c) the
first trommel of the series may have the least screen openings so that the over-
size materials become the feed for the next trommel, and so on. In another type,
(d) two or more concentric trommels are mounted on the same shaft with the coarsest
screen inside, known as compound trommels. Figure 5.23 shows various trommel
arrangements.
The factors affecting the operation
of trommels in terms of capacity and efficiency are speed, slope of screen, screen
openings, feed rate, percentage of oversize in feed , percentage of moisture in feed,
and length and diameter of the screen.
F d
n di
Fin n di
F d Fin
d
d
Fin
n di
F d
Fin
F d
n di
d
d d
Increase in speed up to the point where the material is completely carried around
by centrifugal force causes increase in capacity. However, efficiency passes through
a maximum at a speed which, roughly, causes the load to ride about one-third the
distance to the top of the screen Taggart, 1945 . Operating speed is thus kept nearly
between 30 to 40 per cent of the critical speed.
The slope of the screen determines the thickness of the bed of materials and affects
the rate of travel of materials through the screen. The thinner the bed , the greater is the
efficiency but lesser the capacity. Within limits, increase in slope increases efficiency
and capacity. Present-day practice use a slope of 125 to 250 mm per metre (1.5 to
3 inch per foot) length of the screen or a standard value of 5 degrees Taggart, 1945 .
The greater the diameter, the thinner is the bed of materials on the screening sur-
face, which in turn increases the efficiency. The majority of trommels range from 610
to 1220 mm (2 to 4 ft.) in diameter. The increase in length results in more complete
removal of fines. Commonly, the length varies from 1220 to 3660 mm (4 to 12 ft.).
Capacity also increases with the increase in screen opening and increase in
percentage of oversize in feed.
The advantages of trommels are simplicity, ruggedness, cheap construction, and
freedom from vibration. The disadvantages are low efficiency, low capacity, blind-
ing, and difficulty to maintain and repair.
At present, the main field of application for trommels is for sizing of construction
gravel and crushed stone. These can be operated both on dry and wet basis. Trommels,
once widely used than any other type of movable screens, are being largely replaced
by vibrating screens.
In recent years, vibrating screens have become the most widely

used screening apparatus, scoring over all other types of screens because of their
higher capacity and efficiency. They are used as the standard equipment for coarse,
medium, and fine screening.
Generally, vibrating screens consist of a plane screening surface which is made to
vibrate rapidly by some mechanism. The screening surfaces are set in a multi-deck
fashion (single or up to four decks) either horizontally or inclined, with the coarsest
screen at the top, and are confined in a rectangular frame having suitable side walls.
The material to be screened is introduced at the top of the upper screen. The
particles retained by this screen are recovered at the toe of the screen slope and
the particles passing through the screen either fall on the lower screen for further
separation or are collected separately at the bottom.
The vibrating motion is generally produced by a vibrating mechanism, either
mechanical or electrical, directly applied to the screening surface or, to the screen
box. Mechanical vibratory drives create a back-and-forth motion of a screen box
caused by either a direct linkage (hammers, cams, eccentrics, and push rods) or by a
stimulating motion with out-of-balance weights and then amplifying that vibration
into the screen box through a set of springs. Electrical vibratory methods are based
on electromagnetic elements. Electromagnetic drive systems operate by either ac or
dc power and use magnetic circuits to energise the vibratory motion. A spring set-up
is mounted to a mass within or on the drive and attached to the unit s screen box.
These units have no sliding or rotating parts to wear out and require very little power
to operate than mechanical screeners.
The Eriez Model HVS Mechanical Screeners are simple, rugged vibrating machines
designed to handle a variety of high volumes of bulk materials. This screener (Fig. 5.24)
is a two-mass vibrating system, spring coupled, excited by a motor-driven eccentric
shaft. The corrosion-resistant adjustable rubber springs transmit the exciting force and
can fine tune the motion of the trough to optimise the flow rate for specific applica-
tions. The use of rubber springs to
amplify the trough stroke results in
low power requirements. The screen
sizes vary from 3700 cm2 (4 ft2)
to 9.3 m2 (100 ft2). These screens
operate with a frequency range
of 600 cpm to 1200 cpm and with
amplitude of up to 11 mm. These
screens are ideal for medium to
coarse size separations of coal, ore,
glass, and building wastes.
The Eriez electrically vibrated
screens operate with high frequency
of 3600 vibrations per minute and
a low amplitude of 1.5 mm. These
screens are ideal for fine material
separations from 4 mesh to as fine
as 325 mesh. Screen sizes vary from
500 cm2 to 2.2 m2. The Model 70B
Vibratory Sand Classifier (Fig. 5.25)
an electrically vibrated screen is used
in conjunction with a wood-fired
boiler to reclaim unburned wood for
recirculation through a boiler. Screens
are also used to sift out ash and sand.
Depending on the type of vibration mech-

anism and the way the screen surfaces are mounted, the surface may vibrate with
different types of motion: straight-line vibration perpendicular or oblique to the screen
surface or, circular-throw vibration.
With the horizontal screens, the par-
i n ticles follow a straight-line motion
i in i n
(Fig. 5.26a) at an angle of approxi-
mately 45 degrees to the horizontal
which produces both stratification
and conveyance of materials along
the length of screen. With the in-
i
clined screens, the vibrating motion
i n is circular on a vertical plane
(Fig. 5.26b). Vibration lifts the ma-
n in d
terial, producing stratification, and
the particles travel on the screening
surface due to the vibrating motion
impulse and inclination Metso,
2007 . In both the cases, the flow
path of materials lies in a plane nearly parallel to the side walls of the screen box.
The motion of particles over the screening surface is mainly due to the force of
gravity and the force exerted by the screening surface on the particles. The screen
surface is inclined at an angle between 20 to 40 degrees so that a very slight impulse
from the surface is sufficient to make the particles move down the slope. Vibration
causes the rapid movement of particles over the screening surface, which gives
higher capacity — this can be obtained by a steep angle and by a higher intensity
of vibration. By decreasing the slope, the number of contacts can be increased for
each undersized particle with the screen surface per unit time; thereby, there is a less
chance of fine particles passing into the oversize fraction. Vibration also causes rapid
changing of orientation of the presented particles to the screening surface. At the end
of the upward stroke, the particles that are incapable of passing through an opening
are thrown out, giving other particles an access to that aperture — thereby reduc-
ing the blindness of the screen. Capacity and efficiency are further increased by the
stratification induced by vibration with the finest material on the bottom next to the
screen and the coarsest on the top Taggart, 1945 .
For a good separation quality, a good ratio between amplitude and frequency is
essential. It is desirable that when the material travels on the screen, it neither falls
on the same opening again nor jumps over many openings. Therefore, the following
rule is advised Metso, 2007 :
(i) for larger openings: higher amplitude − lower speed , and
(ii) for smaller openings: lower amplitude − higher speed.
In the actual separation process in
vibrating screens, the slope and the
<
particle trajectory travel reduce the a < 0°
projection ( ) of the free passing area
(A) as per Fig. 5.27. Consequently, the
passing particles are slightly smaller
than the mesh opening itself. Also,
the thickness and material of the sepa-
rating media influence the passing
material size. In order to obtain a well-
defined separation, the mesh opening
must always be slightly larger than
the separation size Metso, 2007 . For
the correct choice of vibrating screen
mesh opening to obtain a specified
product size, Table 5.4 can be used.
Besides higher capacity and efficiency, other advantages include lower operating
and maintenance costs per unit of material handled, and lesser blinding of screen
Product si e Type of screening media and opening space

measured in lab
Wire s uare Wire Plastic Plastic rubber
ole rectangular rubber steel steel plate
opening plate s uare rectangular
ole opening
mm mm mm mm mm
2 3 1.5 5 4.5 2×6
3 4 2×6 6 2.5 × 8
4 5 3×9 7 4 × 12
5 6.5 4 × 12 8.5 5 × 15
6 8 5 × 15 9.5 6 × 18
8 10 6 × 18 12 8 × 24
10 12.5 8 × 24 14.5 10 × 30
12 15 9.4 × 30 17 12 × 36
14 17 11 × 33 19 14 × 42
16 19 12 × 36 21.5 16.5 × 50
18 21 13.5 × 40 23.5 18.5 × 58
(Continued )
Product si e Type of screening media and opening space
measured in lab
Wire s uare Wire Plastic Plastic rubber
ole rectangular rubber steel steel plate
opening plate s uare rectangular
ole opening
mm mm mm mm mm
20 23 15 × 45 25.5 21 × 60
22 25 16.5 × 50 27 22 × 65
24 27 18 × 54 31 24 × 70
26 30 19.5 × 60 34 26 × 75
28 32.5 21 × 63 36.5 28 × 85
30 35 22.5 × 70 39 31 × 90
32 37 41
34 40 44
36 42 48
40 46 50
44 51 55
48 56 59
52 60 65
56 65 70
60 70 75
64 75 80
68 80 85
72 84 90
76 88 94
80 94 100
84 98 105
88 103 110
92 107 115
100 117 125
For inc divide by
openings. Whether they are sus-

pended or installed on a spring base,
vibrating screens require less space.
Eriez Syncro–Sizer is a gyratory

screen separator designed specifi-
cally for high-capacity separation
by size of dry materials, and for wet
separations when oversize materi-
als constitute a large percentage of
the feed. These screens consist of a
series of decks, each with its own
screen and with its own discharge
spout, as shown in Fig. 5.28. Depending on the end product, up to four decks can be
used to obtain the desired degree of fineness.
The decks are given gyratory motions of up to 1450 cycles per minute, and a
variable horizontal and vertical stroke which stratifies the materials in seconds and
direct the materials in a controlled pattern over the screen face and to the discharge
end. Because of this unique motion, the Syncro-Sizer gives outstanding accuracy,
capacity, and overall efficiency. These screens separate and size materials ranging in
size from 6 mm to 40 mesh.
Generally, the gyratory motion is gentler and is ideal for more fragile products.
The Syncro-Sizer screens find applications in food, chemical, metallic and non-
metallic minerals, pharmaceutical, abrasive, ceramic, plastic, and other process
industries.
In comparison to many other types of screening equipments,
banana screens are of recent innovation in screening technology with multi-slope
concept screening equipment, capable of achieving higher throughput per screening
area. These screens include a number of differently sloped sections (declinations)
from two to as many as six, where the slope angle reduces progressively towards the
discharge end. These screens are available in double-deck fashion.
The JOEST Banana Screen, Model No. SRZN 4720 × 7320 is a double-deck
type of screen with two differently sloped sections having declinations of 25 and
15 on each screen deck, as shown in Fig. 5.29. The frequency of vibration is
880 rpm.
Generally, the steeper slope angles towards the feed end result in high material
travel rates with low bed depths and rapid fines removal. The lower slope angles
towards the discharge end result in reduced material travel rates and high efficiency
screening of near-sized materials. The banana screens find applications in many
mining industries like diamond, coal, copper, and platinum.
Table 5.5 summarises the operating
conditions by detailing the efficiency and capacity of each screening apparatus.
Apparatus Particle Si e Efficiency Capacity

Grizzlies 20 mm to 300 mm Low Very high
Trommels 6 mm to 55 mm Average Low
Vibrating screens 4 mesh to 325 mesh High High
Gyratory screens 6 mm to 40 mesh Very high Low
Banana screens ≈ 100 mm High High
Electrical separation methods are based on the different behaviour of solid particles
towards the electrical forces. According to the form of electrical force employed, the
electrical separation methods are classified into two groups magnetic and electrostatic.
The magnetic separation method uses the force of a magnetic field, whereas the electro-
static separation method uses the force of an electric field for the separation of solids.
The magnetic separation method is in use for nearly a century. It uses the magnetic
properties of materials to carry out the separation. Any particle introduced into a
magnetic field will become magnetised to some extent and act as a magnetic dipole.
The magnetic susceptibility is the property of a material that determines its behaviour
in the magnetic field.
Depending on the magnetic susceptibility, materials are classified into three
categories: ferromagnetic, paramagnetic, and diamagnetic. Ferromagnetic materials
like iron, nickel, and cobalt have very strong magnetic susceptibility and have strong
magnetic moments per unit volume. Paramagnetic materials have a weak magnetic
susceptibility and are further classified as strongly or weakly magnetic according to
the strength of the magnetic moment produced per unit volume in the external mag-
netic field [Perry, 2007]. The third category is made up of diamagnetic materials with
no susceptibility and is repelled by a magnetic field.
Magnetic separation is carried out by passing susceptible materials through a mag-
netic field. The magnetic field can be produced using either a permanent magnet or an
electromagnet. The use of an electromagnet over a permanent magnet is advantageous
because by varying the intensity of the electrical current, the magnetic field intensity
can be adjusted. Also, the magnetic field produced by an electromagnet reaches a
much higher intensity than the field intensity created by a permanent magnet.
The magnetic characteristics of a material can change as a function of stress,
temperature, pressure, and physical and chemical treatments [Perry, 2007].
In addition to the magnetic force, other forces affecting the magnetic separation
are gravity, friction, centrifugal, fluid (air and liquid) resistance, electrostatic, capil-
lary, and momentum [Taggart, 1945]. Also, the size and density of particles influence
the separation process. The separation of large heavy particles requires a much stron-
ger magnetic field than the separation of light small particles. Certain ferromagnetic
materials after going through a magnetic field acquire a residual magnetism that
forms agglomerates — a phenomenon which can hinder the separation process.
Magnetic separators are of several types: wet and dry, low and high intensity, and
electro and rare-earth magnets. The low-intensity separators are used to separate
ferromagnetic materials and certain paramagnetic materials whose magnetic sus-
ceptibility is high. The high intensity separators used to separate low susceptible
paramagnetic materials are of high cost. At the same time, the operating cost for such
units is also high because the production and operation of an intense magnetic field
consume high electricity. Some of the magnetic separators in use are magnetic drum
separators, rare-earth magnetic rolls, induced roll magnetic separators, high-gradient
magnetic separators, and superconducting high-gradient magnetic separators.
The magnetic drum separators consist of rotating

horizontal cylinders of nonmagnetic materials like bronze or brass, inside which
permanent magnets or electromagnets are incorporated. Magnets can either be
stationary or rotating. The magnets are arranged radially inside the drum around the
drum axis. These separators can operate with either dry or wet feeds.
A dry drum stationary magnetic separator (Fig. 5.30) has a set of stationary mag-
nets fixed inside the rotating drum to cover between 50 to 75 per cent of the drum
circumference. The feed is allowed to fall on the top of the rotating drum through a
feed hopper. Magnetic materials, under the action of the magnetic field, adhere to the
drum and move along with the drum so long as the particles remain in the magnetic
field. The nonmagnetic materials fall freely along the downward curved face of the
drum and are separated from the magnetic materials by a splitter.
F d F d
in d
+
i n −
n
n n i
M n i i
i
i
F d F d
M n
M n i n n i M n i n n i
i n i n i n i n
In general, drum size varies from 0.3 to 0.6 m (1 to 2 ft.) in diameter and 0.3 to
1.52 m (1 to 5 ft) in width. An increase in diameter generally increases the percentage
recovery of magnetic particles. For the separation of fine particles, the magnets are
closely spaced. The capacity varies with feed size — it increases with the coarse
particles and decreases with fine ones.
The wet drum magnetic separator is a low-intensity magnetic separation equipment.
It consists of a rotating drum with lower section in the pulp. Inside the rotating drum
a fixed permanent magnet is located. The separation principle of this equipment is
the same as that of the dry drum separator. Wet drum separators can be operated in
co-current or counter-current fashion (Fig. 5.31). These are used for the concentra-
tion of strongly magnetic coarse particles. The size of the separator depends on the
slurry volume, percentage of solids in the slurry, percentage of magnetic particles in
the slurry, and required recovery of magnetic particles.
Magnetic roll/pulley separators are dry low-intensity

type of equipments consisting of a belt conveyor equipped with a stationary magnetic
head pulley. Material is fed evenly on the belt and is transported over the magnetic roll.
As the feed material moves through the magnetic field, all the magnetic particles are
attracted towards the roll or pulley. Depending on the magnetic susceptibility of the
particles, they either become attached to the surface of the belt and are released as they
travel away from the magnetic field or are drawn toward the belt and their trajectory
is altered from that of the nonmagnetic particles. The nonmagnetic particles are not
affected and follow a normal trajectory and are discharged by gravity. The Improsys
rare-earth magnetic roll separator and its operating principle are shown in Fig. 5.32.
Standard rolls are 0.1 to 0.3 m (4 to 12 in.) in diameter and are 0.5 to 1.5 m in length.
The separation is dependent on the proper selection of magnetic roll, belt thick-
ness, belt speed, splitter position, and the depth of the feed material on the belt. The
capacity of this equipment depends on the thickness of material on the belt and on
the width of the belt. The efficiency decreases with the increase in speed and when
F d
ni
di
M n
n n i
i
M n i i
the thickness of material increases. The humidity level of the materials must be kept
as low as possible to prevent agglomeration.
Magnetic roll or pulley separators are largely used to remove tramp iron from
crusher or grinder feeds, to remove magnetic contaminants from nonmagnetic (food
or agricultural) products, and to concentrate valuable minerals from their ores.
F d
These separators are similar to dry drum/
roll separators, but instead of permanent
M n i magnets, electromagnets are used.
in
Electromagnet induces a magnetic field
d
onto a toothed-edged roll through a cast-
iron pole located a short distance away.
Materials to be separated are fed at the top.
Depending on the magnetic susceptibility
n n i of the particles, they are either held to the
i n roll or are discharged normally as shown
in Fig. 5.33. For effective separation,
multiple rolls are used. These are used to
i
process dry granulated weakly magnetic
M n i materials and are most commonly used
i for the separation of ilmenite from non-
magnetic fractions.
The high-gradient
magnetic separators are recently developed machines used in magnetic separation
of weakly magnetic minerals. A number of HGMSs are available in the market and
one such separator is the SLon HGMS manufactured by Outotec Oyj. The SLon
HGMS (Fig. 5.34) utilises the combination of magnetic force, pulsating fluid, and
gravity to continuously process fine, weakly magnetic minerals.
The slurry enters the vertical separating ring through slots in the upper yoke. As
the matrix in the working zone is magnetised, the slurry pulses and the magnetic par-
ticles are attracted to the matrix. The magnetic particles are then carried outside the
magnetic field and then flushed to the concentrate trough. The nonmagnetic or less
magnetic particles pass through the matrix and enter the product trough through slots
in the low yoke driven by gravity in
and hydrodynamic drag. The oper-
ating principle of SLon HGMS is
shown in Fig. 5.35 and the construc-
tion details are shown in Fig. 5.36.
A great variety of SLon HGMS
i n
models are available. The ring diam-
ix
eters vary from 500 to 2500 mm
rotating at a speed of 0.3 to 3 rpm.
Their capacity ranges between 0.03
to 150 tonne/h. They use magnetic
flux of up to 1.2 Tesla and can
treat effectively particles having
size ranges from 1.3 mm down to
approximately 5 microns.
The advantages of SLon
HGMSs are ease of operation and
maintainance, greater efficiency M n i
with smaller-sized particles, high x in
beneficiation ratio, high recovery, d
and minimised matrix blocking.
The applications of the SLon
HGMSs include the concentration
of iron ore, ilmenite, chromite ore,
and manganese ore; mineral-sand separation; purification of nonmetallic minerals,
i.e., feldspar, silica sands, etc.; and fine materials recovery.
In superconducting
magnets, the conductor is made from a superconducting alloy of niobium and
titanium, which is maintained at a temperature near absolute zero to maintain the
n n x din
x
n n in in
x in d iv
i
v x
Midd in n i in
i
in
ni
id
i in
x
F F d M M n i i id Midd in M nM n i i
superconducting state. The generation of magnetic field is exactly the same way as on
a normal electrical coil or winding. The most common way of cooling a superconduct-
ing magnet is to immerse it in a bath of liquid helium at 4 K in a low-loss cryostat.
Superconducting magnets have the advantage of having a stronger magnetic
field than coil/solenoid magnets and have higher processing velocity. But with the
increased slurry velocity, the duty cycle decreases and the economics of separation is
affected. Also, for the optimum operation of superconducting magnets, they have to
be operated in persistent mode. These two problems—the long duty cycles of separa-
tion and the optimum operation—can be optimised by the use of a reciprocating can-
ister train technology. For the economic operation, periodically the canister matrix
must be demagnetised to flush out the captured particles. This demagnetisation can
be achieved by either de-energising the magnet or by moving the matrix canister out
of the magnetic field. The Outotec Cryofilter uses this technology for the treatment
of fine materials requiring magnetic particle removal.
The Cryofilter system consists of two active matrix-containing canister sections,
sandwiched between three magnetically balanced dummy canister sections. The twin
canister configuration within the single assembly enables one canister for the separation,
while the other can be engaged for flushing and rinsing, as shown in Fig. 5.37. Regular
reciprocation results in almost continuous operation through the freshly cleaned matrix.
M n i i d
F A iv A iv
M n i n d
F A iv A iv
in
n d
A iv A iv in
A iv A iv
n F
d M n i
A iv A iv F
The Cryofilter uses a combination of a liquid helium bath maintained at 4 K and
mechanical cooling by using thermal insulation and liquid nitrogen, thereby, extending
the refill period of liquid helium. The industrial Cryofilter uses a powerful magnetic
field of 5 Tesla. As the separators capacity is directly related to the cross-sectional area
of matrix available for the material to flow through, the canister is designed to maximise
the surface area of the matrix available for the separator within the volume of the chamber
and to ensure even flow distribution for each matrix pad section, as shown in Fig. 5.38.
The industrial Cryofilter Model 5T/460 (3.385 m in height, 3 m in width, and
13.3 m in length) has a capacity of 25–50 TPH and uses 1000–2000 litres of liquid
helium per year.
The advantages of superconducting magnets are high throughput, low power con-
sumption resulting from zero resistance of the magnet windings, and production of
much higher magnetic field.
The superconducting HGMSs are used for processing kaolin, calcium carbon-
ate, and talc. Any fine material (less than 100 microns in particle size) that can be
processed in slurry form is suitable for Cryofilter processing.
The electrostatic separation of particles is a method of separation based on the differ-

ences in electrical conductivity of charged particles under the influence of an exter-
nal electrical field. There are three basic charging mechanisms used for the electrical
separation of minerals—contact electrification (triboelectrification), ion bombard-
ment, and conductive induction. Once the particles are selectively charged with dif-
ferent polarities, they can easily be separated by applying an external electric field.
In the triboelectrification method, particles acquire surface charge by means of
contact or friction with other particles or with a charging medium. High tempera-
tures and low humidity favour the development of surface charge by this method. In
the ion-bombardment method of charging, both conducting and nonconducting par-
ticles are bombarded by ions of atmospheric gases generated by an electrical corona
discharge from a high-voltage electrode. By this, the conducting particles lose their
charge to ground and acquire an opposite electrostatic force tending to repel them
from the conducting surface while the nonconducting particles remain in contact with
the surface. While in the third charging method, i.e., the conductive induction, an
uncharged particle brought into contact with a charged surface acquires the polarity of
the surface [Perry, 2007]. Figure 5.39 illustrates the different charging mechanisms.
Electrostatic separation is greatly affected by specific gravity, size, shape, surface
condition, and fluid drag forces.
The classification of electrostatic separators is based on the charging mechanism

chosen. Separators based on triboelectrification and ion-bombardment methods are
discussed here.
+ −
− −
+ +
+ − −
i i i i
i
n i n n i n
i i
− −−
+ +
− −−
nd
− − − − − − − − − − − − − −
+ +
− −
+ + + +
+ + + + + + + + + −
i i
− − − − − − −
+
+ +
+ +
− − nd
+ +
+ + + + + −
The Outotec T-StatTM triboelectrostatic separator
(Fig. 5.40) is a high-capacity separator capable of separating two nonconductive
materials that have different electrical charges.
In the T-StatTM, particles of two nonconductive materials acquire surface charge
by means of contact or friction with other particles or with a charging medium, e.g.,
wall of container, feeder, chute, pipe, etc. Particle–particle contact between two
dissimilar particles results in a transfer of charges from one particle surface to the
T-Sart TM operation principle other. This results in one of the
i in particles being positively charged
and the other being negatively
+ + − − − charged. The charged particles
+ + − − are then subjected to an electric
+
field that deflects the free-falling
particles according to their polar-
− + ity and magnitude of surface
− + +
charge. Figure 5.41 illustrates the
T-StatTM operating principle.
− + + The T-StatTM separator uses
+ i iv
− + + + an electrostatic field produced
iv
by high voltage up to 120 KV

− +
− − dc to divert charged particles
− − + as they fall through the field.
d
d
− Charged particles are attracted

− − +
to the electrodes with the oppo-
− + site charge and are collected by
F i an adjustable splitter. Depending
upon the feed rate and tempera-
ture, particle charge, electrode
voltage, and surface condition-
ing, highly efficient separation
can be made.
The T-StatTM separators are used for the beneficiation of industrial minerals, e.g.,
feldspar, calcium carbonate, phosphate, baryte, etc. Effective separation for minerals
occurs on feed particle size between 1 and 0.075 mm.
Currently, the T-StatTM separators are used for the separation of plastics in the
recycling industries, e.g., cable plastics, automobile, multilayered bottles, PET/PVC,
ABS/HIPS, PVC/PC, PVC/PE, Nylon, etc. Separation of plastics is effective for the
feed size ranges between 1 and 13 mm.
In general, the ion-bombardment separators

are used for the separation of both conductive and nonconductive particles. These
separators consist of a grounded conductive rotating drum coupled with one or more
high-voltage ionising electrodes.
The particles to be separated are fed on the top of the rotating drum and are
bombarded with ions from the ionising electrodes. The conducting particles lose their
acquired charge to the grounded conducting surface (here, the rotating drum) and
acquire an opposite electrostatic force by which they are repelled away from the rotat-
ing drum surface. Sometimes, static lifting electrodes are used in removing conductive
particles from the drum surface. The nonconducting particles stuck to the drum surface
are carried further with the rotating drum and are removed using a set of brush.
The Outotec eForce high-tension electrostatic roll separator utilises the ion-
bombardment method for the separation and is applicable for the particle size range
between 0.075 and 12.5 mm. The eForce electrostatic separator and its operating
principle are shown in figures 5.42 and 5.43 respectively.
eForce® operation principle
n
F d d n
i in
d
n nd Midd in nd
,
The eForce separators are used both in minerals and recycling industries. In
mineral industries, these separators are used for recovery of both conductive minerals,
e.g., ilmenite, rutile, hematite, chromite, pyrite, etc., and nonconductive minerals, e.g.,
zircon, monazite, quartz, feldspar, topaz, baryte, etc. In recycling industries, these
separators find applications for the separation of chopped wires, electronic scrap,
plastic bottles, computer cables, etc.
Classification is defined as the separation of a mixture of solid particles into various

fractions according to their size or density, which are allowed or caused to settle
through a fluid either in motion or at rest. The fluid in question is generally water but
it can also be air. When materials of the same density are separated according to their
sizes, the operation is known as sizing and when the materials of the same equivalent
size are separated according to their densities, the operation is known as sorting.
But in actual practice, it is impossible to get a feed of uniform sizes, hence, sizing is
encountered to a greater extent than sorting in all classification operations.
Classification methods are chosen when the separation by screening methods
becomes ineffective. Generally, wet classification is used in ore dressing and hydro-
metallurgy. Some of the other uses are separation of sands from slimes; concentra-
tion of smaller heavy-gravity particles in a product containing large light-gravity
particles; and to sort solids having a long-range of screen sizes into a number of
short-range fractions Perry, 1997 and Taggart, 1945 . Classification is also used for
dewatering and for concentration by washing.
When a solid particle falls through a vacuum under the influence of gravity alone, its
velocity increases continuously due to acceleration. But when the same solid particle
falls through a fluid such as air or water, its velocity increases at a lower rate due to
friction caused by the movement of the particle in the fluid which cancels a part of the
gravitational force. This frictional force increases with the increase in the velocity of
the particle. And when the frictional force becomes equal to the gravitational force,
the velocity of the particle reaches a constant value, known as the terminal settling
velocity.
This velocity depends on the parameters such as the shape, size, and density of the
solid particle and the density and viscosity of the fluid.
There are two types of settling—free settling and hindered settling, which is based
on the amount of solids present in the fluid in suspended form. When the particle is
at a sufficient distance from the walls of the vessel and from other particles so that
its fall is not affected by them, the settling of the particle is called free settling. And
when the presence of other particles affects the motion of the settling particle even
though they are not colliding, the process is known as hindered settling.
In classification operations, the hindered settling reduces the particle size effect
while increasing the density effect. Thus, the classifying equipments based on hin-
dered settling are used to perform density separation and those based on free settling
are used to perform size separation.
The products obtained from a classification operation are the overflow—mainly
containing fine and light gravity particles; and the underflow—mainly containing
coarse and heavy gravity particles.
Some of the general laws of classification are the following:

(i) the coarse particles have a relatively faster settling velocity than the fine
particles of the same specific gravity and the same shape,
(ii) the heavy-gravity particles have a relatively faster settling velocity than light-
gravity particles of the same size and the same shape,
(iii) the regular particles like the spherical ones have a relatively faster settling
velocity than irregular particles of the same weight, and
(iv) the settling velocity of solid particles decreases with the increase in fluid
density and viscosity.
The classifying equipments, hereafter called classifiers, are mainly of two types —
nonmechanical and mechanical. In nonmechanical classifiers, the separation is car-
ried out by gravitational and centrifugal forces while the separation is carried out
by mechanical means in mechanical classifiers. Nonmechanical classifiers include
gravity settling, Spitzkasten, and hydrocyclone classifiers while mechanical classi-
fiers include rake, spiral, drag, and bowl-type of classifiers. Some of these classifiers
are discussed here.
These are one of the oldest and the simplest types
of classifiers and are still popular for crude work because of their low installation
and operating costs. In general, a gravity settling classifier consists of a large tank
with provision for suitable inlet and outlet. Its design is similar to that of the straight
gravity settling tank (not discussed here), except that the bottom half is divided into
several chambers separated by vertical baffles, as shown in Fig. 5.44.
These classifiers work on the principle that the faster the settling velocity, the
nearer a particle will travel before settling; and the slower the settling velocity
the farther a particle will travel before settling. So, the large and heavy particles will
fall first while the small and light particles will fall last.
A slurry containing a wide range of particle size and density is fed to the classi-
fier through the inlet connection. As soon as the feed slurry enters the tank, its linear
velocity decreases because of the sudden increase in cross-sectional area and the
particles start to settle under the influence of gravity.
The coarse and heavy (faster settling) particles will be collected near the inlet
while the slower settling particles will be carried further into the tank before reach-
ing the bottom of the tank. Vertical baffles are suitably placed inside the tank for the
collection of several fractions according to their terminal settling velocities. The fine
and light particles will be collected in the last chamber while the very fine particles
will be carried away along with the liquid out of the classifier.
The disadvantage of these classifiers is that the separation is not sharp because
considerable overlapping of size occurs.
A Spitzkasten classifier consists of a series of conical
vessels of increasing size arranged in the direction of flow, as shown in Fig. 5.45. As
the feed slurry enters the first vessel of the classifier, the coarse particles get settled
first, while the overflow goes to the next chamber where further separation takes
place and the process continues till the desired separation is achieved.
A stream of water is fed at the bottom of each of the conical vessels near their
outlet so that the particles have to settle against a slowly rising stream of water.
F id
in
v nd n di i nd in
i i i
F d
d Fin
i
v nd
i
n di i nd in
i i
The size of the particles which are collected in each of the conical vessels is influ-
enced by this upward flow of water.
The conical vessels are arranged in the increasing order of their size because the
amount of water to be handled in one vessel includes all the water used for separation
in the previous one and also to reduce the surface velocity of the overflowing water
from one vessel to the next.
The Spitzkasten classifier is unique because the flow rates in the vessels are
adjustable in order to provide the desired degree of separation.
In recent
years, hydrocyclone classifiers, hereafter
called hydrocyclones, have become one
of the most widely used classifiers in
the chemical and mineral-processing
industries mainly because of their large
capacity relative to their size and their
ability to make extremely fine separation.
Hydrocyclones are used to classify par-
ticles in a liquid suspension based on the
density of the particles. The separation
mechanism in hydrocyclones is the cen-
trifugal force acting on the particles which
accelerate their settling.
Depending on the density of the particles
and the surrounding fluid, hydrocyclones
are classified into two types—forward and
reverse. Forward hydrocyclones remove
particles that are denser than the surround-
ing fluid, while the reverse type removes
particles that are lighter than the surround-
ing fluid. The details about the forward
type of hydrocyclones are discussed here.
Normally, the forward type of hydro-
cyclone consists of a cylindrical section at
the top and a conical section at the base,
as shown in Fig. 5.46. The slurry under
pressure enters the cylindrical section at
the top tangentially and takes a spiral-shape
trajectory inside the hydrocyclone. The
velocity of the slurry increases gradually as
it follows a downward helical path starting
from the inlet area at the top to the smaller
diameter section at the base. As the slurry
flows along this path, centrifugal force acts
on the larger and heavy gravity particles,
throwing them to the outer wall bound for
the underflow, while the fluid drag force
acts on the surface area of the finer and low
F id d gravity particles, dragging them towards
the centre of the cyclone bound for the
n i overflow, as shown in Fig. 5.47.
When the swirling slurry reaches the
underflow tip at the base, it becomes free of
the coarser particles and forms a secondary
vortex. This secondary vortex reverses its
axial direction and follows a smaller-diam-
Ov
n inin in eter rotating path back towards the top over-
flow section mainly carrying the finer and
lighter particles, as shown in Fig. 5.48. The
F d overflow section has a downward-extending
pipe, known as the vortex finder, to cut the
vortex and remove the overflow product
x containing these finer and lighter particles.
ind The effectiveness of separation depends
on the parameters like pulp density, feed
flow and pressure, diameter of vortex
finder, diameter of apex, and the angle and
the length of the conical section.
i Hydrocyclones are available in numer-
v x
ous sizes ranging from 76 mm (3 inch) to
1.27 m (50 inch) in diameter handling 1.2
to 1833 m3/h of feed slurry.
The use of hydrocyclones is advanta-
n geous because of
i n nd
v x (i) absence of mechanical or moving
parts,
(ii) no requirement for a separate
A x power source,
nd
n inin (iii) less maintenance,
i (iv) low equipment costs, and
(v) their ability to make extremely fine
separations.
Hydrocyclones have almost replaced other classifiers in closed-circuit grinding.
Their applications also include desanding, desliming, dewatering, sewage treatment,
paper recycling, flue gas desulphurisation, degritting milk of lime and of red mud in
alumina production, mining and mineral processing industries, pulp and paper mills
to remove sand and other contaminants, and closed-circuit grinding to return coarse
materials back to the ball or rod mill for further grinding.
The Floatex density separator is a hindered

settling classifier for classifying particles based on size and/or density. This unit is
characterised by the mid-height addition of water that produces an ascending flow
against the settling of particles creating a region of hindered settling.
This unit is made of a top rectangular section with a conical section at the bottom.
The fed slurry is introduced to the unit through a central feed-well which distributes
the slurry uniformly to prevent perturbing the conditions in the classifier. Figure 5.49
shows the Floatex Density Separator.
Water is introduced at the bottom of the rectangular section which causes the
contained particles to expand into a state of teeter and fluidised particle bed with
a terminal settling velocity equal to that of the ascending flow. By monitoring and
controlling the apparent density of the teetered suspension, a dense media can be
created. The particles of less mass and having a terminal settling velocity lower than
the ascending flow velocity of water are carried upwards by the current of water and
are discharged as overflow. The particles of greater mass and with a terminal set-
tling velocity higher than the flow velocity migrate downward and are discharged
as underflow. This downward movement of heavy particles hinders the settling of
particles of less mass. Figure 5.50 illustrates the operating principle of the Floatex
Density Separator.
In this unit, the upward current of water is distributed through an arrangement
of perforated spray pipes which are spaced across the tank at the bottom of the
sorting column as shown in Fig. 5.49(b). The coarse classified material is allowed
to collapse through the spaces between the spray pipes over the whole area of the
tank, thus achieving an infinite number of discharge positions from the teetering
particles.
Beneath the level of the spray pipes, the tank is closed by a conical dewatering
cone with a discharge valve at the apex. The settled particles are discharged with a
minimum of entrained water, thus variations in the tonnage discharge having little
effect on the true upward current.
The density of the fluidised particle bed is adjusted and controlled using a pressure
sensor and evaluation unit.
The Floatex separator is manufactured in sizes from 0.2 m2 to 18 m2. The capac-
ity range for a single unit is 1 to 300 tph with a particle size range of 800 to 75 μm
(20 to 200 mesh).
The benefits of this separator are high capacity, simple operation, lower operating
costs, and less water consumption.
In addition to industrial minerals, Floatex separators are used in iron, chromite,
and titanium-ore operations where more immediate and higher recovery of quality
products allows for simpler and less costly operations. These units are also used for
classification of glass and construction sands.
F d
Ov
n
nd v i n ni
/ nv Ai
Ai /i
5 i n
i nd v
v v
Ai v n i i n n
v in
i
F d i
in v
nd
n
d Ov
ni d
ni d
n d n
i
n
in An i v x
n i
d
in v v
d in
n
nd /
F d
Fin nd/ Fin nd/

ii ii
vi vi
in in
i n
ind d in
F d
Fin /
/ i
nd/
i ii
vi in
A great variety of mechanical classifiers exist, out of which the rake and the spiral
classifiers are the most popular ones. These two types of mechanical classifiers
work in a similar manner in that both drag the settled materials along the inclined
surface to the discharge point located at the top, on one end of the settling tank. And
they are different in the mechanism by which the settled materials are moved up
the inclined surface. These are mainly used to separate materials containing a large
amount of fines.
In these classifiers, finer and low gravity particles are carried away along with the
liquid as overflow, while coarser and heavy particles are deposited on the inclined
surface at the bottom, which are dragged upwards against the flow of liquid, by some
mechanical means. The solids are raked during their upward movement due to which
any small particles trapped under larger ones can be brought to the top for further
separation.
F d The mechanical classifier is gen-
F erally divided into three zones: trans-
port zone, classification zone, and
Ov
settled solids zone. The transport
id nd zone is located between the feed and
n inin
n inin
in the overflow section. In this zone,
n n the particles fall freely. The depth
id
d id
ii i n
of this zone and the flow of particles
n from the feed to the overflow sec-
n
tion are controlled by an adjustable
baffle located at the top. The next is
the classification zone, characterised
by the hindered settling of particles.
F d The bottom-most zone is the settled
solids zone where the coarser solids
are settled. These settled solids are
constantly moved upward by some
Ov mechanical means. The principle of
n inin id nd
in n inin
operation for both type of mechani-
cal classifiers is same and is shown
id in Fig. 5.51.
The ra e classifier consists of
a shallow rectangular tank with an
inclined bottom. The tank is provided with movable rakes. The rakes scrape the
coarser and heavy particles settled at the bottom of the tank, upward along the
inclined bottom toward the top of the tank for discharge. The stroking action of the
rakes is such that after completion of each stroke, the rakes are lifted and returned
back to the starting position. Thus, the slurry is kept in continuous agitation. The
stroking time is adjustable so that the coarser and heavy particles have time to settle
to the bottom while smaller and light particles remain near the surface of the slurry
in the tank. Thus, the fines are removed as overflow while the heavier ones are
moved upward along the inclined surface of the tank and are discharged at the
upper end of the tank as dense slurry. Figure 5.52 shows the operation of a rake
classifier.
The spiral classifier employs a trough of semicircular cross-section and a rotating
helical scraper for moving upward the materials settled at the bottom, toward the dis-
charge end. Figure 5.53 shows the Wemco No. 24 High Volume Spiral Classifier,
which is designed to settle and dewater relatively coarser particles from high volume,
low-per cent solid streams. It will separate suspended particles at 35 mesh at a flow
rate of 5000 gpm (18.925 m3/m). This unit has spirals of 24-inch (0.61 m) diameter
placed inside a tank of 25-ft (7.62 m) length. The spiral speed is 8 rpm. Some of
the features of this unit are low initial cost, low operating and maintenance costs,
adjustable spiral speeds, sectionalised steel flights, and a motorised hydraulic spiral
lifting device for easy start-up after accidental shutdown.
Spiral classifiers are generally preferred as the materials do not slide backward
which occurs in rake classifiers. The spiral classifier also produces less turbulence in
the settling tank which is essential for the separation of finer materials.
F d
n
2 Ad i
+ id
1 ′′ d.
i 6
2 − /4
12′− 01/2 6
−6 /
+
Ov
nd
id
. 24 i ii
v
12′−
7′−
6′−10 /4
1 ′′ d. i
d v d
2
i i n
nd d in
′−10 7′− 7′−
2 ′−
Gravity concentration is a method of separating particles of different specific gravi-

ties due to the simultaneous actions upon them of natural or applied gravitational
force and of one or more other forces. The separation is also affected by the volume
and shape of particles. Generally, water is used to carry out the separation. Under
the actions of gravity and other forces, the particles in water are separated into two
fractions — one with the higher density and the other with the lower density.
The gravity concentration equipments are of several types which are based on dif-
ferent separation principles, such as density, film sizing, and shaking. These separa-
tion principles are illustrated in Fig. 5.54.
The density separation principle uses the density of fluid and gravitational force to
separate the particles into two fractions—the lighter and the heavier. The jigs are the
main equipment of this class. The film-sizing principle uses the percolation action
F F F
M v n
n i Fi i in in
through a bed of particles flowing on a curved or inclined surface to separate the
particles. The high-density particles migrate through the bed to the bottom which
flows slowly along the inclined surface, while the low-density particles are carried
with the bulk of the water more rapidly. The spiral concentrators belong to this
group. The shaking principle produces the inter-granular voids for the movement of
particles. The shaking tables are the main equipment of this category.
Generally, gravity concentration equipments separate particles effectively in a
narrow range of sizes. For this reason, particles are first classified using screening
and wet classification methods and then the gravity concentration techniques are
applied to individual fractions to carry out the separation according to density.
Some of the equipments mentioned above are discussed in this section.

Heavy medium separation, commonly known as sink-
and-float separation, uses a fluid medium whose density is intermediate between
that of the light and heavy particles. When such a fluid medium is used the heavier
nd id
particles sink through the fluid medium
i while the lighter particles float and thus
a separation is achieved. The operating
i principle of heavy media separators is
i
shown in Fig 5.55. This method has the
advantage that the separation depends
v id on the difference in densities of the
di vi particles and is independent of the
i particle size. This method also utilises
the variation in the density of fluid
medium for the separation.
Liquids such as tetrabromoethane and calcium chloride solutions can be used as
fluid medium, but factors such as toxicity, corrosiveness, flammability, sufficient
heaviness, cost, availability, and ease of disposal restrict their practical use. Thus,
the most common choice left for the fluid medium is a suspension in water of finely
ground heavy minerals such as magnetite (SG 5.17), ferrosilicon (SG 6.8), and
galena (SG 7.5). The ratio of mineral to water can be varied to give a wide range of
fluid medium densities.
Heavy medium separation methods are used to treat relatively coarse particles,
usually greater than 10-mesh size. These are extensively used for cleaning coal and
concentrating ores.
Jigging is one of the oldest methods for concentrating minerals based on
differences in the density of the particles by the pulsation of a stream of liquid,
generally water, flowing through the bed of materials. The liquid pulsation causes
the heavy particles to migrate through the bed to the bottom of the bed and the light
particles to rise to the top. Each fraction can then be separately taken out. The main
phenomenon of the particle separation in jigging is by hindered settling.
The jigging operation is simple but water consumption is high. Jigging is widely
employed for coal concentration. Other major uses of jigging are for the recovery of
gold, tin, and tungsten.
A jig is a mechanical device used for separating the materials using the jigging
principle. The elementary jig is an open tank filled with water fitted with a horizontal
screen at the top and a conical compartment at the bottom. A thick bed of particles,
called ragging, is spread on the top of the screen, through which water is pulsated up
and down (i.e., jigging action) by some means. This jigging action causes denser par-
ticles to move down faster and lighter particles to move upward. Numerous types of jigs
have been developed over the years. One such unit is the Remer jig.
The Wemco Remer jig consists of an oblong box with a sieve plate bottom that
supports the bed of particles to be jigged, as shown in Fig. 5.56.
This jig is surrounded by a rubber diaphragm that is also attached to the enclosed
vat of water in which it sits. Two longitudinal eccentric shafts are located below the
jig compartment to supply the differential acceleration jigging action provided by a
conventional jig stroke with a high-frequency extra jiggle, as shown in Fig. 5.57.
The compact design of the Wemco Remer jig provides maximum capacity for
minimum floor space. Two jig-bed sizes are available 5’ × 11’ (1.5 m × 3.35 m) for
cleaning and scavenging service and 5’ × 16’ (1.5 m × 4.88 m) for roughing service.
The Wemco Remer jig is used to treat metallic ores and materials (iron, manga-
nese, copper, chrome, lead–zinc, and metallic slags) and industrial minerals (barite,
coal, gypsum, lignite, sand, gravel, and lightweight aggregates).
The spiral concentrator is one of the relatively modern,

high-capacity, low-cost units developed for the concentration of low-grade ores
and minerals. The separation is based on the difference in the specific gravity
di di
i
d d
n i
i ni i n
of the materials to be separated. The key benefit of this unit is that it has no
moving parts. All that is required is a slurry pump to transport the slurry to the
top of the spiral concentrator. This type of concentrator was first introduced by
I B Humphreys in 1941 to recover gold and nowadays these units are widely used
in various mineral industries.
A spiral concentrator consists of one or more helical conduits supported on a
central column. The slurry enters the unit through a feed distributor located at the
top, which distributes the feed uniformly. As the slurry flows down the spiral, the
separation is achieved by stratification of material caused by the complex combined
effect of size, density, and to a lesser extent the shape; centrifugal force; differential
settling; friction against the spiral surface; the drag of the water; and hindered set-
tling through the flowing particle bed. The low-density particles are carried away
with the bulk of water towards the outer side of the spiral, while the heavier par-
ticles move toward the inner side. The product box located at the bottom collects
separately the product, middling, and tails from the spiral. Typical construction of a
F d
i i
i di i
i i i
in n n
F d x
7 n
d
d : 700
i nd
d x in n n
i i
i n
nd
Midd in
i n n n
nd i n nd
spiral concentrator is fibreglass and polyurethane to reduce wear from abrasion. The
unit requires less floor area for operation. This can also be operated in multiples to
have increased capacity. Typical capacities range from 1–3 tonne per hour of feed for
minerals and 3–5 tonne per hour for coal.
Figure 5.58 shows an Outotec Low Grade Spiral Concentrator, Model LC3700.
This unit is a seven-turn helix designed for concentrating sand with less than 10%
heavy mineral content. This unit has a diameter of 64 cm, a pitch of 41 cm, and a
height of 330 cm.
The cross-section of a spiral concentrator is generally divided into six main
regions, as shown in Fig. 5.59. Region-1 is the outermost region, which contains
mostly water with fine particles, trapped by the high velocity of the moving water.
Next is Region-2, which exists over a very small area, where the water velocity is
maximum. This region is well defined as it separates Region 3 from Region 1.
In Region-3, known as the separation zone, the velocity begins to slow down and
most of the separation occurs here. This is because the high-specific-gravity particles
settle to the bottom and the water velocity keeps the low-specific-gravity particles in
the stream near the surface. At last, the low-specific-gravity particles move to regions
1 and 2. Region-4, the transition zone, lies in between regions of particles of different
specific gravities.
The next is Region-5 where dense materials segregate. Any low-density particles
present in this region find their way to the top of the slurry surface and are carried off by
the fast-moving water towards Region 1. The innermost portion (Region-6) is the super-
concentrate channel from where concentrates flow to the bottom section of the spiral.
1 i n/ i i n
i nd
1 i i n d n i
2 i n xi v i
i n n
n
4 n ii n n
5 i n d n i
6 n n nn
2
n
i
4
ii vi 5
6
i ii vi
Spiral concentrators are used for recovery of chromite, ilmenite, rutile, zircon,
tin and iron-ore minerals from beach sands; mica and phosphate ores; coal cleaning;
processing of tailings obtained by floatation and other concentrating methods; and
many more Perry, 1997 .
Gravity-based shaking tables were originally developed in 1896

by Wilfley and are still in use mainly because of their cheap operating costs. The
separation of particles is based on the differences in the specific gravity and to a
lesser extent on the shape and size of the materials to be separated. The separation is
achieved by flowing a slurry across a riffled table surface, slightly inclined from the
horizontal, and shaking the table surface along its length.
In general, the shaking table consists of a deck, in somewhat of a rectangular
shape, covered with rubber or linoleum, mounted on a supporting frame. The deck
surface is further covered with riffles running parallel to the length side of the table.
A drive mechanism attached to the supporting frame shakes the table along its length,
parallel to the riffle and riffle pattern. This longitudinal shaking motion consists of
a slow forward stroke followed by a faster reverse stroke. The faster reverse stroke
causes the material to move towards the discharge end. Feed slurry is introduced to
the table through a feed box and a long water box is attached to the feed side of the
deck, to which additional wash-water can be added upon requirement, to distribute
both the feed and the water evenly, which is an essential parameter in good table
operation. The amount of wash-water is another essential parameter because too
much will wash the denser particles over the riffles into the tailings side and too less
may not carry either of the particles. For this reason, tables are operated at optimum
operating conditions by making adjustments to the stroke length and frequency,
angle of inclination, flow rates of slurry and wash water, and the arrangement of
riffles. Generally short stroke and high frequency is better for finer particles while
a shorter stroke and low frequency is good for coarser ones. Figure 5.60 shows the
elements and operation of a shaking table.
F d
di i F d
x
iv
ni
n n
i
Midd in i n i in
Due to the shaking action along the length, the particles of mixed densities are
stratified on each gap between two consecutive riffles, as shown in Fig. 5.61. This
causes heavy gravity particles to go down through the bed of low gravity particles
and the low gravity particles to stay on the top. The heavy gravity particles move
to one end of the table along the
vi i
riffle gaps and are collected in v vi i
the concentrate launder. The low F
gravity particles are washed along i
with the wash-water over the
top of the riffles toward the tail-
ings discharge side of the table.
Intermediate between these, are
the middlings having intermedi- n n n n
ate size and density. It is very rare

to make a sharp separation in the
tabling method.
The riffles are available in dif-
ferent configurations. The riffles
are made taller on the feed side of
the table and the height gradually
decreases as the riffles progress i in
toward the discharge end. This
causes the quick separation of
the larger heavy gravity particles
and allows more residence time
for the more difficult finer heavy F d F d
gravity particles to separate from
the finer low gravity particles.
The Outotec concentrating tables nd i nd
are offered in left or right-hand,
as shown in Fig. 5.62.
Coarse feed Fine feed
Stro e Stro e PM Max. Stro e Stro e PM Max.
length capacity, length capacity,
range, mm g/hr range, mm g/hr
19 – 25 260 – 280 1800 13 – 19 300 750
The Outotec Concentrating Table Model 6A (standard) has a length of 4496 mm

(177 in) and a width of 1829 mm (72 in) at feed side and 1524 mm (60 in) at dis-
charge end of the table. The water requirement for this model is 19–76 L/min and
requires a power of 1.5 kW. The capacity and operating data are shown in Table 5.6.
The shaking tables find extensive use in concentrating gold and are also used
in the recovery of tin and tungsten minerals. Additionally, the Outotec tables are
used for concentration of recycled metals and plastics; heavy minerals (zircon, rutile,
monazite, etc.); copper; zinc; lead; potash; and talc. The downstream of other gravity
concentration equipments such as jigs and spirals, is often used as the feed to shaking
tables for final cleaning purpose.
The flotation process is the most important and widely used technique in the mineral
process industries to concentrate economically the mineral values in the ores when
gravity concentration techniques fail to do so. The flotation process was invented
in 1901 by C V Potter in Australia and in 1902 by G D Delprat in Holland. The
flotation refers to the unit operation in which one type of solid particles is sepa-
rated from another type by floating them on the surface of a liquid with the aid of
air bubbles. Particles attached to the air bubbles are removed as froth, hence, the
flotation operation is also known as froth flotation. The products obtained from a
flotation operation are the concentrate, which is the overflow containing required
minerals and the tailings, which is the underflow slurry containing gangue material.
The separation of particles is based on the differences in their surface wetting
properties, hydrophilic and hydrophobic. Particles which are easily wetted by water
are hydrophilic and tend to remain in suspension, while those particles not easily
wetted by water are hydrophobic and tend to move out of water to be attached to air
or air bubbles, as shown in Fig. 5.63. These wettability properties may be natural
or tailor-made using various flotation reagents added to water that are selectively
d ii
i
d i
i
Ai
adsorbed on the particle surfaces. Under agitated conditions, when air is introduced
to the process as small bubbles, the particles with hydrophobic surfaces get attached
to the air bubbles and rise to the liquid surface. Later these particles are removed as
froth. The particles with hydrophilic surfaces remain either in water phase as suspen-
sion or settle to the bottom.
For an effective flotation operation, it is essential to run the flotation process at

desired conditions. The flotation operation begins with the size reduction process
by which the ore is ground into a fine powder consisting of the desired mineral and
the gangue materials, also known as the process of liberation, which increases the
surface area of the ore for further processing. As the flotation operation is a sur-
face phenomenon, the surfaces of the mineral particles must be kept free of dirt and
other unwanted materials. The feed slurry is then prepared by adding water, which
is made free of any agglomerates by adding dispersants like soda ash, lime sodium
silicate, and lignin sulfonates [Perry, 1997] and agitating them in a tank, also known
as conditioning step.
The next step is then to introduce air bubbles into the tank and to contact them
with the mineral particles whose separation is desired , by modifying their surface
properties. Various flotation reagents
like pH regulators, activators or depres- Ov
sors, collectors, and frothers are used n n
for the modification of the surface
properties of the mineral particles (both F d nd
A i i n i n
desired and undesired). The basic steps i in
and the order in which the reagents are
added are shown in Fig. 5.64. Once i n Ai F i n n
A iv /
one reagent is added, sufficient time is
allowed before the addition of the next
reagent. This is because the various
chemical reactions can take place which F
can decrease the flotation time.
The activity of most of the flota-
tion reagents varies with the slurry pH,
which is controlled or adjusted using
pH regulators such as lime, caustic soda, soda ash, and sulfuric acid [Perry, 1997].
Each mineral has a pH above which it will not float. This is called the critical
p , which is dependent on the concentration of the collector. Generally, flotation
is carried out at alkali conditions (pH > 7) because most collectors are stable at
higher pH values. The optimum pH value is generally prescribed by the reagent
manufacturers.
When the desired mineral particles to be separated are not naturally hydrophobic,
collectors are added to the slurry, which are adsorbed selectively on the surface of
the particles to make them hydrophobic. These are generally hetero-polar compounds
of fatty acids, sulfates, sulphonates, xanthates, and dithiophosphates, consisting of a
polar head with a long nonpolar tail. The collectors’ polar heads get attached to a polar
mineral surface, leaving the nonpolar tails toward the surrounding water molecules,
rendering the mineral particle hydro-
phobic, as shown in Fig. 5.65. This
causes the mineral particle to be
repelled by water.
Min When the mineral surfaces have
i
been rendered hydrophobic by the
n collector, the frothers are added to
produce stable air bubbles for particle–
bubble attachment and their removal
as froth. These are organic surfactants
consisting of a polar head oriented
outward toward water and a nonpolar
tail oriented inward toward the air, as
shown in Fig. 5.66. The frothers must
provide adequate stability of the froth
on the top of the slurry and prevent the
release of the hydrophobic particles
d back into the slurry. Too stable a froth
Ai n also results in too much frothing and
i hinders the subsequent processing of
the froth laden with mineral particles.
Example of frothers includes pine oil,
cresylic acid, polypropylene glycol,
and methyl isobutyl carbinol Perry,
1997 .
The activators are generally solu-
ble salts that ionize easily in water and are used to make selectively the mineral
surfaces more favourable for the adsorption of a collector. For example, copper ion is
used to activate sphalerite surfaces for the adsorption of xanthate collector, whereas
the depressors are inorganic compounds and are used to make selectively the mineral
surfaces hydrophilic. This decreases their activity towards collectors and thus, the
flotation of undesired particles can be prevented. For example, sodium or calcium
cyanide is used to depress pyrite (FeS2) while floating galena (PbS) or sphalerite
(ZnS) Perry, 1997 .
The larger particles, being heavy, require much larger bubbles for flotation than the
smaller particles. Too small a particle size, results in more amount of collector con-
sumption and the movement of these particles in upward direction by the turbulence
created by the upward movement of air bubbles. Also, the bubble diameter plays a
vital role in flotation operation, since with the reduction of bubble diameter the total
available surface increases for the particle–bubble attachment.
A great variety of flotation machines are available on the market which can be classi-
fied into different categories based on the methods of generation and introduction of
F i n i n
i i v d i i d i
n i M ni
n i n
air bubbles into the machines, as shown

in Fig. 5.67. One of the machines is
the f lotation cell, a type of mechanical M
flotation equipment in which air is dis-
persed by mechanical means.
The flotation cell consists of a cylin- Ai
drical tank, equipped with a turbine and F
baffles at the periphery, as shown in
Fig. 5.68. The slurry is fed to the cell
near the bottom end of the tank, so as nd
not to disturb the froth at the top. Air F d
enters the machine through a concentric n x
pipe surrounding the turbine shaft, due
to the vacuum created by the rotation
of turbine or if required air is injected
using a low-pressure blower.
Due to the rotation of the turbine, the
air is dispersed in the slurry as fine bub-
bles to which hydrophobic particles get
attached and rise to the surface where
they accumulate as froth. At the top of
the tank, an overflow launder is attached
along the periphery to collect this froth laden with hydrophobic particles with the help
of a scrapper; whereas the hydrophilic particles will either sink or remain in suspen-
sion and are removed as underflow tailings.
Figure 5.69 shows the Outotec TankCell flotation unit. The cylindrical TankCell
operates as an ideal mixer and maximises the number of collisions between the min-
eral particles and air bubbles, as well as reduces short circuiting. TankCell units are
available with cell sizes from 5 to 300 m3. They are easy to operate and consume low
power and air.
Figure 5.70 shows the operation of a WEMCO SmartCellTM Flotation machine
which is provided with a semicircular feed box, hybrid draft tube, beveled cell bottom,
A i n i
F d
i i A i ni
d x F d
di nd
i d in n n
nd
i
Mixin
i
n v
id d
F
radial launders and mixing baffles. The cylindrical tank design improves efficiency
and air dispersion. The hybrid draft tube and beveled tank improves hydrodynamic
mixing, increases solid suspension, and improves coarse particle recovery. The radial
launder and mixing baffles increase froth mobility, decrease froth residence time,
increase recovery, and enhance froth stability. The SmartCellTM units are available
with cell sizes from 0.05 to 250 m3.
The flotation technique is used for the recovery of fine coal and for the concen-
tration of barite, iron oxide, mica, talc, pyrite, feldspar, calcite, and many more
minerals. In addition to minerals, this technique finds application in wastewater
treatment, separation of proteins from milk, recovery of bitumen from tar sands,
de-inking of waste paper, recovery of petroleum hydrocarbons and polycyclic aro-
matic hydrocarbons, and clarification of fruit juices [Perry, 1997].
❑
❑
❑
1
w= − d.
m
❑
2
E = (Recovery ) × (Rejection).
❑
xD (1 − xB )( xF − xB )( xD − xF )
E= or,
xF (1 − xF )( xD − xB )2
xD ( xF − xB ) ⎡ (1 − xD )( xF − xB ) ⎤
E= ⎢1 − ⎥.
xF ( xD − xB ) ⎢⎣ (1 − xF )( xD − xB ) ⎥⎦
❑
❑
1. What is a limiting screen The weaving patterns are (i) Arch
The screen through which the particles Crimp, (ii) Sta-Smooth, and (iii) Double
have passed is called a limiting screen. Crimp.
2. What is a retaining screen 10. Give the common standards
The screen that has retained the particles followed for screen designation.
over it is called a retaining screen. The common standards are (i) American
3. Why is wet screening practiced standards (ASTM and Tyler), (ii) British
It is carried out to remove undesirable standards (BS), (iii) German standards
materials, mostly clay and extremely (DIN), and (iv) Indian standards (IS).
fine particles. 11. How is the screen size specified
4. Why is screening widely used in size under the Indian Standards
analysis The mesh size is expressed to the nearest
Screening is the easiest, cheapest, and a decamicron. For example, an IS screen
rapid method of size analysis. of 100 mesh will have an aperture of
5. What is the importance of stratifi- approximately 1.00 mm.
cation in screening 12. Define screen effectiveness.
It is essential for the transport of the It is the product of the recovery and the
oversize materials and for the prevention rejection. Recovery refers to desired
of blinding of the screen openings. materials in product and rejection refers
6. Name the factors which affect strat- to the undesired materials in the reject.
ification in screening. 13. Name a few common types of
The factors affecting the stratifica- screening equipments.
tion process are (i) material travel Common screening equipments are
flow, (ii) stroke characteristics, and grizzly screens, trommels, vibrating,
(iii) surface particle moisture. gyratory, shaking, and banana screens.
7. Why are, slotted openings preferred 14. What are the advantages of
to circular openings for fine size vibrating screens
separation The advantages of vibrating screens
Slotted-type openings have lesser ten- are (i) high capacity and efficiency,
dency to blind the screen. (ii) applicable to coarse, medium, and
8. What are the advantages of punched fine particles, (iii) lower operating
screens and maintenance costs, (iv) less space
The advantages are (i) wear is evenly requirement, and (v) lesser blinding of
distributed and they have hence longer screen openings.
life, (ii) lesser tendency to blind , and 15. What are the advantages of electro-
(iii) lesser slope for the discharge of magnets over permanent magnets
oversize particles at a given rate. The electromagnets are advantageous
9. Name the different weaving because by varying the intensity of the
patterns of Metso Minerals Inc. for electrical current, the magnetic field
the woven-wire screens. intensity can be adjusted. Also, the
magnetic field produced by an electro- The factors are (i) pulp density, (ii) feed
magnet reaches a much higher intensity f low and pressure, (iii) diameter of
than the field intensity created by a per- vortex finder and apex, and (iv) angle
manent magnet. and length of conical section.
16. What are the advantages of high- 23. What are the advantages of
gradient magnetic separators hydrocyclones
The advantages are (i) ease of operation The advantages of hydrocyclones are
and maintenance, (ii) greater efficiency (i) absence of mechanical or moving
with smaller-sized particles, (iii) high parts, (ii) no requirement for a separate
beneficiation ratio, (iv) high recovery, power source, (iii) less maintenance,
and (v) minimised matrix blocking. (iv) low equipment costs, and (v) ability
17. Give the process application to make extremely fine separations.
for superconducting high-gradient 24. Name a few fields of applications
magnetic separators. for hydrocyclones.
These are used for processing of kaolin, Fields of applications are desanding,
calcium carbonate, and talc, and fine desliming, sewage treatment, flue gas
materials less than 100 microns. desulphurisation, degritting of red mud
18. What are the applications of tribo- in alumina production, mining and min-
electrostatic separators eral processing industries, and in pulp
Triboelectrostatic separators are used for and paper industries to remove sand and
the separation of plastics in the recycling other contaminants.
industries, e.g., cable plastics, automobile, 25. What is a Floatex density
multilayered bottles, PET/PVC, ABS/ separator
HIPS, PVC/PC, PVC/PE, Nylon, etc. It is a hindered settling classifier for
19. What is the unique feature of a classifying particles based on size and/
Spitzkasten classifier or density.
The flow rate between each vessel is 26. What are the various zones of a
adjustable in order to provide the desired mechanical classifier
degree of separation. The zones are transport zone, classifica-
20. Why are hydrocyclones widely used tion zone, and settled solids zone.
in chemical and mineral-processing
27. What are the special features of a
industries Wemco Remer jig
Hydrocyclones have large capacity rela- The compact design of a Wemco Remer
tive to their size and can make extremely
jig provides maximum capacity for mini-
fine separations. mum floor space.
21. What is the difference between a
28. What is the unique feature of
forward and a reverse hydrocyclone spiral concentrators
The forward hydrocyclones remove
These units have no moving parts. As the
particles which are denser than the sur-
slurry flows down the spiral, the separa-
rounding fluid, while the reverse type tion is achieved by stratification of mate-
removes particles lighter than the sur- rial caused by the complex combined
rounding fluid.
effect of size, density, and to a lesser
22. What are the factors on which the extent, shape; centrifugal force; differen-
effectiveness of separation of hydrocy- tial settling; friction against the spiral sur-
clones depends face; drag of the water; and the hindered
settling through the flowing particle bed. The floatation technique is used for the
The low-density particles are carried recovery of fine coal and for the con-
away with the bulk of water towards the centration of barite, iron oxide, mica,
outer side of the spiral, while the heavier talc, pyrite, feldspar, calcite, and many
particles move toward the inner side. more minerals. In addition to miner-
29. Name the floatation reagents. als, this technique finds application
Various flotation reagents used for the in wastewater treatment, separation
modification of the surface properties of of proteins from milk, recovery of
the mineral particles are pH regulators, bitumen from tar sands, de-inking of
activators or depressors, collectors, and waste paper, and recovery of petroleum
frothers. hydrocarbons and polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons.
30. What are the applications of the
floatation technique
1. What do you understand by 12. Discuss the types of screening

screening Discuss the importance equipments.
of separation based on particle 13. Discuss in detail the electrical
size. (magnetic and electrostatic) separ-
2. Why is screening practiced in indus- ation methods and equipments.
tries 14. Discuss the difference between sizing
3. Discuss the mechanism of screening. and sorting as practiced in case of
4. Mention the factors affecting the classification of solid particles.
screening operation. 15. Give the various parameters on which
5. Discuss the types of screening the terminal settling velocity depends.
surfaces and their material of 16. Discuss various types of classifying
construction. equipments.
6. How are screen sizes designated for 17. Discuss various types of gravity
different types of screens concentration equipments.
7. Discuss the method of screen/size 18. Discuss the role of various floatation
analysis. reagents used to modify the surface
8. Discuss the method of reporting properties of the solid particles.
sieve-analysis data. 19. Discuss the effect of particle and
9. What do you understand by screen bubble sizes on separation by froth
efficiency and capacity floatation method.
10. Give the factors affecting screen 20. Give the various fields of application
effectiveness. of floatation techniques in mineral
11. Discuss ideal and actual screening. and chemical industries.
1. A crushed ore was screened, using a feed, overflow, and underflow are given
3.35-mm (340 mesh) screen to separate below. Find the input to the crusher
the oversize material to be recycled for for 100 kg/h of product and the screen
further crushing. The screen analysis of effectiveness.
ISS mes Feed verflo nderf lo
+ 480 0.548 0.596 0.00
− 480 + 340 0.146 0.168 0.113
− 340 + 120 0.109 0.096 0.147
− 120 + 60 0.045 0.039 0.086
− 60 + 30 0.034 0.029 0.037
− 30 0.118 0.072 0.621
30.62 %
2. Dolomite is produced at a rate of total load to the crusher and the effec-
2 tonne/h by crushing and then screening tiveness of the screen for the following
through a 16-mesh screen. Calculate the screen analysis (weight percent).
Mes Feed % ndersi e % versi e %

4 12 – 22
8 21 – 26
16 22 0 28
32 30 42 24
60 8 28 –
100 5 18 –
100 through 2 12 –
61.4%
3. A sample of pyrite powder has the 4. In a cement manufacturing unit, 36

screen analysis given below. Calculate tonne/h of calcite of 5-cm size is fed
the specific surface in cm2/g. Specific to a gyratory crusher. Screen analysis
gravity of pyrite = 5.0. from the crusher shows a surface
area of product of 61.7 m2/kg. The
crushed material is then subjected to
Mes no Percentage retained fine reduction in a hammer mill. Mill
−4+6 5.0 product analysis indicates a surface area
−6+8 6.2 of 740 m2/kg. Rittinger s number for
− 8 + 10 13.0 calcite is 75.9 cm2/kg.cm. Efficiency
− 10 + 14 16.6 of the grinder is 30%. The crusher and
− 14 + 20 15.0 grinder are driven on the same shaft (by
− 20 + 28 12.4 an electric motor) whose transmission
− 28 + 35 9.0 efficiency is 90%. If 480 hp is fed at
− 35 + 48 8.2
the other end of the shaft, compute the
− 48 + 65 5.0
− 65 + 100 4.8 efficiency of the crusher.
− 100 + 150 3.3
ata
− 150 + 200 1.5
Density of calcite = 2.65 g/cc and
⎡ cm2 ⎤ Specific surface ratio for feed = 3.5.
⎢59.37 g ⎥
⎣ ⎦ 25.3 %
1. If is the screen aperture and dp is (c) conductive induction
particle dimension, the critical class of (d) none of the above
particles have dimension equal to (e) all the above
(a) dp > 1.5 8. For the separation of weakly magnetic
(b) < dp < 1.5 materials, the equipment used is
(c) 0.5 < dp < 1.5 (a) magnetic drum separator
(d) < dp < 2 (b) rare-earth magnetic rolls
2. The successive opening in the Tyler (c) high gradient magnetic separator
series of screen is with a constant ratio of (d) induced roll magnetic separator
(a) 2 9. The common way of cooling a super-
(b) 2 2 conducting magnet is to immerse it in a
(c) 3 2 bath of
(d) 4 2 (a) ice at 4 K
3. The Tyler standard sieve scale series (b) mercury at 4 K
is based on a screen size of (c) liquid helium at 4 K
(a) 100 mesh (d) liquid nitrogen at 4 K
(b) 200 mesh 10. Gravity concentration equipments
(c) 400 mesh work on the principle of
(d) none of the above (a) density
4. Grizzly screens are recommended for (b) film sizing
separating particles in the size range of (c) shaking
(a) 5 – 50 mm (d) all the above
(b) 10 – 100 mm 11. Spiral concentrators are used for the
(c) 15 – 200 mm concentration of
(d) 20 – 300 mm (a) high grade ore
5. Maximum screening efficiency can (b) low grade ore
be achieved in a (c) all grades of ore
(a) gyratory screen (d) none of the above
(b) grizzly screen 12. Recovery of ilmenite from beach
(c) trommel screen sands is achieved by
(d) vibratory screen (a) Wemco Remer jig
6. The operating speed of a trommel is (b) shaking table
(a) 5 – 10 rpm (c) spiral concentrator
(b) 15 – 20 rpm (d) rake classifier
(c) 25 – 40 rpm 13. Floatation is carried out generally at
(d) 30 – 50 rpm a pH value of
7. The charging mechanisms used for (a) less than 7
the electrical separation of minerals are (b) greater than 7
(a) contact electrification (c) 0 to 14
(b) ion bombardment (d) nothing in particular
14. Methyl isobutyl carbinol is used in 15. A depressor which can depress
floatation as a pyrites from lead ore to float galena is
(a) depressor (a) calcium cynamide
(b) collector (b) pine oil
(c) frother (c) polypropylene glycol
(d) pH-regulator (d) oleic acid
1(c); 2(b); 3(b); 4(d); 5(a); 6(b); 7(e); 8(c); 9(c); 10(d);
11(b); 12(c); 13(b); 14(c); 15(a)
Dm
F d
F d
ii i n n
in n Ov
Ov
nd i n
n
i n n
Fi
Fi di
i di
nd v vin
i
Solid–liquid separation is often encountered in various stages of industrial processes
ranging from raw material purification to waste management with an objective of
separation and removal of the suspended solids from the liquid. The most common
methods available for this job are sedimentation and filtration. The theory of
separation by these methods is much more complicated because of the complex
nature of solid-liquid systems. Also, the selection of proper equipment and optimum
operating conditions are the biggest challenge for the design engineers.
Various terms related to this unit operation are dewatering, draining, sedimentation,
thickening, clarification, filtration, and drying. The separation of a slurry into two
parts, one of which is dense and relatively liquid-free and the other being dilute
and relatively solid-free, is termed as dewatering. Removal of water from relatively
coarse solids, for example, sands, is known draining. But if the solids are very fine
such that any slight disturbance causes them to be suspended in water then the sedi-
mentation method can be brought into action. In this case, separation is achieved
by bringing the water substantially to rest and allowing the solid particles to settle
down under the action of gravity. The sedimentation method is further divided into
two operations — thic ening and clarification, which occur simultaneously. The
purpose of thickening is to increase the concentration of solids, whereas in clarifica-
tion, a relatively small quantity of suspended solids is removed to get a clear liquid.
The separation of suspended solids from a liquid with the help of a porous medium
or screen which retains the solids and allows the liquid to pass through is known as
filtration. The near complete removal of relatively small amounts of water from the
solid particles is known as drying (which is beyond the scope of this book).
Sedimentation is a physical process used to separate the suspended solids from a

liquid under the influence of gravity. It is one of the most widely used processes in
the treatment of water and wastewater. In this process, the dilute slurry is separated
into a clear liquid and a slurry of higher solid content.
The simplest method of removing the suspended solids is by plain sedimentation,
where the water is brought substantially to rest in which suspended solids are settled
down under the influence of gravity. In industries, sedimentation is carried out on
a continuous basis in sedimentation tanks of large diameter that receive the slurry
generally at the centre, allowing the clear liquid to flow over the weirs at the sides,
and produce a thick sludge at the bottom of the tank. In these tanks, the upward
velocity of the liquid is kept less than the settling velocity of the particles. The sedi-
mentation rate can be increased by adding an electrolyte, which causes precipitation
of colloidal particles. The degree of separation is greatly affected by particle size,
retention period, liquid viscosity, solid and slurry densities, type and concentration
of electrolyte, and the temperature of the liquid.
The solid particles settle under two different conditions—free and hindered
settling. When the particles fall in a gravitational field through a stationary fluid
and their fall is not affected by the walls of the container and by other particles,
the settling process is termed as free settling. This is observed if the concentration
of the particles is less than 1% by weight of solids. In free settling, as the parti-
cle falls, its velocity increases and will continue to increase until the resisting and
accelerating forces become equal. When this condition is reached, the particles settle
at constant velocity during the remainder of its fall, known as terminal settling
velocity. But when the fall of a particle through the stationary fluid is impeded by
the presence of other particles, the process is called hindered settling. In this case,
the settling velocity is considerably less than the terminal settling velocity under free
settling conditions.
The mechanism of settling may be best described by the batc sedimentation test
before the continuous operation is considered. The procedure of the batch sedimen-
tation test is quite simple. A sample of the slurry containing finely divided solid in
water is taken in a graduated glass cylinder and is allowed to stand undisturbed, as
shown in Fig. 6.1 (a). This test is to be carried out at a uniform temperature to avoid
free convection currents due to density differences resulting from the difference in
temperature.
As soon as the process starts, all the particles begin to settle and are believed to
approach rapidly the terminal settling velocities under hindered settling condition.
Various zones of different concentrations are developed with the progress of the set-
tling process, as shown in Fig. 6.1. A zone of clear liquid (A) develops at the top and
below this, the zone B exists, which is a zone of uniform concentration of approxi-
mately the same concentration as that of the original slurry. The interface between
zones A and B is sharp for closely sized solid particles. But for a slurry containing
particles of different sizes, the interface is not sharp and the liquid in the zone A may
be hazy. In both the cases, the particles begin to pile up at the bottom of the test
D D
i
d
cylinder, indicated by the zone . Above this zone exists another layer, called the
zone C, a region of variable size distribution and non-uniform concentration. The
interface between C and is usually not sharp since fluid rises from the zone as it
compresses. The zone C is also known as the transition zone.
As the sedimentation process proceeds, the heights of each zone vary, as shown
in figures 6.1 (b) to (d). The heights of zones A and increases at the expense of the
zone B, while the height of the zone C remains constant. But with the progress of
sedimentation process, zones B and C disappear. All the solids present in the slurry
appear in the zone , as shown in Fig. 6.1 (d). The height of the zone decreases
further due to slow compaction of solids. During this compaction, the liquid associ-
ated with the solids in the zone is expelled to the zone A and an ultimate height of
the zone is reached, as shown in Fig. 6.1 (e).
The four different zones as discussed for batch sedimentation operation will also be
present in continuous sedimentation operation, but in continuous process the heights of
various zones will vary till the steady state is reached. Figure 6.2 shows the various
zones in a continuous sedimentation equipment. The continuous sedimentation process
is preferred over the batch process in industries to meet the process requirements.
The study of particle dynamics is important in many mechanical operations like

sedimentation, classification, elutriation, filtration, etc., which involve relative
movement between solid particles and a fluid. The study is initially focused on
the movement of a single particle in a fluid and then the resulting equations with
necessary modifications are applied to practical problems.
The analysis can be simplified by making the following assumptions:
(i) the particle is spherical,
(ii) the particle is nonporous and incompressible and chemically inert with the fluid,
(iii) the density and viscosity of the fluid are constant,
F d
F d
ii i n n
in n Ov
Ov
nd i n
n
i n n
nd v vin
(iv) the particle is settling freely under gravity, and
(v) the fluid forms an infinite medium Narayanan, 2003 .
When a particle settles in a fluid under
gravity, the forces acting on it are Fig. 6.3 n
(i) the force of gravity, Fg acting
downwards,
d
(ii) the force of buoyancy, Fb acting
upwards, which is equal to the
weight of the displaced fluid, and
(iii) the drag force, Fd offered by the
fluid on the particle acting opposite
to the particle motion. vi
The force balance on the particle can be
written as
v
m = g − b − d
dv ⎛ m⎞ ⎛ ρ v2 ⎞
⇒m = mg − ⎜ ⎟ ρf g − ⎜ CD × Ap × f ⎟ (6.1)
dt ⎝ ρp ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
where, m = mass of the particle, v = particle velocity, dv dt = particle acceleration,

g = gravitational acceleration, rp = particle density, rf = fluid density, CD = drag
coefficient, and Ap = projected area of the particle in a direction perpendicular to
the flow.
dv ⎛ ρp − ρf ⎞ ⎛ CD Ap ρf v 2 ⎞
Equation 6.1 can be written as =⎜ ⎟ g − ⎜ ⎟ (6.2)
dt ⎝ ρp ⎠ ⎝ 2m ⎠
At the initial stages of settling, the particle starts falling from zero velocity and goes
on increasing rapidly because of negligible drag force. But as the velocity increases,
the drag force also increases and the rate of change of velocity decreases. Ultimately,
a stage is reached when the total downward force acting on the particle becomes just
equal to the total upward force. This means there will be no net force acting on the
particle and the particle settles down with a constant velocity or with zero accelera-
tion. This constant velocity is known as the terminal settling velocity, vt.
Thus, at the terminal settling velocity, Eq. 6.2 can be written as
dv ⎛ ρ p − ρf ⎞ ⎛ CD Ap ρf vt 2 ⎞
=0=⎜ ⎟ g −⎜ ⎟
dt ⎝ ρp ⎠ ⎝ 2m ⎠
⇒ vt =
(
2mg ρp − ρf ) (6.3)
Ap ρp ρf
π 3 π
For a spherical particle, m = Dp ρp and Ap = Dp 2 .
6 4
Thus, vt =
(
4 Dp g ρp − ρf ) (6.4)
3 ρf
Dp vρf
The drag coefficient, CD is a function of the Reynolds number, N Re =
μf
and their relation is given in graphical form by means of a log-log plot as shown in
Fig. 6.4. The graph is divided into four different regions of settling according to the
Reynolds number.
This is known as the Sto es law region for which the

relationship between the drag coefficient and Reynolds number is given by a straight
line of slope 1. In other words, at low Reynolds numbers, the drag coefficient varies
inversely with NRe.
24
For this region, = (6.5)
N Re
24 Ap ρf v 24 μf π Dp
2 2
ρ v2
Thus, d = × = × × f = 3π Dp μf v (6.6)
N Re 2 Dp vρf 4 2
and vt =
(
4 Dp g ρp − ρf )× N Re
=
(
4 Dp g ρp − ρf )× D v ρ
p t f
3ρf 24 3ρf 24 μf
⇒ vt =
(
Dp 2 ρp − ρf g ) (6.7)
18μf
i n i n i n i n
4
10
10
102
i i n
10
100
10−1
10−2
10− 10−2 10−1 100 10 102 10 104 105 106 107
n d
In this region, as the Reynolds number
increases, the slope of the curve changes gradually from 1 to 0. No accurate equa-
tion is available to describe the flow in this intermediate region. Several authors have
suggested approximate equations for this region and one such equation is
24
D = + 0.44 (6.8)
N Re
This region is known as the ewton’s

law region and the value of the drag coefficient remains constant at 0.44, i.e.,
CD = 0.44 (6.9)
0.44 π D p
2
Thus, d = × × ρf v 2 = 0.173 Dp 2 ρf v 2 (6.10)

2 4
and vt =
(
3.03 Dp ρp − ρf g ) (6.11)
ρf
When the Reynolds number exceeds 2 × 105, the flow

in the boundary layer changes from streamline to turbulent type and the separation
takes place at the rear end of the sphere by which the drag force is decreased consid-
erably. The drag coefficient is seen to remain constant at 0.1, i.e., CD = 0.1 (6.12)
0.1 π Dp
2
Thus, d = × × ρf v 2 = 0.04 Dp 2 ρf v 2 (6.13)

2 4
and vt =
(
13.33 D p ρp − ρf g ) (6.14)
ρf
From equations 6.7, 6.11, and 6.14, it is seen that the terminal settling velocity of
a particle in a given fluid increases with the increase in both particle size and particle
density. When two solid particles having different densities but the same size are sep-
arated using a fluid, the method is known as elutriation. If there is a wide difference
in densities of the two materials, the separation technique is known as floatation.
Two particles, say A and , having the same terminal settling velocity in a fluid
are called equal settling particles. And under the condition of equal terminal settling
velocity, the ratio of their sizes is called the settling ratio.
In the Stokes law region, the settling ratio can be obtained by equating the
terminal settling velocities for both the particles. Thus, using Eq. 6.7, we have
νtA = νtB
⇒
(
DpA 2 ρpA − ρf g ) =
( )
DpB2 ρpB − ρf g
18μf 18μf
1
Dp ⎛ ρpB − ρf ⎞ 2
⇒ =⎜ ⎟ (6.15)
DpB ⎝ ρ p − ρf ⎠
Similarly, in the Newton s law region, the settling ratio is
Dp ⎛ ρpB − ρf ⎞
⇒ =⎜ ⎟ (6.16)
DpB ⎝ ρp − ρf ⎠
In general, the equation for the settling ratio is
n
Dp ⎛ ρpB − ρf ⎞
⇒ =⎜ ⎟ (6.17)
DpB ⎝ ρ p − ρf ⎠
where, n = for the Stokes law region,
< n < 1 for the intermediate region, and
1 for the Newton s law region.
When there is a mixture of particles of various sizes and shapes, settling at dif-
ferent velocities, the separation technique is known as sedimentation. The individual
particles collide with each other affecting their settling velocities and thus the rate
of settling of each individual particle will be less than the settling velocity under
free settling conditions. This is generally known as hindered settling. Here, each
particle is settling through a suspension of other particles in the liquid than the plain
liquid itself. Thus, the settling medium offers higher resistance to the motion of par-
ticles. The upward velocity of the displaced liquid in the suspension is thus large.
The phenomenon of hindered settling is complex, hence difficult to analyse.
Because of differences between the density and the viscosity of a suspension and that
of a plain liquid, the analysis is made simpler by replacing density and viscosity with
bul density, rb and bul viscosity, mb respectively in the equations derived earlier in
this section on the assumption of free settling conditions of the solid particles.
The bulk density of the suspension can be calculated by dividing the mass of fluid
and suspended matter by the total volume occupied by the suspension. Thus,
ass of fluid + ass of solids
ρb =
Total volume of the suspension
⇒ ρb = ρf ∈+ ρp (1− ∈) (6.18)
where, ∈ = Porosity or volume fraction of liquid in the suspension
Void volume
= (6.19)
Total volume
And the bulk viscosity of the suspension can be determined experimentally.
Hindered settling velocity, vh for the Stokes law region can be obtained by
substituting rb and mb in Eq. 6.7. Thus,
Dp 2 ( ρp − ρb ) g
vh = (6.20)
18μ b
The settling velocities under free settling at infinitely diluted and hindered settling
conditions are related by
vh
= ∈n (6.21)
vt∞
where, n = Richardson–Zaki index, and
vt∞ = Settling velocity at infinitely diluted solid concentration.
From Eq. 6.21, it is clear that with the decrease in porosity of the suspension, the
settling velocity of particles under hindered settling conditions decreases and vice
versa.
For particles other than spherical ones like cylindrical, cubical, etc., the equations
for spherical particles can be used using the sphericity correction factor, which is
beyond the scope of this book.
The terminal velocity of particles for free falling in the laminar zone is
Dp 2 ( ρp − ρf ) g
given by (Eq. 6.7) vt = .
18μf
Here, density of particles = rp = 2.6 × 103 kg/m3, density of fluid (water) =
rf = 103 kg/m3, diameter of particles = p = 40 micron = 40 × 10–6 m, and viscosity
of fluid (water) = 1 cP = 10–3 kg/(m.s).
( 40 × 10 −6 ) 2 ( 2600 − 1000)9.8
Thus, vt = = 0.0014 m/s (Ans)
18 × 10 −3
The bauxite being lighter shall be mostly in the overflow. The biggest
bauxite particles shall have a higher setting velocity and shall go down with silica. So
the middling shall consist mostly of heavier silica particles having the same velocity
as that of the biggest bauxite particle and the bauxite particles having the same
velocity as the smallest silica particle.
Dp ρpB − ρf
For laminar zone, we have (Eq. 6.15) = .
DpB ρ p − ρf
Let us denote A as silica and B as bauxite.
Thus, ρp = 2.8 g/cm3 , ρpB = 2.2 g/cm3 , and ρf = 1 g/cm3 .
Given that the particle range in the feed mixture is 10 to 500 microns.
Considering the largest bauxite particle of size pB = 500 microns, the size of
silica particle that shall settle at the same time can be found by
Dp 2.2 − 1
= = 0.81649 ⇒ Dp = 408.25 microns.
500 2.8 − 1
Hence, particles of silica bigger than 408.25 microns shall be in the underflow.
Similarly, the size of bauxite particle which is equally settling as that of smallest
silica particle of size 10 microns can be found by
10 2.2 − 1
= = 0.81649 ⇒ DpB = 12.25 microns.
DpB 2.8 − 1
Hence, particles of bauxite smaller than 12.25 microns shall be in the overflow.
The middling shall consist of bauxite particles of size +12.25 to 500 microns and
silica particles of 10 to 408.25 microns (Ans)
Particle si e mm Mass fraction

+2−5 0.43
+ 0.5 − 2 0.47
< 0.5 0.10
In the Stokes’ law region for equal settling velocities, we have (Eq. 6.15):
Dp ρpB − ρf
=
DpB ρ p − ρf
where, pA = diameter of ore particles = 1mm, and pB = diameter of the smallest
rock particle having same settling velocity. (The particles having more than pB
particle size shall settle faster and are in the underflow.)
Given that, density of ore = rA = 2.1 g/cm3 and density of rock = rB = 5.4 g/cm3.
1 5.4 − 1
Thus we have = = 2 ⇒ DpB = 0.5 mm.
DpB 2.1 − 1
Hence particles of 0.5-mm size or less shall be settling along with the ore
particles.
Now for 100 kg of ore–rock mixture, rock present = 100 × 0.3 = 30 kg and ore
present = 100 – 30 = 70 kg.
The product shall contain rocks of size < 0.5 mm and it is given that the mass
fraction for this size is 0.1.
Thus, the amount of rock particles of size < 0.5 mm = 30 × 0.1 = 3 kg.
Thus, the total amount of product = 70 + 3 = 73 kg.
70
Now the % purity of dressed ore = × 100 = 95.89% (Ans)
73
|
First, we have to check the flow region (I, II, III, or IV) in which
⎛ D vρf D v ⎞
the bacteria is moving, by finding the Reynolds number ⎜ N Re = = of
bacteria. ⎝ μf ν ⎟⎠
Here, P = 2 microns = 2 × 10- 6 m, v = 15 mm /s = 15 × 10-3 m/s, and ν = 10-6 m2/s.
⎛ 2 × 10 −6 × 15 × 10 −3 ⎞
So, N
⎜ Re = ⎟ = 0.03 .
⎝ 10 −6 ⎠
As NRe is between 10- 4 and 0.2, the flow region is I, i.e., the Stokes’ law region.
24 24
For this region, = = = 800 .
N Re 0.03
Thus, the drag coefficient for bacteria is 800. (Ans)
Since the flow is laminar and assuming the particles to be spherical,

Dp ρpB − ρf
from Eq. 6.15, we have =
DpB ρ p − ρf
where A and B denote galena and quartz particles respectively.
Here, rpA = 7500 kg/m3, rpB = 2650 kg/m3, and rf = 1000 kg/m3.
Let us first find out the size of the quartz particles that are equally settling with the
smallest galena particles. For the smallest galena particles, pA = 0.0004 cm.
0.0004 2650 − 1000
Thus, = = 0.504
DpB 7500 − 1000
⇒ pB = 0.000794 cm.
This is the maximum size of quartz particles that settle with the same velocity as
the smallest galena particles. Thus, the size range of only quartz particles is between
0.0004 and 0.000794 cm.
Let us now find out the size of the galena particles that are equally settling with
the largest quartz particles. For the largest quartz particles, pB = 0.001 cm.
Dp 2650 − 1000
Thus, = = 0.504
0.001 7500 − 1000
⇒ pA = 0.000504 cm.
This is the minimum size of galena particles that settle with the same velocity as
the largest quartz particles. Thus, the size range of only galena particles is between
0.000504 and 0.001 cm.
While the mixed fraction contains the remaining quartz and galena particles.
So, the fraction will have the following size ranges:
(i) pure quartz: 0.0004 to 0.000794 cm
(ii) mixed fraction: quartz: 0.000794 to 0.001 cm
galena: 0.0004 to 0.000504 cm, and
(iii) pure galena: 0.000504 to 0.001 cm (Ans)
Generally, large upward flow of water is observed in the compression

zone where the particle concentration is high and the particles settle under hindered
settling conditions.
Thus, from Eq. 6.21, we have νh = ∈n νt∞.
Here, vt∞ is the settling velocity at infinitely diluted solid concentration, which is
generally observed in the Stokes law region.
Thus, v t∞ =
( )
Dp 2 ρp − ρf g
.
18μf
Here, p = 0.0002 m, rp = 7500 kg/m3, rf = 1000 kg/m3, g = 9.81 m/s2, mf =
0.001 kg/m.s, ∈ = 0.5, and n = 4.5.
0.00022 (7500 − 1000)9.81
Thus, v t∞ = = 0.1417 m/s
18 × 0.0001
and νh = 0.54.5 × 0.1417 = 6.262 × 10–3 m/s.
The upward water velocity =
vh (1− ∈) 6.262 × 10 −3 (1 − 0.5)

= = 6.262 × 10 −3 m/s (Ans)
∈ 0.5
Thickeners and clarifiers are gravity sedimentation basins which are employed to
separate suspended solids from a liquid by gravity settling, prior to filtration or
centrifugation. Normally, a larger fraction of the total liquid is removed in this
process than in subsequent operations. The functions of thickening and clarify-
ing are similar and occur simultaneously. The primary function of a continuous
thickener is to concentrate a large quantity of relatively concentrated slurry by
gravity settling and to produce a stream of thickened solids at the rate of feed
as underflow. Continuous clarifiers are generally employed to remove a relatively
small quantity of suspended particles, to produce a clear liquid as overflow to meet
statutory requirements for effluent quality and to minimise the loss of product in
the overflow stream.
The basic design of thickeners and clarifiers is the same and they commonly con-
tain a large tank to hold the slurry, a feed well to allow the slurry to enter into the
tank, an overflow launder at the top to collect the clear liquid, an underflow pipe to
discharge the thickened solids, and a raking mechanism for moving the thickened
sludge towards the central discharge pipe.
The selection of these equipments is important in plant design for several reasons:
(i) they occupy large spaces, sizes of up to 200 m in diameter;
(ii) for repairing they require days to empty the tank, clean the sludge, and refill
them again; and
(iii) their position determines the elevation of the entire plant because large
volumes of liquid are fed by gravity to minimise pumping costs.
A great variety of thickeners and clarifiers are on the market. Broadly these are
grouped into conventional and high-rate types in which the rake driving mecha-
nisms may be centrally or peripherally driven. And there are two ways of supporting
the drive system with its shaft and the raking arms the bridge type and the column
type. In the bridge type, the drive is supported by the bridge that spans across the
tank and drives the rakes with a central shaft; while in the column type, the drive and
the rake mechanisms are both supported by a stationary central column of steel or
concrete. A few of these equipments are discussed here.
FLSmidth Dorr-Oliver EIMCO is the world leader in designing and supplying a wide
range of thickeners and clarifiers a type of solid–liquid separation equipments for
the mineral processing and chemical industries.
FL Smidth Dorr-Oliver EIMCO Bridge-Supported

Thickeners (Fig. 6.5) are beam or truss-supported units that can be used with light,
medium, or heavy-duty applications with diameters of up to 54 m (178 ft). In this
design, the drive is supported by the bridge and drives the rakes with a central shaft.
Underflow is removed from a discharge cone at the bottom-centre of the thickener.
Tanks can be in-ground, on-ground, or elevated. Figure 6.6 shows the schematic
diagram of a bridge-supported thickener.
FLSmidth Dorr-Oliver EIMCO Column-

Supported Thickeners are supported by a stationary centre column of steel or
concrete. The centre column supports the drive and rake mechanisms, while the truss
extending from the center pier to the tank periphery supports the walkway, power
lines, and feed launder. These units are suitable for basins and raking arms with
diameters of up to 180 m (600 ft). Figure 6.7 shows the schematic diagram of a
column-supported thickener.
FLSmidth Dorr-Oliver EIMCO Traction Thickeners

(Fig. 6.8) have a stationary centre pier, which partially supports the rake mechanism
and serves as a pivot about which the rakes rotate. The rakes are powered by one or
two drive units that run steel traction wheels round a steel rail at the periphery of
the tank. These units are normally installed in concrete tanks and are available in
diameters of up to 200 m (≈ 650 ft). Maintenance is generally less difficult in these
thickeners, which is an advantage.
FLSmidth Dorr-Oliver EIMCO Caisson Thickener (Fig. 6.9)

designs are column-mounted thickeners with an enlarged centre pier which houses
the drive control system and the underflow pumping station, as well as supports the
rake assembly. This eliminates the need for an underflow tunnel because the pumps
are housed at the bottom of the caisson chamber and deliver the underflow upwards
through the columns towards the periphery.
FLSmidth Dorr-Oliver EIMCO

CableTorq Thickeners and Clarifiers have streamlined rake arms, pulled by cables,
connected to a torque (or drive) arm that travels above the sludge. The rake arms
are attached to a special hinge. The arms thus are able to rise automatically when
heavy sludge concentrations occur. But because of the unique hinge, the arms con-
tinue to operate in two planes keeping the rake blades in perfect position for most
efficient raking and solids removal. Figure 6.10 shows the design of a CableTorq
thickener.
The CableTorq equipments reduce two major thickening problems—downtime
and maintenance costs.
Bridge-type thickeners are available in diameters from

12 to 30.5 m (40 to 100 ft) with an overhead feed. Torque arms are of single pipe
construction. Rake blades are designed to provide double-sweep operation for con-
tinuously handling heavy sludge loadings. The drivehead and raking mechanism
are supported by a wall-to-wall bridge across the diameter of the basin. The unit is
ideal for thickening industrial wastes, ore concentrates and tailings, flue dust, fly
ash, and utility stack gas scrubbings. Figure 6.11 shows the schematic diagram of a
bridge-type CableTorq thickener.
Column-type thickeners are available in diameters from

23 to 82.3 m (75 to 270 ft). The drivehead is supported on a centre pier. Two stub
arms, in addition to the two rake arms, provide extra raking capacity at the tank dis-
charge trench, the area where raking capacity is most critical. Feed is through a radial
launder extending to the centre feed well. These thickeners are now in use on copper
concentrates, middlings, alumina red mud, gold and diamond cyanide slimes, and in
various tailings operations. Figure 6.12 shows the schematic diagram of a column-
type CableTorq thickener.
Require lower torque capacity because of reduced drag

Automatically protect against overload due to lifting action
Blades maintain efficient raking angle even when the rake arms are in a lifted
position
Keep scraper blades in position in discharge cone or trench when arms are lifted
As rakes clear overload, raking arms return smoothly to original position
n
M ni
iv d v i
i n
F d in i v
n F d i
n i n
v i xi
iv in i indi
d
id
n i n
n
nd
F d F d i i n v
i n
i
indi
n n i n
d
iv in
n n
i n
n
Minimise island formation because of the smooth pipe design of the rake arms
Allow temporary surges or shock loads in solids-handling capacity,
Torque arms are out of the heavy mud zone and in some installations actually
clear the liquid level, minimising the torque load
Pipe design of rake arm minimises scale formation and reduces dead load on
centre mechanism
Each arm lifts independently for efficient continuous sludge discharge.
Alumina-red mud
Alumina–hydrate
Calcium carbonate
Soda ash
Pulp and paper waste
Fly ash
Sand slimes
Gold – cyanide slimes
Mineral concentrates
Mineral tailings
Limestone slurry.
FLSmidth Dorr-Oliver EIMCO Solids-Contact
Reactor-ClarifierTM units combine chemical addition and mixing, solids-contact floccu-
lation, clarification, and raked sludge removal in a single basin. They provide efficient
removal of hard-to-settle suspended solids and are ideally suited for lime softening.
A low-speed turbine maintains a large volume of flocculated solids re-circulating
within the conical reaction well. Influent water and chemicals are introduced
directly into the re-circulation stream, optimising chemical utilisation and floc
growth. Heavy particles settle down and are collected by the rake arms, while
clarified water passes to the clarification zone for collection in the launder system.
Figure 6.13 shows the FLSmidth Dorr-Oliver EIMCO Solids-Contact Reactor-
ClarifierTM unit.
Ann
i n i n
nd i d i in
iv nd i
di nd
id
M O
in
n n
i in
in i i nd
i i nd d i
2′′ d
n n
n n i
Outotec is the global leader in the design, fabrication, and supply of thickening and clari-
fying solutions for the mineral industry. Outotec s SUPAFLO thickeners and clarifiers
operate in mineral processing, chemical, water treatment, and industrial and effluent
applications throughout the world. The SUPAFLO thickener was invented in March
1983 by John Thixton and the first commercial unit was commissioned in August 1984.
The SUPAFLO units include a number of innovative features in their design
over conventional thickeners. Special attention is given to engineering design of
feedwells, rake profiles, drive systems, and control strategies to meet the challenge
of dewatering materials that are often problematic for normal thickeners.
In a conventional thickener, the slurry is introduced into a large tank at the
liquid surface, while in SUPAFLO units the pre-flocculated pulp is introduced
below the liquid surface into the settling pulp bed. This unit has an inbuilt open
deaerator/feedwell flared at the bottom and an inverted cone deflector plate fixed
to the thickener rakes to deflect the pulp downwards at an angle of 30 to 45 degrees
from the horizontal Thixton, 2009 .
Advantages of SUPAFLO units include low capital and operating costs, and high
reliability. The major types of Outotec s SUPAFLO units are presented in Table 6.1.
Filtration may be defined as a solid–liquid separation process carried out either under
pressure or in vacuum resulting in the separation of undissolved, particulate sus-
pended solids from a solid–liquid mixture by passage of most of the fluid through a
porous medium that retains the solid on it or within itself. In a broader sense of filtra-
tion, the fluid may be a liquid or gas or a mixture of the two. However, the discussion
here is confined to liquid filtration only.
As a separation process, filtration is used widely in chemical and other allied
process industries to isolate finely suspended solid particles from its slurry with a
liquid by passing the slurry through some form of porous medium called the filter
medium or septum. The medium may be a screen, cloth, membrane, or a bed of
solids. The isolation is accomplished by forcing the liquid through the medium while
the solid particles are trapped within its pores to form a layer known as ca e. The
liquid passing through the medium is called the filtrate.
Filtration and filters can be classified in several ways:
(i) by objective — the desired product being solid, clarified liquid, or both;
(ii) by filtration mechanism — ca e filtration (when the proportion of solids in
the suspension is large and most of the solids are collected above the filter
medium as cake) and deep-bed filtration (when the proportion of solids in
the suspension is very small and the particles are smaller than the pores of
the filter medium, the particles will penetrate a considerable depth and are
trapped within the pores of the filter medium). In this section, the discussion
is confined to cake filtration only;
(iii) by driving force — the driving forces in cake filtration are gravity, mechanical
pressure, vacuum pressure, or centrifugal force; and
(iv) by operating cycle — intermittent (batch) or continuous. Most of the pressure
filters like the plate and frame filters and the leaf filters are operated in a
Type Features Suitability and
applications
Floc-Miser feedwell These units are
De-aeration chamber suitable for all
Deflector plate applications where
Controlled bed level flocculants can be
High throughput per used in the process.
unit area Also ideally suited
Free standing or to clarifying, with
in-ground tanks overflow being filtered
Short retention time through a flocculated
Optional underflow solids bed. External
High rate thickeners recycle underflow recycling
and clarifiers Clear overflow is sometimes used to
improve floc formation
and particle capture.
Floc-Miser feedwell These units provide

De-aeration chamber consistently higher
Controlled bed level underflow density
High throughput per while maximising
unit area solution recovery.
Free standing or They are used for
in-ground tanks increasing tailings
High rake torque capacity dam capacity,
Extended high countercurrent
compression zone decantation,
High compression Supapickets (static and increasing filter
thickeners rotating) for improved capacity, and
water release increasing recovery
Increased underflow of process water or
density chemicals.
Floc-Miser feedwell This unit is designed

De-aeration chamber to produce a consistent
Controlled bed level paste underflow with
High throughput per process control and
unit area mechanical reliability
Free standing tanks second to none.
High rake torque capacity Primarily used for
Extended high tailings disposal and
compression zone pre-leach applications.
Supapickets (static and Paste thickeners
rotating) for improved can be used for any
water release application where
Maximum underflow underflow yield stress
Paste thickeners density in excess of 200 Pa is
Underflow slurry yield required.
stress >200 Pa
(Continued )
Type Features Suitability and
applications
• Small or shallow Conventional thickeners
feedwell and clarifiers are
• Flocculants not essential available as traditional
• Insensitive to short-term conventional units or
process changes fitted with flocculating
• Drive and rake torque to feedwell. Hybrid
suit application versions are also
available in which
various design features
of our high rate
thickeners are used, for
particular applications.
Conventional thickeners These modifications
and clarifiers can result in improved
overflow clarity, lower
flocculant usage, higher
feed rates and improved
control.
• Combines flash mixing, A variable speed
flocculation, clarifying, impeller can be used to
sludge collection and internally recirculate
thickening in one and mix flocculated
operation underflow, raw feed
• Minimises chemical and chemicals to
requirements by using optimise flocculant
the solids contact or usage and overflow
seeding principle clarity. Typically used
• Variable speed impeller for water or waste-
and separate rake drive water applications,
Solids contact and mechanism where chemicals are
reactor clarifiers • Deep clear water zone added to enhance
• Internal or external flocculation and
recirculation option sedimentation.
• Dual chemical dosing
option
• Saturated lime solutions Lime saturators are

• Over 85% usage of used to make clarified
available Ca(OH)2 saturated lime solution
• Variable speed impeller for drinking water plants.
and separate rake drive Milk of lime solution is
mechanism fed continuously into the
• Controlled sludge level reaction zone, where it
• High rate feedwell is mixed with recycled
for improved solids sludge. The sludge is
dispersion controlled at the required
Lime saturators • Internal or external level by varying the
recirculation option sludge withdrawal rate.
batch manner while most of the vacuum filters like rotary drum filters are
operated continuously. On the other hand, centrifugal filters like centrifuges
can be operated in batch as well as in continuous manner.
The cake filtration operation is shown in Fig. 6.14. During the initial period, filtration
results in the formation of a layer of particulate solids on the surface of septum. The layer
once formed, its surface acts as
the filter medium with the solids
deposited layer by layer adding
to the thickness of the cake while
the clear liquid flows in between
Fi the capillaries of the deposited
Fi di
solid mass in streamlines. As
the cake thickness increases, the
i di resistance to flow increases,
Fi which decreases the rate of fil-
tration for a given pressure drop
across the septum.
Cake filtration can be operated at constant pressure and constant rate conditions.
If the pressure drop across the filter is constant throughout the run, the filtration
process is called constant pressure filtration. Here the rate of filtration is maximum
at the beginning and decreases continuously towards the end of the run. One mis-
conception here is that a higher initial pressure will result in a higher filtration rate,
but actually the application of higher pressure results in a low rate of filtration as the
particles will be compacted and will block the pores of the septum at a faster rate.
The method in which the pressure drop is gradually increased so that the rate of
filtration is constant throughout run is called constant rate filtration.
The important variables which influ-

ence the rate of filtration are
(i) pressure drop across the cake and the septum;
(ii) resistance of the cake;
(iii) resistance of the septum;
(iv) area of the filtering surface; and
(v) viscosity of the filtrate.
Whether the filter is for cake filtration or for deep-bed filtration, all filters require
a filter medium or septum to retain the solids. In case of cake filters, the selection
of filter medium is the most important consideration in their satisfactory operation.
The filter medium in any filter should have the following requirements:
(i) it should retain the solids to be filtered;
(ii) it should not plug or blind;
(iii) it should offer minimum resistance to filtrate flow;
(iv) it should be mechanically strong to withstand the filtering pressure;
(v) it should be chemically resistant to corrosive fluids;
(vi) it should be resistant to mechanical wear;
(vii) it should have the ability to discharge the cake easily and cleanly;
(viii) it should have long life; and
(ix) it should be cheap.
Canvas cloth; woolen cloth; metal cloth of Monel, stainless steel, nickel, copper,
bronze, or other alloys; paper; synthetic fiber cloth of nylon, polypropylene, etc., are
used as filter medium depending upon the process conditions.
Filtration of slimy or very fine solids is very difficult due to the formation of a dense
and impermeable cake which quickly plugs the filter medium. In such a case, the
porosity of the cake needs to be increased so as to allow the filtrate to flow through
at a reasonable rate. This is done by adding a filter aid such as diatomaceous silica or
expanded perlite before filtration, which may later be separated from the cake or be
discarded together with the cake.
Filter aids are generally granular or fibrous solids which form a highly permeable
cake. They should have low bulk density, should be porous, and should be chemically
inert to the filtrate.
The filter aids are used in two different ways: (i) as a precoat, and (ii) mixed
directly with the slurry before filtration. In case of precoating, a thin layer is applied
to the filter medium, which prevents gelatinous type of solids from plugging the
filter medium and gives a clear filtrate. And when they are added to the slurry
before filtration, their presence increases the porosity of the cake, decreases its
compressibility, and reduces the resistance of the cake during filtration.
Though the cake filtration is operated either in a batch or a continuous manner, the
theory for both the batch and the continuous filtration is similar. Initially, the theory
for batch filtration is derived and then the resulting equations are modified for con-
tinuous filtration.
The rate at which the filtrate is collected in a filtering operation

is quite important and is necessary to calculate the area required for a given output.
The rate of filtration is directly proportional to the filtering area and the pressure
drop across the filter and inversely proportional to the filtrate viscosity and the com-
bined resistances of the cake and the filter medium. The expression for differential
rate can be written as
V AΔ
= (6.22)
μ( C + )
where, = volume of filtrate collected in time t, A = area of the filtering surface,
ΔP = pressure drop across the filter, m = viscosity of the filtrate, RC = resistance of
the filter cake, and RF = resistance of the filter medium.
The resistances vary directly with the cake thickness. The resistance of the filter
medium can be expressed in terms of a theoretical cake thickness, F, which will have
the same resistance as that of the filter medium. With C as proportionality constant,
the resistances can be expressed as
RC + RF = C( C + F) (6.23)
where, C = thickness of the cake.
The following terms are defined for further simplification of Eq. 6.22 and these
are
mass of dry cake solids
W = , kg/m3 ,
volume of filtrate
mass of dry cake solids
ρC = cake density = , kg/m3 , and
volume of et filter cake
F = theoretical volume of filtrate collected per unit filtering surface to give a
cake of thickness F, m3/m2.
Making a material balance for the solids, we have
( hC + h )ρC A = W (V + AV )
W (V + AV )
⇒ ( hC + h ) = (6.24)
AρC
Now, with the help of equations 6.23 and 6.24, the rate of filtration (Eq. 6.22) can
be written as
dV A2 ΔPρC
= (6.25)
dt CWμ (V + AV )
C
Putting α = , known as specific ca e resistance, in Eq. 6.25 we have
ρC
dV A2 Δ P
= (6.26)
dt αWμ (V + AV )
Equation 6.26 is the rate e uation for a batch filtration process. An alternate
form of Eq. 6.26 can be obtained by putting α as a function of pressure drop and
compressibility exponent of ca e, S expressed as
α = K ( ΔP ) S (6.27)
where (i) K is a constant and its value depends essentially on the properties of the solid,
and (ii) the exponent S depends on the cake characteristics and its values are as follows:
S = 0 for totally noncompressible cake,
= 1 for completely compressible cake, and
= 0.1 to 0.8 for commercial slurries.
Using Eq. 6.27, the rate equation (Eq. 6.26) can be expressed as
dV A2 Δ P (1− S )
= (6.28)
dt KWμ (V + AV )
The values for K, S, and F are determined experimentally in a laboratory test
filter for their ultimate use in the design of process filter.
Equation 6.28 can be applicable to both constant-rate and constant-pressure
filtration conditions.
When a filtrate flows at a constant rate, Eq. 6.28 can be expressed as
V A2 Δ (1− S )
=
K μ (V + AV )
A2 Δ (1− S )
⇒ V 2 + AVV = × (6.29)
K μ
Equation 6.29 being quadratic both in and A, can be used to calculate the output
of a filter of given surface area for a given time interval. Conversely, if output and
time interval is fixed, the required area for filtration can be calculated.
Filtration with constant pressure drop is more commonly encountered in process
industries. When the pressure drop across the filter is kept constant, Eq. 6.28 can be
written as
A2 Δ (1− S )
V
∫ (V + AV ) V = ∫ K μ
0 0
2 A2 Δ (1− S )
⇒ V 2 + 2 AVV = × (6.30)
K μ
Equation 6.30 can be used either to calculate output or filtering area for a given
output for a fixed time interval.
Equations 6.28 to 6.30 are applicable to batch filters for operation

as well as design. In case of design, laboratory test is to be carried out for the par-
ticular slurry to evaluate K, F, and S. These constants can be used with accuracy for
varying filtration area, pressure drop across the filter, W, filtering time, and volume
and viscosity of the filtrate. The constants evaluated for laboratory filter can be used
safely for an actual filter with 100 times scale up for the area.
The output is generally expressed in terms of the filtrate
produced per batch of operation which is completed in a given specified time called
cycle time, tcycle. The cycle time consists of
(i) time for filtering, tF;
(ii) time for washing (if washing is required), tW;
(iii) time for dismantling, tD;
(iv) time for reassembling, tR; and
(v) time for filling, tFL.
Thus the cycle time is cycle = + W + + R + (6.31)
The time periods for dismantling, reassembling, and filling are almost constant
for a particular unit. Since these operations do not pertain to active separation, these
are collectively designated as idle time, tI. Thus Eq. 6.31 can be written as
cycle = + W + (6.32)
In continuous filters like rotary vacuum drum filters, due

to the continuous removal of deposited cake, its thickness is restricted. Thus, the
filtration process can be conducted at a constant rate by applying a constant pressure
drop across the filter medium. The operation of a rotary drum filter will be discussed
later in this chapter. It can be seen that a single rotation of the drum involves batch cycles
of cake formation, washing, drying, and cake discharging. Hence, equations developed
for batch filtration with modifications can be used for continuous filtration.
Let AD = total surface area of the drum and ∈D = fraction of the drum surface
submerged in the slurry.
Thus, the effective filtering surface = AD ∈D (6.33)
Now, Eq. 6.22 can be written as
V A ∈D Δ
= (6.34)
μ( C + )
where, C+ = ( C + ).
The thickness of cake varies from zero (as the drum enters the slurry) to a value
leaving (as the drum comes out of the slurry). The thickness of the cake leaving the
slurry depends on slurry concentration, volume of filtrate collected per revolution,
cake density, and surface area of the drum.
The thickness of the cake leaving the filtering zone can be given as
VR
leaving = (6.35)
ρC A
where R = volume of filtrate collected per revolution of the drum.
Since, entering = 0, an average value of the cake thickness is used in the rate equa-
tion. Thus, VR
avg = (6.36)
2 ρC A
Using Eq. 6.36, the total cake thickness to be used in the rate equation is
⎛ VR ⎞
C + = avg + = ⎜ +A ∈ V ⎟ (6.37)
ρC A ⎝ 2 ⎠
Thus, the rate equation for continuous filtration becomes
V 2A 2 ∈ Δ
= (6.38)
α μ (VR + 2 A ∈ V )
Integrating Eq. 6.38 between the limits = 0 to = R for t = 0 to t = 1/NR
respectively, we have
2A 2 ∈ Δ 1
VR 2 + 2 A ∈ V VR = x (6.39)
α μ NR
where, NR = number of revolutions of the drum per minute.
Putting for α from Eq. 6.27, we have
2 A 2 ∈ Δ 1− S
VR 2 + 2 A ∈ V VR = (6.40)
K μNR
For further simplification of Eq. 6.40, the following assumptions may be made:
(i) the cake is noncompressible (S = 0), and
(ii) the resistance of the filter medium is negligible (VF = 0).
Equation 6.40 now reduces to
2A 2 ∈ Δ
VR 2 = (6.41)
K μNR
Hence, the filtrate output per revolution is
2∈ Δ
VR = A (6.42)
K μNR
The output of the filter ( O) per unit time (minute) is
2 ∈ Δ NR
V = VR N R = A (6.43)
K μ
Amount of dry cake produced (WC) per minute is
2 ∈ Δ NR
C = VR N R =A (6.44)
Kμ
V K
The filtration equation is V 2 = K ⇒ = .
2V
1− S
A2 Δ
Here, K = as the filter medium resistance = 0.
(a) When t = 10 hours, = volume of filtrate produced = 30 m3.

V2 30 × 30
So, K = = = 90 m6 /h.
10
V K 90 m3
The final rate of filtration = = = 1.5 .
2V 2 × 30 h
1
The rate of washing for the fitter press = × final rate of filtration
1 m3 4
= × 1.5 = 0.375 .
4 h
The volume of wash water used = 3 m3.
volume of ash ater 3
Thus, the washing time = = = 8 hours.
rate of ashing 0.375
1− S
A′ 2 Δ
(b) If the filtering surface is doubled, i.e., A′ = 2A, then K ′ =
1− S 1− S
( 2 A) 2 Δ 4 A2 Δ
⇒ K′ = = = 4K
⇒ K ′ = 4 × 90 = 360 m6/h.
Thus, the time taken to produce a filtrate of 30 m3 is
V 2 30 2
= = 2.5 hours (Ans)
K ′ 360
A2 Δ 1− S
V
For constant pressure filtration, we have =.
K μ (V + AV )
Here, F = cloth resistance in terms of volume = 0. Assume noncompressible cake
(S = 0).
V A2 Δ K′
Thus, = =
K μ V
A2 Δ
where, K ′ = .
K μ
Integrating the above equation, we have
V V = K ′ ⇒ V 2 = 2K ′ .
Now, when t = 1 hour and = 2000 litres
( 2000) 2
K′ = = 2 × 106 litre 2 /h.
2 ×1
Final rate of filtration,
⎛ V⎞ K ′ 2 × 106
⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ = = = 1000 litre/h.
V 1 × 2000
1
The washing rate = × 1000 = 250 litre/h.
4
Volume of ash ater 500
Thus, the washing time = = = 2 hours.
Washing rate 250
The time required for dismantling, dumping, and reassembling is given to be
3 hours.
Thus, total cycle time, tcycle = 1 + 2 + 3 = 6 hours, i.e., in 6 hours the amount of
filtrate collected = 2000 litres.
In one operating day, i.e., 18 hours, the amount of filtrate collected =
2000
× 18 = 6000 litres.
6
The volume of filtrate produced in a day = 6000 litres (Ans)
= 45V + 75 s /m3
V
⎛ dV ⎞ 1
⎟⎠ = 45V + 75 m /s
3
(a) The final rate of filtration is given by ⎜
where f = final volume of filtrate collected. ⎝ dt f f
dt
Again, = 45V + 75.
dV
Integrating the above equation, we have
t Vf
∫ dt = ∫ ( 45V + 75) dV
0 0
45Vf 2
⇒t = + 75Vf
2
⇒ t = 22.5Vf 2 + 75Vf
Putting t = 60 minutes = 3600 seconds, we have
22.5Vf2 + 75Vf = 3600
⇒ Vf 2 + 3.33 Vf − 160 = 0
Solving the above equation, we have f = 11.09 m3.
⎛ dV ⎞ 1
The final rate of filtration ⎜ ⎟ = = 0.00174 m3/s.
⎝ dt ⎠ f ( 45 × 11.09) + 75
For the leaf filter, rate of washing = final rate of filtration = 0.00174 m3/s.
3
Thus, the washing time, t W = = 1722.58 s.
0.00174
(b) The cycle time, tcycle = t + tW + t + tR
where, tF = time for filtration = 22.5Vf2 + 75Vf s and
Volume of ash ater
t = time of ashing = .
Rate of ashing
Here the rate of washing = rate of final filtration
⎛ dV ⎞ 1
⇒⎜ = .
⎝ dt ⎟⎠ f 45Vf + 75
Now the volume of wash water is found out assuming the wash water used is in
the same proportion to filtrate.
3 m3
Ratio of volume of wash water to final filtrate = = 0.2705.
11.09
Volume of wash water = 0.2705 f
0.2705Vf
⇒ tW = = 12.17Vf2 + 20.2875Vf second.
⎡ 1 ⎤
⎢ V ⎥
⎣ 45 f + 75 ⎦
And tD + tR = time for dumping and reassembling = 60 minutes = 3600 seconds.
Thus, total cycle time, tcycle
= ( 22.5 f
2
+ 75 f ) + (12.17 f
2
+ 20.2875 f ) + 3600
⇒ cycle = 34.67Vf 2 + 95.2875Vf + 3600 seconds.
Number of cycles per day = 24 × 3600 = 24 × 3600

.
cycle 34.67Vf + 95.2875Vf + 3600
2
Daily production of filtrate, = (number of cycles /day) × f

86400 Vf
= .
34.67Vf + 95.2875Vf + 3600
2
V
For optimum cycle time, = max and for to be maximum = 0.
Thus, Vf
86400 34.67 2
+ 95.2875 + 95.2875 − 86400 2 × 34.67 + 95.2895
f f f f
=0
(34.67 f
2
+ 95.2875 f + 3600) 2
⇒ 34.67 f
2
+ 95.2875 f + 3600 − 69.34 f
2
− 95.2875 f =0
⇒ 3600 − 34.67Vf = 0 2
3600
⇒ Vf = = 10.19 m3 .
3467
Thus, the optimum f = 10.19 m3.
The optimum cycle time, topt = 34.67 × (10.19)2 + 95.2875(10.19) + 3600 =
7771 seconds = 2.159 hours (Ans)
For the plate-and-frame filter press

Time for filtration, tF = 2 hours.
Output/2 hours of filtration = 4500 kg.
Time for washing and dumping = tW + tD = 3 hour/cycle.
Hence, the cycle time, tcycle = 2 + 3 = 5 hours.
24
Maximum average output / 24 hours = × 4500 = 21600 kg.
5
Assuming density of filtrate to be same as that of water, volume of filtrate/24
21600
hours = = 21.6 m3 .
1000
For the rotary vacuum drum filter
Daily output of filtrate = 21.6 m3.
Thus, hourly output of filtrate = 21.6 / 24 = 0.9 m3/h.
Let, R1 = the volume of the filtrate collected at the present rpm, NR1 and R2 = the
volume of the filtrate desired (i.e., 0.9 m3/h) at the new rpm, NR2.
Here, R1 = 450/1000 = 0.45 m3/h, R2 = 0.9 m3/h, and NR1 = 0.6.
Using Eq. 6.22, we have
2∈ Δ
For case I VR1 = A (I)
K μ N R1
2∈ Δ
For case II VR 2 = A (II)
K μNR2
Dividing equation (I) by (II) and simplifying, we have
VR12 NR2
2
= (6.45)
VR 2 N R1
2
VR12 ⎛ 0.45 ⎞
So, NR2 = × N R1 = ⎜ × 0.6 = 0.15.
VR 2 2 ⎝ 0.9 ⎟⎠
Thus, the required rpm = 0.15 (Ans)
Since the cake is incompressible, the compressibility exponent of cake

is zero, i.e., S = 0. Thus, the specific cake resistance is independent of ΔP and can be
taken as constant.
2∈ Δ
Filtration Eq. (6.42) is VR = A .
K μNR
For the first filter, we have R = 300 L = 0.3 m3, AD = 0.75, ∈D = 0.20, NR = 2 rpm,
and ΔP = 1.5 kg/cm2 = 1.5 × 104 kg/m2.
2 × 0.2 × 1.5 × 10 4 1
So, 0.3 = 0.75 = 41.08
K μ×2 K μ
1
⇒ = 7.3 × 10 −3.
K μ
For the second filter we have R = 2.75 m3, ∈D = 0.20, NR = 1.5 rpm, and ΔP = 1.0
kg/cm2 = 1.0 × 104 kg/m2.
2 × 0.2 × 1.0 × 10 4 1
So, 2.75 = AD = 51.64 AD
KWμ × 1.5 KWμ
⇒ 2.75 = 51.64 AD × 7.3 × 10 −3 = 0.377 AD
⇒ A = 7.29 m 2 .
Thus, the total filtering area of the new unit = 7.29 m2 (Ans)
For any given filtration operation, the choice of a suitable filter largely
depends on the minimum overall cost of the equipment which is related to the filter-
ing area, pressure drop, mechanical design, operating cycle, cake resistance, ease of dis-
charge of filter cake, and quality of filtrate. Other important factors to be considered for
the selection of a filter are
(i) the nature of solids present in the slurry — particle shape and size, size
distribution, and their cake forming characteristics;
(ii) the properties of the f luid — viscosity, density, and corrosiveness;
(iii) the quantity of slurry to be filtered;
(iv) the concentration of solids in the slurry;
(v) the valuable product — solid , liquid , or both; and
(vi) washing of the cake.
Depending upon the driving force, cake filters are

first divided into four types: gravity filters, pressure filters, vacuum filters, and cen-
trifugal filters and then divided into batch and continuous types. The common industrial
cake filters are usually classified as
(i) Batch pressure filters — Filter presses (plate-and-frame filter press and
recessed-plate filter press) and Pressure leaf filters;
(ii) Continuous pressure filters — Rotary drum pressure filters;
(iii) Batch vacuum filters — Nutsche filters, Vacuum leaf filters;
(iv) Continuous vacuum filters — Rotary drum filters, Disk filters; and
(v) Centrifugal filters (batch and continuous) — Filtering centrifuges.
The important cake filters which will be discussed here are filter press, leaf filter,
and rotary drum and disk filters.
Filter presses are the simplest of all pressure filters and the most widely used filtra-
tion equipment. These are available in two basic designs — plate-and-frame and
recessed-plate. Regardless of the design, filter presses separate solids and liquids by
forcing the liquid fraction of a feed slurry through a permeable filter cloth.
A standard plate-and-frame filter press (Fig. 6.15)
consists of plates and skeleton frames arranged alternatively and supported either on a
pair of side bars (Fig. 6.16) or on an overhead beam (Fig. 6.17). The plates are covered
Ai in
nn i n
i d i
d i
in ni
n d
niv i
i
Standard ilters
F
Fi
Fi
with a filter cloth on both of its sides, while

the frames are hollow and provide space for
cake accumulation. The sectional view of this
type of filter press is shown in Fig. 6.18.
The plates and frames are usually
rectangular or square in shape and some-
times circular shapes are also used. They
are made of metal (cast iron, stainless
steel, aluminium), coated metals, or plas-
tics. A typical plate and frame is shown
in Fig. 6.19. Each frame has an inlet hole
generally at the top corner for feed and
wash purpose, while each plate has a port
at the bottom for filtrate discharge as shown in Fig. 6.20. When the plate and frames
are closed, either manually or hydraulically, a chamber is formed between each pair
of successive plates.
F d
in
The slurry to be filtered is pumped into the chamber through the inlet hole in each
frame. The filtrate passes through the filter cloth into the plates and leaves the filter
through the discharge port, while the solids are trapped in the chamber. Filtration
proceeds until the chamber is filled with the cake or a preset pressure is reached.
Wash liquid may then be introduced to the chamber through the same inlet hole to
remove soluble impurities from the cake. The press is then unclamped and the plates
and frames are shifted. Compressed air is then delivered through each shifted plate
into the space behind the filter cloth, which facilitates the release of cake from the
cloth and from the chambers, as shown in Fig. 6.21. And the filter is ready to repeat
the operation.
Fi Fi di
nd i
Ai
id
A d
In some presses, a heating arrangement is provided so as to reduce the viscosity

of filtrate and to achieve a higher rate of filtration.
EIMCO’s Shriver filter presses are available in plate sizes ranging from 470 by
470 mm to 1500 by 2000 mm.
EIMCO’s Shriver filter presses have a wide range of applications: hazardous and
metallic wastes; pharmaceuticals, chemical, and petrochemical products; pigments and
dyes; precious metals; ore processing; coal dewatering; water treatment; biological
sludges; clarification of liquid; oilfield muds; and food products and juices.
This type of filter press is similar
to the plate-and-frame type but
consists only of plates. Figure 6.22
shows a FLSmidth Dorr-Oliver
EIMCO AFP IV recessed-plate
filter press. Plates are hollowed
on both of its sides by recess-
ing the ribbed surface to form a
chamber between the successive
plates, when clamped together in
a rugged steel frame. This makes
the cake thickness twice the depth
of the recess on each plate. Typical
recessed plates are shown in
Fig. 6.23.
The molded plates have ports for slurry feed at the centre and for filtrate drain-
age at the bottom. Both sides of each plate are covered with a filter cloth which is
sealed around the feed opening and the plates are clamped together using a hydraulic
ram. The slurry is pumped in under high pressure, filling the chambers with solids
and pushing the filtrate out through the filter cloth. When no more solids can be
forced into the chambers, the feed pumps are turned off and compressed air is used
to remove interstitial water from pores in the filter cake. When the desired residual
moisture content has been achieved , the filter is opened , the cake is removed and
the procedure is repeated. Figure 6.24 shows the operating principle of AFP IV
recessed-plate filter press.
The AFP IV filter presses Filtration ischarge
are simple, rugged, and reliable.
These filters not only provide high
throughput and efficient solids cap-
S
ture, but also operate continuously
and automatically in harsh environ-
ments, and can handle abrasive or
corrosive slurries.
The AFP IV filter plates are
available in 1200, 1500, and 2000
mm square sizes and are made of
polypropylene or cast iron. They
can be operated up to a pressure of
15 bar. Filter sizes and capacities are
given in Table 6.2.
In general, the advantages of the x
filter press are
(i) they are simple to construct
and have low initial cost;
(ii) they have low maintenance
cost;
(iii) most joints are external, hence leakage, if any, is easily detected;
(iv) they provide large filtering area per unit floor space;
(v) high operating pressures are easily obtained.
Model
Number of chambers 10 – 40 24 –120 50 –120
(increments of 2)
Filtration Area (m2) 23 – 91 95– 473 360 – 864
Chamber Volume (m3) 0.5–2.0 2.16–10.8 8.5–20.4
Leaf filters consist of flat filtering elements, known as leaves,

which are supported either in a horizontal or vertical pressure vessel. The leaves
are of circular or rectangular shape and have filtering faces on both of its sides.
Figure 6.25 shows a vertical leaf filter.
A leaf consists of a heavy coarse-mesh wire screen over which finer wire screen
is fitted on both of its sides, as shown in Fig. 6.26. This assembly is held together
by welding or riveting the upper edge with an inverted U-shaped light metal piece,
which binds the edges and helps to suspend the leaf. Over the leaf, a sack of filter
cloth is tightly sewn around the edge of the leaf. And all the leaves are mounted on
a common manifold. Figure 6.27 shows leaves in two different sizes for a vertical
leaf filter.
The vessel is locked and the slurry is
pumped under pressure into the vessel.
Filtration occurs on the leaf surfaces
and the filtrate gets discharged from the
bottom of each leaves into the manifold.
Filtration is allowed to continue until a
cake of desired thickness has formed.
The cake can be dried by steam or hot
air and then be discharged from the
bottom with the help of a mechanical or
pneumatic vibrator.
The Amar Equipments’ vertical leaf
filters are available with a filtration area
of 1 to 60 m2, cake capacity of 1.5 m3,
5 to 19 number of leaves, and occupy a
floor space of only 2.4 m × 2.4 m. They
can be operated up to a pressure of 3
kg/cm2 (3 bar). The maximum working
temperature of these filters is 120 C
with neoprene gaskets and optionally
200 C with a viton/silicon gasket. The
vessels are constructed of carbon steel
while the leaves are of stainless steel of
grades 316, 304, or 316.
Vertical leaf filters are selected when
(i) the liquids are volatile and may
not be subjected to vacuum;
(ii) the liquids are flammable,
toxic, and corrosive;
(iii) minimum floor space is
indin
available; and
(iv) the cake is desired either
in dry or thickened slurry
Fi form.
Fin n The advantages of leaf filters over
filter presses are
n
(i) they are mechanically
simple and flexible;
M ni d (ii) there is automatic cake
discharge in very short
time without opening the
filter, hence there is large
saving in labour and time;
(iii) filtration rates are 2 to 3 times higher
on same filtering area;
(iv) they have a closed and pressurised
operating system, hence no spillage
and loss of liquid, which helps
in handling volatile/inflammable
liquids; and
(v) they can be used for getting filtrate
as well as cake.
Amar Equipments leaf filters are used
in edible/non-edible oil industry (bleached,
winterised, deodorised, hydrogenated, frac-
tionised oil, dewaxing, catalyst, mineral oil);
beverage industry (glucose, fruit juice, cold
drinks, sugar, vinegar); chemical industry
(organic and inorganic salts, dyes, chemicals,
plasticisers, sulphur, copper); pharmaceuti-
cal industry (syrup, bulk drugs, antibiotics,
intravenous solution); and in petrochemical
industries (crude oil, LPG, lubricating oil).
A rotary drum filter is one of the oldest and the most

widely used continuous vacuum filters applied to chemical process industries.
This type of filter belongs to the bottom feed group. In addition to filtration,
the process of cake washing, partial drying, and discharging is integrated to the
filtration process.
A rotary drum filter consists essentially of a cylindrical metal filter drum
mounted horizontally on trunnions. The outer surface of the drum is formed of a
perforated plate which is covered with a filter medium such as canvas cloth, syn-
thetic materials like polypropylene or polyester with monofilament or multifilament
yarns. At times, the drum is precoated with diatomaceous earth or perlite to aid to
the filtration process.
Figure 6.28(a) shows the different components of a FLSmidth Dorr-Oliver EIMCO
drum filter while Fig. 6.28(b) shows its operating principle. Figure 6.29 shows a
FLSmidth Dorr-Oliver EIMCO rotary drum filter.
The slurry to be filtered is taken in a tank that houses the drum which is designed
for a submergence of 33 to 35 % normally. The bottom of the tank contains an agita-
tor to promote the suspension of solids and to prevent the settling of the solids. The
drum filter has a drive for variable speed in the range of 1 to 10 rpm.
Initially, vacuum is applied to that section of the drum which is submerged in
the slurry through the rotary valve so as to suck the liquid from the slurry into the
compartment and the solids are deposited on the filter medium in the form of cake.
The thickness of cake can be regulated by adjusting the speed—with higher speeds,
a thinner cake will be formed resulting into a higher filtration rate. The filtrate from
the compartments then goes to the filtrate-collection tank through drain lines passing
through the rotary valve.
Fi d in
i n
Fi d i
i d Fi n n i n
in d iv in
Fi d i Fi v v
nd d
Fi i in in
A i iv n n
nd i
i n
i d n
i d iv
nd d v
Fi d iv A i iv
nd in nd
Fi d iv Fi n d in
2 V
Fi n
Fi n n
After emerging from the sub-

mergence, the cake is washed
using a wash liquid, which is
collected in a separate tank.
The washed portion of the cake
then enters into the drying zone
where the cake is dried by suck-
ing air through it.
The vacuum is then cut off
and the dried cake is discharged
by scrapping it off with an
adjustable blade. Air is blown in
this portion in order to facilitate
the cake discharge.
Once the cake is discharged,
the air blow is cut off, and the sector passes through a zone, known as dead zone,
which is blocked with bridges so that no air is drawn through the exposed filter
media which might cause the loss of vacuum on the entire drum surface. The
drum then enters the slurry and the cycle is repeated.
FLSmidth Dorr-Oliver EIMCO drum filters are available in sizes of 183 to 366 cm
(6 to 12 ft) in diameter, 91.44 to 609.6 cm (3 to 20 ft) in filter face length, and 5.20
to 69.95 m2 (56 to 753 ft2) of filtration area. These are fabricated from metal parts
for standard applications. When required, rubber coverings and linings are used.
For handling acids and other corrosive materials, stainless steels of various grades
and titanium can be used in fabrication. Drums are also fabricated from molded
polypropylene components.
Advantages of drum filters are
(i) continuous operation, hence cost of operation per unit volume of filtrate
produced is less;
(ii) large capacity;
(iii) possible to build up the cakes of varying thickness; and
(iv) slow rotation of the drum and reciprocation of agitator reduce the mainte-
nance requirements.
Applications of FLSmidth Dorr-Oliver EIMCO drum filters include clay, chemical
processing, coal-preparation plants, automotive plating wastes, SO2 scrubber slud-
ges, steel-mill wastes, food processing, water softening, tanning, foundry waste, red
mud, leach residues, mineral concentrates, titanium dioxide, distillery wastes, organic
sludges, dairies, pharmaceuticals and drugs, iron ore processing, wet-air oxidation,
alumina, sodium bicarbonate, citric acid, solvent oil dewaxing, corn wetmilling, juice
clarification, and winery operations.
FLSmidth EIMCO AgiDiscTM filters are made of several par-

allel discs, each with a series of sectors radiating from a centrebarrel. Each sector is
covered individually with a filter cloth (or metal screen) selected for specific appli-
cations. Connections between sectors and the centrebarrel are made by the use of a
one-piece, rubber-covered steel ferrule with integral gasket. Figure 6.30 shows the
cutaway view of an AgiDiscTM filter.
2 14
1
4
5
10
11 7
6
12
1 2 Fi di n 4 id d
5 v 6 F in in x 7 id di
Ai A i 10 Ov x 11 A i d iv
12 v d n 1 F d nd 14 n in .
)
n i n in
d dd n
di
Ov
in dd i in di
Slurry is fed into the tank through a feed manifold and kept in suspension by an
efficient rotating paddle-shaft agitator which maintains a homogeneous slurry provid-
ing uniform cake thickness, resulting in lower moisture, and higher production. As the
centrebarrel rotates, the filter discs travel through the slurry. Vacuum is applied to the
sectors as they enter the slurry, and cake forms on the surface of the filter media. After
the sector leaves the slurry, the continuous vacuum pulls air and filtrate through the
inside of the sector, into and along the longitudinal port of the centrebarrel, and out
through the valve to the vacuum receiver. Vacuum cut-off occurs just before the dewa-
tered cake-laden sector approaches the discharge point. Pressurised air then loosens the
cake from the filter media, and
guided scrapper-blades direct the
cake as it falls through the wide
discharge chutes for removal.
Figure 6.31 shows the operating
principle of an AgiDiscTM filter
and the discharge of cakes is
shown in Fig. 6.32.
AgiDiscTM filters consist of 1
to 15 discs. These are available
in sizes of 122 to 198 cm (4 ft
to 12 ft 6 inch) in diameter with
2 to 306.6 m2 (22 to 3300 ft2) of
filtration area. Figure 6.33 shows
disc sectors of different sizes.
Advantages of disc filters are
(i) cost of operation per unit filtration area is low;
(ii) large filtration areas can be accommodated in a small floor space; and
(iii) the cake parts easily from the cloth with the help of a snap blow operation.
AgiDiscTM filters are generally used in heavy-duty applications such as the dewa-
tering of aluminum-trihydrate, barite, calcium carbonate, carbon, cement, coal, copper
concentrate, flue dust, fluorspar, gilsonite, graphite, ilmenite, iron ores (hematite,
magnetite, pyrite, taconite), lead concentrate, lithium ore, magnesium hydroxide, and
zinc concentrate.
❑
❑
4Dp g( rp − rf )
❑ vt =
3CD rf
❑
❑
24 Dp2 ( ρp − ρf ) g
CD = vt =
NRe 18ρf
❑
24
CD = + 0.44
NRe
❑
3.03Dp ( ρp − ρf ) g
vt =
ρf
❑
13.33 Dp ( ρp − ρf ) g
vt =
ρf
❑
❑
n
DpA ⎛ ρpB − ρf ⎞
❑ =⎜ ⎟
DpB ⎝ ρpA − ρf ⎠
❑
Dp2 ( rp − r b) g
vh = .
18mb
❑
vh
= ∈n
v t∞
dV
❑ =
dt
A2 Δ P
aW m(V + AVF )
a=
rC
❑ a = K ( ΔP )S
A2 Δ P (1− S )
❑ V 2 + AV VF = × t.
KW m
❑
2 A2 Δ P (1− S )
V 2 + 2 AV VF = × t.
KW m
❑ t cycle = t F + t W + t D + t R + t FL .
❑
dV 2 AD2 ∈D Δ P
= .
(
dt aW m VR + 2 AD ∈D VF )
2 ∈D Δ P
❑ VR = AD
KW mNR
❑
2 ∈D Δ PNR
VO = VR NR = AD .
KW m
❑
2 ∈D ΔPNRW
WC = VR NRW = AD .
Km
1. What is the difference between When two particles having different

thickening and clarification density values, but of the same size are
The purpose of thickening is to increase separated using a fluid, the operation is
the concentration of solids, whereas in called elutriation.
clarification a relatively small quantity 6. What are the advantages of
of suspended solids is removed to get a CableTorq equipments
clear liquid. Requires lower torque capacity because
2. What is sedimentation of reduced drag
It is a physical process practised to sepa- Automatically protects against over-
rate the suspended solids from a liquid load due to lifting action
under the influence of gravity. Blades maintain efficient raking angle
3. What is the role of electrolyte in even when the rake arms are in a lifted
sedimentation position
The sedimentation rate can be increased Keeps scraper blades in position in
by adding an electrolyte, which causes discharge cone or trench when arms
precipitation of colloidal particles. are lifted
As rakes clear overload, raking arms
4. Why is a constant temperature to return smoothly to original position
be maintained in sedimentation test Minimises island formation because of
Constant temperature is maintained to the smooth pipe design of the rake arms
avoid convection currents due to density Allows temporary surges or shock
differences which results from the differ- loads in solids handling capacity
ence in temperature. Torque arms are out of the heavy mud
5. What is elutriation zone and in some installations actually
clear the liquid level, minimizing the 12. Give a few advantages of filter
torque load press.
Pipe design of rake arm minimises Some of the advantages of filter press are
scale formation and reduces dead load (i) low initial cost;
on center mechanism (ii) low maintenance cost;
Each arm lifts independently for (iii) large filtering area per unit floor
efficient continuous sludge discharge space;
7. Give a few industrial applications (iv) high operating pressures can be
of bridge type CableTorq thickener. easily obtained;
A few of the industrial applications (v) easy detection of leakage since
include thickening industrial wastes, ore most joints are external; and
concentrates and tailings, flue dust, fly (vi) simple in construction.
ash, and utility stack gas scrubbings. 13. Give a few advantages of drum
8. What are the various types of filter filters.
medium used The advantages of drum filters are:
The filter medium may be a screen, cloth, (i) continuous operation, hence low
membrane or a bed of solids. operation costs;
(ii) large capacity;
9. How does a filter aid work when
(iii) possible to build up the cakes of
added to a slurry before filtration
varying thickness; and
The filter aid increases the porosity of
(iv) low maintenance requirements.
the cake, decreases its compressibility,
and reduces resistance of the cake during 14. What is the difference between
filtration. rotary drum and rotary disc filters
Drum filters are horizontal and of
10. Name a few applications of the
bottom-feed type while disc filters are
EIMCO s Shriver filter presses.
vertical and of side-feed type.
Some of the applications include filtration
of hazardous and metallic wastes; phar- 15. When the vertical leaf filters are
maceuticals, chemical, and petrochemical recommended
products; pigments and dyes; ore process- Vertical leaf filters are recommended
ing; coal dewatering; water treatment; when
biological sludges; clarification of liquid; (i) the liquid is volatile and may not be
oilfield muds; and food products; etc. subjected to vacuum;
(ii) the liquid is flammable, toxic, and
11. What is the difference between
corrosive;
plate-and-frame and recessed plate
(iii) minimum floor space is available;
filter presses
and
The recessed plate filter press contains
(iv) the cake is desired either in dry or
only plates, while plate-and-frame filter
thickened slurry form.
press contains both plates and frames.
1. Define free and hindered settling 2. Explain briefly the laboratory batch
conditions. sedimentation test.
3. Define drag coefficient. Derive the 10. Define filtration and state the factors
Stokes law and Newton s law for calcu- affecting the rate of filtration.
lating the terminal settling velocity of a 11. Write the principles of cake filtration
particle settling through a fluid. and the types of cake filtration.
4. Derive the general equation for 12. Discuss briefly about filter media
settling ratio. and filter aids.
5. Derive the equation for hindered
settling velocity for the Stokes law 13. Derive the equations for the rate of
region. filtration operated under batch and
6. Discuss briefly about thickeners and continuous conditions.
clarifiers and their selection. 14. Classify filtration equipments.
7. Explain briefly about bridge-supported 15. Discuss in detail about various types
and column-mounted thickeners. of pressure filters.
8. What are the advantages of 16. Discuss in detail about various types
CableTorq thickeners and clarifiers of vacuum filters.
Briefly explain different CableTorq 17. Give the working of a recessed plate
models. filter press.
9. How does a SUPAFLO thickener 18. What are the advantages of leaf filter
differ from a conventional thickener over filter press
1. Determine the settling velocity of 4. Find the terminal settling velocity of 25

spherical particles ( rp = 2700 kg/m3) % by volume of sand particles in a fluid
settling under laminar conditions in water having hindered settling velocity of 4.5
at 25 C. The average particle diameter is μm/s. The Richardson–Zaki index is 4.4.
1200 μm. Viscosity and density of water 15.96 mm/s
at 25 C are 1.004 cP and 998 kg/m3
respectively. 5. Two small spherical sand particles
1.33 m/s are settling at their respective terminal
settling velocities through a highly
2. Quartz particles (specific gravity = viscous fluid filled in two identical glass
2.65) are settling in water at room columns. If one particle is twice as large
temperature. What will be the maximum as the other, how long will the larger
particle diameter so that Stokes law can particle take to reach the bottom of the
be hold good in this case Viscosity of column than the smaller particle
water at room temperature is 1.0 cP. Four times faster
0.061 mm
6. A slurry is being filtered at constant
3. Spherical particles of galena (Dp = pressure in a plate-and-frame filter press
0.18 mm and rp = 7500 kg/m3) take using 10 frames having a total filtration
4 minutes to settle under gravity through area of 10 m2. The filter delivers 250
a 10 m column of a fluid density 1300 litres of filtrate in 30 minutes. To increase
kg/m3. Calculate the drag coefficient. filtration capacity 10 more frames are
6.45 added to the filter. All other conditions
being the same as before, how long will 9. A vacuum leaf filter gives a total
it take to collect 500 litres of filtrate? volume of 20 m3 of filtrate in 60 minutes.
Initial filter resistance is found to be If the resistance of filter cloth is negli-
negligible. gible, estimate the time taken for the
30 min collection of 25 m3 and 65 m3 of filtrate.
93.76 min and 633.81 min
7. A plate-and-frame filter press is used to
filter a known slurry mixture. At a constant 10. A plate-and-frame filter press,
pressure drop of 0.7 kg/cm2, 1400 litres having a filtering area of 1.5 m2 is used
of filtrate is delivered in 10 min starting to filter a slurry of 10% by weight of
with a clean filter. In a second run with the calcite slurry (specific gravity = 2.3) in
same slurry and filter press, 1140 litres water. The volume of filtrate collected
of filtrate is obtained in 9 min when the with time is as follows:
pressure drop is 0.42 kg/cm2 starting with Time (min) 10 30 60 100
a clean filter. What is the compressibility Volume of 75 115 150 200
exponent for the cake if the resistance of filtrate (m3)
the filter medium is negligible?
S = 0.4019 The volume of filtrate collected is given
by the relation:
8. A plate-and-frame filter press with
negligible filter medium resistance is V 2 = K1 + K 2 for t > 0, where, t = time
being used to filter a water slurry of of filtration in hours and
fixed composition. Laboratory tests K1 and K2 are constants.
show that, during 3 hour of continuous
operation at a constant pressure drop The cake is washed with water equal to
of 1.4 kg/cm2, 8500 litres of filtrate is 1/12 th of volume of filtrate delivered
delivered. The operation carried out at per cycle. The rate of washing is 1/4 th
a pressure drop of 0.35 kg/cm2 for the the final rate of filtration. Opening and
above duration produced 4250 litres of dumping of cake and reassembling of the
filtrate. The unit is to be operated at a press takes 30 minutes.
constant pressure drop of 1.05 kg/cm2 Determine
during filtration and washing. The cake (i) the washing time and volume of
is to be washed with 285 litres of wash filtrate collected for a filtering time
water at the end of 2 hour a of continuous t of 45 minutes, and
operation. If reverse thorough washing (ii) the optimum cycle time and the
is used, estimate the time required for maximum output of filtrate per day.
washing. i 0.55 h and 137.65 m3 ii 0.842 h
45.48 min and 2160.6 m3
1. One of the most widely used processes 2. When a particle settles in a fluid
in waste water treatment is under gravity, the forces acting on it are
(a) draining (a) gravity and buoyant
(b) thickening (b) gravity and drag
(c) sedimentation (c) buoyant and drag
(d) filtration (d) gravity, buoyant, and drag
3. The value of drag coefficient (CD) 7. The AFP IV type recessed plate
remains almost constant at a value of filter press can work up to a pressure
0.1 for the Reynolds number (NRe) in the of:
range of (a) 5 bar
(a) NRe >2x105 (b) 15 bar
(b) 500 < NRe < 2x105 (c) 25 bar
(c) 0.2 < NRe < 500 (d) 35 bar
(d) 10-4 < NRe < 0.2
8. Rotary drum vacuum filters are
4. The separation technique for a mixture designed for a slurry submerge of:
of different sizes and shapes is called (a) 10 – 15 %
(a) classification (b) 15 – 25 %
(b) clarification (c) 33 – 35 %
(c) sedimentation (d) 35 – 37 %
(d) elutriation
5. For a wide difference in density 9. For a plate-and-frame filter press, the
between the materials, the separation ratio of the rate of washing to the final
technique adopted is rate of filtration is
(a) classification (a) 1.5
(b) floatation (b) 1.0
(c) sorting (c) 0.5
(d) elutriation (d) 0.25
6. Properties of filtrate which is an 10. For handling toxic and flammable
important consideration in the selection liquid (filtrate), the recommended filter
of a filter include is:
(a) viscosity (a) leaf filter
(b) density (b) disc filter
(c) corrosiveness (c) drum filter
(d) all the above (d) filter press
1(c); 2(d); 3(a); 4(c); 5(b); 6(d); 7(b); 8(c); 9(d); 10(a)
in
d
i
Gas-cleaning equipments, also known as gas collectors, vary widely in design,
operation, effectiveness, space requirement, construction and capital, and operat-
ing and up-keep costs. The selection of a dust collector depends on the following
factors:
(i) dust concentration and particle size;
(ii) air/gas stream characteristics;
(iii) dust characteristics;
(iv) degree of dust removal desired; and
(v) method of dust disposal.
A great variety of gas-cleaning equipment is available in the market, each type
having its own advantages and disadvantages. A few of these are described in this
section.
Gravity settling chambers are the earliest, simplest, and the most economical means
of removing dust from gas. A settling chamber essentially consists of a large cham-
ber of reasonable volume. The sudden
increase in chamber size reduces the
velocity of the dust-laden air-stream
which enables the heavier and the
coarser particles to settle out by the in
action of gravity. Baffles are some-
times used to aid the separation as
shown in Fig. 7.1.
Despite their simple design and eco- i
nomical mode of operation, these units
are seldom used because of their large
space requirements and low efficiency. Because of low gas velocities, the chamber is
not subjected to abrasion and hence, is used as a pre-cleaner for the removal of coarse
particles preferably in the range of 50 to 100 mm.
Inertial separators are based on the principle that the inertia (or momentum) of
the dust particles is greater than that of the gas. So, when the direction of dust-
laden gas is suddenly changed around a body, the dust particles do not follow
the same path by virtue of their greater inertia and move to the region of higher
pressure drop.
A great variety of inertial sepa-
rator designs are available and one
such design is the baffled separator
as shown in Fig. 7.2. Here, the gas in
direction is changed around the end
of each of the baffles and the dusts
are collected at the bottom of the
separator.
mpingement separators are a type
of inertial separators in which the sep-
aration occurs by the inertial impinge-
ment of dust particles on the collecting bodies which are placed in their path. iscous
air filters are a class of inertial impingement separators consisting of a series of
square or rectangular plates covered with mats of asbestos, glass wool, or metal wires
wet with a non-drying oil. The use of viscous oil improves efficiency because the oil
acts as an effective filter and prevents the particles from re-entering the gas stream.
The plates are replaced with new ones when the dust load on the mats becomes maxi-
mum and the plates are reused after washing the mats.
Fabric filters, commonly known as bag houses or bag filters, are one of the most
efficient and cost-effective types of dust collectors available and are widely used for
the separation of dust from the gas stream by passing the dust-laden gas through a
filter medium arranged in the shape of a bag. The bags are made of woven or felted
cotton, wool, synthetic, or glass fibres. The bags are mounted on frames which are
arranged in series. These are enclosed inside a large rectangular chamber with an
inlet for dust-laden gas and an outlet for clean gas and having a number of conical
discharge outlets for collecting dust, as shown in Fig. 7.3.
The separation in fabric filters is achieved in a two-step process. Normally, the pores
of the fabric filter are much larger than the size of the dust particles; hence, the col-
lection efficiency is low during the initial period of separation. But with the passage
of dust-laden gas through the pores of the fabric filter, the dust particles are deposited
mainly due to inertial impingement, interception, gravity, and by Brownian movement,
forming a dust layer. Once this layer has been formed, the separation is effected by
filtration and the separation efficiency increases. Periodically these units are shaken,
either mechanically or electrically, to discharge the accumulated dust.
Bag filters, based on cleaning methods, are generally classified into three types:
mechanical shaker, reverse air, and reverse jet.
In mechanical shaker bag filters, bags are attached to cell plates at the bottom of
the bag filter and are suspended from horizontal bars located at the top. Dust-laden
gas enters the bag filter through the bottom inlet and the dusts are collected inside the
bags. Bags are shaken by vibrating mechanically the top horizontal bar from which
the bags are suspended. In these filters the air-to-filter medium ratio is relatively low;
hence these filters occupy large space. However, because of their simple design and
operation, these are widely used in the minerals processing industries.
The operation of reverse air bag filters is similar to the mechanical shaker types
but they are different by their cleaning methods. Before the cleaning, the flow of
dust-laden gas is stopped and the bags are cleaned by injecting clean air into the
chamber in a reverse direction, which pressurises the bags from outside and the dusts
fall down into the hopper below. At the end of the cleaning cycle, reverse airflow is
stopped, and the filtration process is repeated. These filters need more maintenance
than the mechanical shaker bag filters.
In reverse jet bag filters, the bags are attached to cell plates at the top and the
dust-laden gas enters from the bottom of the bag filter. The bags are supported by metal
cages to prevent collapse, as the gas flows from outside to inside. The bags are cleaned
by passing compressed air into the bags. These filters have higher filtration capacity due
to their short cleaning time and are widely used in the minerals processing industries.
Wet scrubbers, commonly known as wet collectors, are a class of gas cleaning devices
in which a scrubbing liquid (usually water) is used for the separation of dust par-
ticles from the gas stream. The separation efficiency largely depends on the degree
of contact between the gas and the liquid
streams. There are a large variety of wet d n
scrubbers available and one such design
is the venturi scrubber, which is also the
most widely used type of wet scrubber.
Venturi scrubbers are high-energy
type of wet scrubbers and work on the nv in
i n
principle that the energy from the inlet i id
gas stream is being utilised to atomise in
the scrubbing liquid.
A venturi scrubber essentially con-
sists of a short converging section, a iv in
i n
throat, and a long diverging section, as
shown in Fig. 7.4. The dust-laden gas
stream is introduced to the converging
section and the liquid is injected at the
throat. As the gas flows down the con-
verging section, its velocity increases
due to the decrease in flow area. The gas d n
velocity in the throat section is generally i id d
between 60 to 120 m/s. These high-gas n
velocities break the liquid into enormous
number of fine droplets at the throat. Due to extreme turbulence at the throat section,
the dust particles collide with liquid droplets and are encapsulated in them. Further
collision among them occurs in the diverging section, mainly due to (i) their slow-
down because of increase in flow area, and (ii) the differential rate of deceleration
because of differences in their densities. This also causes the agglomeration among
the dust-laden liquid droplets, which are then removed from the scrubber by inertial
or cyclonic separators.
These units are widely used to reduce particulate emissions in cement and steel
industries.
Electrostatic precipitators (ESPs) are a type of gas-cleaning devices used for remov-
ing very fine particulate matter such as dust and smoke from a gas stream using the
electrostatic forces. These units are very energy efficient, as in these units energy is
applied only to the dust particles, in comparison to wet scrubbers in which energy
is applied directly to the liquid medium.
An ESP essentially consists of two electrodes: a high-voltage or discharge elec-
trode and an earthed or collector electrode. The discharge electrode is generally
smaller in cross-section. The dust-laden gas is passed between these two electrodes.
A high potential difference, usually in the order of 50 to 100 kV, is applied with the
negative charge on the discharge electrode. This produces a corona, around the dis-
charge electrode, which releases electrons into the gas stream. These electrons attach
themselves to the dust particles and ionise them by giving them a net negative charge.
The ionisation process usually takes place in less than 0.1 second. These charged
dust particles are then attracted towards the grounded collector electrode and get
deposited there. The collected dust is periodically removed from the electrodes either
by washing or vibration, which fall into the hoppers kept below. During this process,
the gas velocity between the electrodes is kept low to allow the dust to fall into the
hoppers and to prevent the dust from re-entering the gas stream.
In industrial ESPs, the gas flows between the electrodes usually at 1 to 3 m/s
with an average residence time of nearly 2 seconds. These units are capable of
removing dust particles in the size range of 0.1 to 2 microns with a collection
efficiency of >99%.
The factors affecting the collection efficiency are
(i) potential difference between electrodes;
(ii) surface area of collector electrodes;
(iii) gas flow rate;
(iv) gas viscosity; and
(v) gas temperature.
Mainly there are two types of ESPs available:
In these, both ionisation and collection are

combined. These are commonly referred as ottrell precipitators and find applica-
tions in mineral industries. These are further classified into plate type and tubular
type. In plate-type ESPs, the collector electrodes are flat parallel plates with a series of
discharge electrodes placed between i v
two adjacent plates, as shown in Fig. n iv
7.5, whereas in tubular-type ESPs,
the collector electrodes are a nest i
d
of parallel pipes of cylindrical or
hexagonal shape with discharge
electrodes placed on the axis of the n
d n
pipes, as shown in Fig. 7.6.
In these, ionisation and collec-

tion take place separately. These nd d d
are mainly used in air-conditioning
units.
ESPs are good for some of the hot
and corrosive applications with high i v
gas flow but low dust load. These n iv n
have been extensively used in coal
burning units (thermal power plants),
cement, sponge iron, and other met-
d i
allurgical industries. However, their
d
performance is poor on the high-
loading fine particulates.
Cyclone separators, commonly nd d

known as cyclones, are the most d n
widely used type of dust collection
equipments and are normally used
for the separation of the coarse dust
particles or mist from gases. These are one of the cheapest type of dust-collection
equipments as these do not have any moving parts. The separation is effected by the
cyclonic action created by their design and the separation principle is similar to the
hydrocyclones, as discussed in Chapter 5.
Cyclones consist of a cylindrical section at the top and a conical section at the
bottom, as shown in Fig. 7.7. The dust-laden gas enters the cylindrical section through
the inlet pipe at the top, tangentially at a high velocity of about 30 m/s. The gas then
moves downward in a helical motion, forming a peripheral vortex inside the cylindri-
cal chamber. The dust particles gain centrifugal forces and are thrown towards the
wall, which then move downwards and are discharged from the bottom outlet. While
the dust-free gas, after reaching the bottom changes direction and follows a smaller-
diameter rotating path back towards the top against gravity. The outlet section has a
downward extending pipe, known as vortex finder, projected below the gas inlet pipe
to cut the vortex and to prevent short-circuiting of the gas streams.
Cyclones are operated at high temperatures of up to 1000°C and high pressures
of up to 50 MPa and are very effective for treating dust particles in the range of 5
to 10 microns. While separation above 200 microns are possible in cyclones, these
n are generally not recommended due
to abrasion problem. A gravity set-
D tling chamber is a better alternative
for the purpose. For particles with
d n high degree of agglomeration ten-
Di
in
dency, cyclones can be used to sepa-
rate gas–solid systems with solid
x particles smaller than 5 microns.
ind D With predominating agglomera-
ind i
tion, separation efficiency as high
i n as 98% is achievable for separation
of solid particles in the range of 0.1
ni to 2 microns from the dust-laden gas
i n
streams.
Figure 7.7 shows various design

parameters. The minimum particle
diameter of density rp which can
theoretically be separated from the
i gas stream is given by
1/ 2
⎡ 3.6 A i 2 Do ρg μg ⎤
( Dp ) min =⎢ ⎥ (7.1)
⎢⎣ π Dc ρp g ⎥⎦
where, ( p)min= minimum size of dust particles that can be separated,

Ai = area of gas inlet,
o = diameter of gas outlet,
c = diameter of cyclone,
= depth of the cyclone,
rg = density of gas,
rp = density of dust particles,
mg = viscosity of gas, and
Gg = mass velocity of dust-laden gas.
1/ 2
⎡ 3.6 A i 2 Do ρg μg ⎤
From Eq. 7.1, we have ( Dp ) min = ⎢ ⎥ .
⎢⎣ π Dc ρp g ⎥⎦
With Do = Dc /2 and = 4Dc, the above equation can be written in terms of Dc as
3.6 A i 2 ρg μg
Dc = .
8πρp g ( Dp ) min 2
Given in this problem are Ai2 = 0.3 × 0.3 = 0.09 m2, rg = 0.001 g/cm3 = 1.0 kg/m3,
rp = 1.24 g/cm3 = 1240 kg/m3, mg = 0.018 cP = 1.8 × 10−5 kg/m.s, Gg = 5400 kg/m2.h =
1.5 kg/m2.s, and (Dp)min = 5.0 microns = 5 × 10−6 m.
Putting the values in the above equation we have Dc = 4.99 m ≈ 5 m.
Thus, the dimensions of the desired cyclone are
Diameter = 5 m,
Depth = 20 m, and
Diameter of gas outlet = 2.5 m. (Ans)
Sturtevant offers three high-performance air classifiers, namely: Whirlwind ;

SuperFine ; and Side DraftTM which work efficiently and accurately all over the
world in the food, chemical, and minerals industries. These are mainly used for
particle classification through air separation.
These three classifiers balance the physical principles of centrifugal, drag, and
gravity forces to classify particles according to size or density. For dry materials of
100-mesh-size and smaller, air classification provides the most effective and effi-
cient means for separating a product from a feed stream, for de-dusting, or, when
used in conjunction with grinding equipment, for increasing productivity.
The Whirlwind air classifier incorporates a self-

contained fan and rejecter blade classification system. Its internal fan design does
not require cyclones, air locks, or bag-houses for product collection of particles in
the range of 100 to 400 mesh.
Figure 7.8 shows a Whirlwind air classifier. Material enters the classifier
through the feed spout and is subjected to centrifugal force due to which the coarse
particles are thrown away from the distributing plate and into the air flow. Due to
gravity, large particles settle into the coarse cone. Finer particles are swept upward
where selector blades generate further classification. During this secondary separa-
tion, oversized particles are spun out of the air flow and drop down into the coarse
cone. The selected fines continue through the circulating fan and into the fines cone.
Fines drop out of the recirculated air flow at the fixed return air vanes.
These units are available with sizes of 20 inch to 26 ft in diameter having feed
capacities of 1 to 800 tonne/h requiring air flow of 25–50 to 3000–6000 ft3/m.
F d
i in
Fin n F n
n
in
n
d
n
v
i i in
n Ai
n Fin
n
Fin
i
i
The advantages of Whirlwind air classifiers include

(i) low capital cost, as no auxiliary equipments are needed;
(ii) consistent, high-quality product;
(iii) low energy consumption;
(iv) less maintenance; and
(v) processes abrasive materials.
Whirlwind air classifiers have the following applications:
(i) cement;
(ii) ceramics;
(iii) coal;
(iv) diatomaceous earth;
(v) fly ash;
(vi) gypsum;
(vii) minerals;
(viii) plastics; and
(ix) soda ash, bicarbonate.
iv
F d
Fin /Ai
i
Ai n
F d
i i i n
Ai i in
n
in
n
i
The SuperFine air classifiers achieve the high

degree of accuracy demanded in the separation of particles of 44-micron size and
smaller.
Figure 7.9 shows a SuperFine air classifier. Material enters through the feed
spout and is subjected to centrifugal force, which causes uniform distribution
of the material into the upward moving air stream. The unique design of the
SuperFine ’s variable speed, multi-blade rejecter cage allows only the selected
particles to pass into the fines chamber and exhaust into the system collector.
Oversized particles settle into the coarse discharge. The SuperFine system deliv-
ers maximum selection efficiency and productivity.
These units are available with sizes of 3 ft to 6 ft in diameter having feed capacities
of 0.5 to 15 tonne/h requiring air flow of 3000 to 9000 ft3/m.
The advantages of Superfine air classifiers include
(i) ultra-fine particle size separation of high-value materials, 44–5 microns;
(ii) narrow particle-size distribution;
(iii) easy access for cleaning and low maintenance;
(iv) higher capacity and finer separations than screeners with no blinding;
(v) low energy consumption;
(vi) processes abrasive materials;
(vii) effective product cooling; and
(viii) fines collected in cyclone or process collector.
SuperFine air classifiers have the following applications:
(i) ceramics;
(ii) chemicals;
(iii) diatomaceous earth;
(iv) food products;
(v) minerals;
(vi) shredded fibers; and
(vii) tobacco.
The Side DraftTM air classifiers represent a highly

versatile, energy-efficient system for the consistent separation of particles in the 100
to 400 mesh range.
Figure 7.10 shows a Side DraftTM air classifier. Material enters through the feed
spout and is evenly conveyed across the top of the distribution plate and drops into
iv
F d
F d
Ai i in i i i n
v
Ai
n
in
Fin /Ai n
i Ann
Fin
i
the separating zone, creating a uniformly dispersed curtain of material. Forces gener-
ated by the rejector cage and process air subject the curtain of material to particle
size classification. High separation efficiencies and precision of classification are
obtained by controlling air flow and rejector cage speed. The multi-pin, variable-
speed rejector cage allows only the selected fines to pass into the fines chamber
and exhaust into the system collector. The coarse particles, after passing through the
separating zone, fall into the coarse outlet.
These units are available with Models of SD-20 to SD-180 having feed capacities
of 4–12 to 360–1150 tonne/h requiring air flow of 3000 to 242000 ft3/m.
The advantages of Side DraftTM air classifiers include
(i) compact design;
(ii) low energy consumption;
(iii) durable, wear-resistant design minimizes maintenance;
(iv) effective product cooling;
(v) consistent, high-quality product, regardless of variations in feed material
and changes in air flow;
(vi) processes abrasive materials;
(vii) fines collected in cyclone or process collector; and
(viii) high removal efficiency.
Side DraftTM air classifiers have a wide range of applications,
(i) ceramics;
(ii) metal oxides;
(iii) coal;
(iv) chemicals;
(v) diatomaceous earth;
(vi) flyash;
(vii) gypsum;
(viii) minerals;
(ix) metals;
(x) iron ore;
(xi) silica sand;
(xii) feldspar;
(xiii) soda ash; and
(xiv) bicarborate.
❑
❑
1 /2
⎡ 3.6 Ai2 Do ρg μg ⎤
(Dp )min = ⎢ ⎥ .
⎢⎣ π ZDc ρp Gg ⎥⎦
1. Why is gas cleaning practised in the (a) properties of dust (solid) particles,
industry viz., size, density, and moisture
It is necessary to content, etc.,
(a) control pollution, (b) quantity of dust to be handled,
(b) prevent dust from entering a machine (c) moisture content of the gas stream, and
which reduce their maintenance, (d) temperature of the gas–solid system.
(c) prevent dust from spreading in the 3. What are the main separation
plant and in the neighbouring areas, mechanisms on which the gas–solid
and separators are classified
(d) prevent wastage of valuable materials. (a) Gravity settling
2. Name the important factors (b) Inertial separation
affecting the gas–solid separation. (c) Liquid washing or scrubbing
The important factors affecting gas–solid (d) Electrostatic deposition
separation are (e) Centrifugal separation
4. What are the materials used in the 9. What are the factors affecting the
fabrication of bag filters collection efficiency of electrostatic
The materials commonly in use are precipitators
(a) woven or felted cloth, The factors are
(b) wool, (a) potential difference between the
(c) synthetic fibre, and electrodes,
(d) glass fibre. (b) surface area of collector electrodes,
5. Name the various types of bag (c) gas-flow rate and temperature, and
filters used in industries. (d) gas viscosity.
The different types of bag filters used in 10. What are the field of applications
industries are of ESPs
(a) mechanical shaker bag filters, ESPs are effective for some hot and
(b) reverse air bag filters, and corrosive applications with high gas
(c) reverse jet bag filters. flow and low dust load. These per-
6. Why are the reverse jet bag filters form poorly on the high loading fine
more commonly used in mineral particulates.
processing industries 11. In which type of industries, the air
It is due to their (a) high filtration classifiers are generally used
capacity, and (b) short cleaning time. The air classifiers are generally used in
7. What is the working principle of a food, chemical, and mineral industries.
venturi scrubber 12. Name a few applications of the
The working principle is that, the energy Whirlwind air classifiers.
from the inlet gas stream is utilised to The applications include: cement, ceram-
atomise the scrubbing liquid. ics, coal, flyash, gypsum, minerals, and
8. Why are electrostatic precipitators plastic industries.
considered to be energy efficient 13. In what range of particles Side
compared to wet scrubbers DraftTM air classifiers are efficient in
In electrostatic precipitators, energy is separation
applied only to the dust particles while Effective separation takes place in the
in a wet scrubber, it is applied directly to particle size range of 100–400 mesh.
the liquid medium.
1. What are the factors affecting the 7. How are dust particles removed in
gas–solid separation electrostatic precipitators
2. What are the factors taken into consid- 8. Discuss the construction and working
eration while selecting a gas–solid of cyclones.
separation equipment 9. What is a Cottrell precipitator
3. Discuss the principle of operation of 10. What is the function of a vortex
gravity settling chambers. finder
4. Write the principle of operation of 11. Name a few advantages of
inertial separators. Whirlwind air classifiers.
5. Discuss the operating principle of 12. Give a few applications for
different types of fabric filters. SuperFine air classifiers.
6. Discuss the construction and working
of venturi scrubbers.
1. Dust-laden gas from a chimney enters Depth = 4800 cm
a cyclone separator of dimensions given Diameter of gas outlet = 50 cm
below at the rate of 9000 kg/m2.h. Find Gas inlet = 40 × 40 cm2
the minimum particle size of the dust
Chimney gas properties
that can be separated by the cyclone.
Dust density = 1.2 g/cm3
Data Gas density = 0.0012 g/cm3
Cyclone dimensions Gas viscosity = 0.018 cp
Diameter = 1200 cm 10.7 microns
1. The selection of a dust collector (c) 10 to 60 m/s

depends on (d) 60 to 120 m/s
(a) dust concentration and particle size
6. The velocity of gas between the
(b) air/gas stream characteristics
electrodes of ESP is nearly equal to
(c) extent of dust removal
(a) 1 to 5 cm/s
(d) all of the above
(b) 5 to 50 cm/s
2. The earliest and simplest form of (c) 1 to 3 m/s
gas-cleaning equipment is: (d) 3 to 10 m/s
(a) electrostatic precipitator
(b) gravity settling chamber 7. Gas residence time between the
(c) hydrocyclone electrodes of ESP is nearly equal to
(d) bag filter (a) 10 milliseconds
3. The particle size that can be effectively (b) 100 milliseconds
removed by a gravity settling chamber is (c) 1 second
(a) 0.1 to 1.0 mm (d) 2 seconds
(b) 0.05 to 0.1 mm
8. The tangential velocity of gas in
(c) 0.001 to 0.01 mm
cyclones is nearly equal to
(d) less than 0.001 mm
(a) 1 m/s
4. A viscous air filter belongs to which (b) 10 m/s
of the following category of gas-solid (c) 30 m/s
separators (d) 100 m/s
(a) Bag filter
(b) Cyclone separator 9. The cyclone separators can work at
(c) Impingement separator high pressure and temperature range of
(d) Wet scrubber up to
5. The normal velocity in the throat (a) 5 MPa and 500°C
section of a venturi scrubber is (b) 10 MPa and 1000°C
(a) 60 to 100 cm/s (c) 15 MPa and 1000°C
(b) 1.0 to 10 m/s (d) 50 MPa and 1000°C
10. The size of dust particles that can 12. SuperFine air classifiers can achieve
be effectively handled in cyclones varies high degree of accuracy in separation in
from the particle size range of:
(a) 5 to 10 microns (a) 1 mm to 2 mm
(b) 10 to 50 microns (b) 0.1 mm to 1 mm
(c) 50 to 100 microns (c) 100 micron and lower
(d) 100 to 200 microns (d) 44 micron and lower
11. Whirlwind air classifiers are 13. For the separation of abrasive
effective and efficient to separate materials, the air classifier used is:
particles in the size range: (a) Side DraftTM air classifier
(a) 1 mm to 2 mm (b) SuperFine air classifier
(b) 0.5 mm to 1 mm (c) Whirlwind air classifer
(c) 100 mesh and lower (d) all the above
(d) 1000 mesh and lower
1(d); 2(b); 3(b); 4(c); 5(d); 6(c); 7(d); 8(c); 9(d); 10(a); 11(c);
12(d); 13(a)
|
For in-plant transport of solids, generally for short distances, hand or electric trucks,
trolleys, or carts are used, while transport by rail, road, or ships are recommended
for long-distance transport of bulk solids (mineral ores, coal, etc.). Transport by
rail, road, or ships often becomes uneconomical and is disadvantageous because of
increased fuel costs, environmental pollution, road and port traffic congestion, etc.
and is not the subject of discussion of this text. The equipment discussed here are
conveyors and elevators.
onveyors either carry the solids on them or drag them through a channel or
trough and are used both for short- and long-distance transport, operated either inter-
mittently or continuously. Conveyors that lift the solids vertically are called elevators.
There are a great variety of conveyor designs available and the popular ones discussed
here are belt conveyors, screw conveyors, pipe conveyors, and bucket elevators.
The selection of equipment depends upon
(i) capacity requirements;
(ii) distance of travel;
(iii) shape and size of materials;
(iv) material characteristics (both chemical and physical); and
(v) whether the solids are to be transported horizontally, vertically, or on an
incline.
Since their invention in the year 1901 by Sandvik, belt conveyors have found appli-
cation in a wide variety of industries and have become the most versatile among all
the conveying equipments. They can be used both for short-as well as long-distance
transport and can be operated horizontally or on an incline.
A belt conveyor essentially consists of a continuous belt passing around two large
pulleys at the two ends, one of which is a drive pulley and the other is a tail pulley, as
shown in Fig. 8.1. Solids are loaded on the upper surface of the belt near the tail pulley
through a feed hopper and are carried to the other end of the belt and are discharged
id F d over the drive pulley. The loaded belt
is supported during its carrying run by
closely spaced rollers, known as idlers,
while during the returning run the belt
+ + is supported by widely spaced idlers.
i + The idlers are so spaced to prevent the
iv
n d sagging of the belt during its operation.
i Figure 8.2 shows a conveyor belt sup-
ported by idlers, in operation at Orissa
Sponge Iron and Steel Limited, India.
The length of the belt may change due to the load of solids or seasonal changes in
temperature and humidity. For this reason, a snub pulley is provided to the returning
part of the belt.
The conveyor belts can be operated under flat or troughed conditions, which are
created by the arrangement of idlers. Figure 8.3 shows different belt profiles. Flat
belts are generally used to transport boxes, solid units, and solid particles with a high
angle of repose. The capacity of flat belts is low for solid particles with a low angle
of repose. The capacity is higher for troughed belts.
The angle of inclination of the belt is less than the angle of repose of solid particles
to be transported and is usually between 10 and 20 .
The belts are made up of canvas or rubber and are generally reinforced with steel
wire to impart strength. But for rubber belts, age, light, heat, moisture, and chemical
activity of solids to be transported are all destructive. Neoprene, vulcanised rubber,
and other special types are available for handling hot and moist materials.
An An
id id
d
d
Flat elt Troughed elt
The capacity of a belt conveyor depends upon

(i) width and speed of the belt;
(ii) friction between the surface of belt and the solids;
(iii) angle of repose of solid particles;
(iv) angle of inclination of the belt;
(v) stickiness of solid particles;
(vi) degree of troughing; and
(vii) shape, size, and specific gravity of the solids.
Metso Minerals Belt Conveyors are available with a belt width of 350 to 1600
mm and have a conveying capacity of 40 to 1000 tonne/h. The details are given in
Table 8.1.
The maximum capacity of belt conveyors is given by
b = Ab Vr b (8.1)
where, Qb = maximum capacity of the belt conveyor, kg/s

Ab = cross-sectional area of load on the conveyor belt, m2
= linear speed of the belt, m/s
rb = bulk density of the solid materials, kg/m3
Here, Ab = Ka Ci bl2 (8.2)
where, Ka = a constant whose value depends on the flowability of the material and
the angle of inclination of side rollers Table 10.3 - Narayanan, 2003
Belt idt Maximum capacity Maximum slope Belt speed

mm tonne ∞ ms
350 40 20
500 100 19
650 200 18
800 320 17
1000 500 16.5 1.6
1200 700 16
1400 750 15.5
1600 1000 15
Ci = correction factor for inclination (function of inclination and flowability,
i.e., high, medium, and low) Table 10.2 - Narayanan, 2003
bl = width of the belt carrying the load, m
= 0.9 b − 0.05 (8.3)
where, b = width of the belt, m
1600 x 1000
Capacity of the belt conveyor is b = = 444.4 kg/s .
3600
Given that, = 1.6 m/s, r b = 2600 kg/m3, Ka = 0.067, and Ci = 0.95.
444.4
Using Eq. 8.1, we have Ab = b
= = 0.1068 m 2 .
V rb 1.6 x 2600
And using Eq. 8.2, we have bl2 = 1.678 ⇒ bl = 1.295 m.
Thus, using Eq. 8.3, we have b = 1.494 m, say 1.5 m, is the required width of
the belt (Ans)
Screw conveyors are one of the oldest type of conveying equipments, operated horizon-
tally or at a slight incline (up to 20 ) and are extensively used for transporting finely
divided solids; sticky materials; and semisolid materials including food waste, municipal
solid wastes, and boiler ash. These are generally used for transporting over short distances,
which may be about 40 m in the horizontal and 30 m in the vertical direction.
A screw conveyor essentially consists of a U-shaped trough inside which a screw
or spiral flight mounted on a shaft is placed parallel to the trough bottom, as shown
in Fig.8.4. The shaft is supported on a bearing at each end and is generally driven at
feed/one end. The solid particles to be conveyed are fed to the trough through a feed
hopper and as the shaft along with the screw rotates, the solid particles are pushed for-
F d ward towards the discharge end
along the front face of the
spiral. Inside the trough, the
materials travel at such a level
that the upward lifting force is
M just balanced by the downward
gravity force. This is due to the
i friction between the particles
and the spiral surface.
The spiral surfaces are avail-
able in continuous, bladed, or cut
forms. Continuous spirals are
used for transporting dry, gran- nd d i
ular, and free-flowing materials,
while discontinuous spirals are
used for wet, muddy, and thick
materials. The bladed or cut
types of spirals are chosen when
mixing during transportation is n i
desired. The screw conveyors
with various pitch designs are
also available with a pitch equal to its diameter (standard pitch), long pitch, short
pitch, and double pitch, a few of which are shown in Fig. 8.5.
The clearance between the screw flight and the inside surface of the trough is
nearly equal to the average size of particles in the feed. The maximum particle size in
the feed that can be transported depends upon the diameter of the flight.
Standard screw conveyors are 3 to 20 inches in diameter and 8 to 12 ft long.
The advantages of screw conveyors are
(i)simple design and ease of maintenance;
(ii)little headroom is required;
(iii)slurry or sticky materials can be transported;
(iv) with the increase of pitch spacing, the capacity can be increased without
increasing the rotational speed of the screw; and
(v) apart from conveying and mixing, these can be used for heating, cooling, or
drying of solids.
While the disadvantages are
(i) high wear of screw and trough materials;
(ii) size reduction of feed materials;
(iii) higher power consumption;
(iv) capacity decrease with the increase of angle of inclination; and
(v) due to the stresses developed in the shaft, the conveyor length is restricted.
The capacity of screw conveyors depends on

(i) screw diameter;
(ii) screw pitch; and
(iii) speed of rotation.
⎛ p 2⎞ ⎛N⎞
The capacity is given by = i⎜ D (8.4)
s
⎝ 4 s ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 60 ⎟⎠ rs f
where, Qs = capacity of screw conveyor, kg/s

Ci = correction factor for inclination which varies from 1.0 for horizontal
conveyor to 0.6 for inclination of 20 . Other values are 0.9, 0.8, and
0.7 for inclinations of 5, 10, and 15 degrees respectively [Narayanan,
2003]
s = screw diameter excluding shaft diameter, m
P = screw pitch, m
N = speed of the shaft, rpm
ρs = density of solid materials, kg/m3
Cf = filling coefficient values depending primarily on the type of materials
(values range from 0.125 to 0.4 depending on heavy/light, abrasive/
non-abrasive Table 10.1 - Narayanan, 2003
⎛ p 2⎞ ⎛N⎞
= i⎜ D
⎝ 4 s ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 60 ⎟⎠ rs
From Eq. 8.4, we have s f .
Here, Ci = 1.0, since it is to be transported horizontally.

Given that, rs = 1400 kg/m3, P s = 0.8, Cf = 0.125, and Qs = 15 tonne/h
= (15 × 1000)/3600 = 4.167 kg/s.
Thus using Eq. 8.4, we have 4.167 = 54.98 s3
⇒ s = 0.423 m.
Thus, the screw pitch = 0.8 s = 0.3384 m (Ans)
FLSmidth Screw Conveyors (Fig. 8.6) are designed

for inclined transport (up to 8°) of material with temperatures below 300 C. They
have a conveying capacity up to 550 m3/h and are manufactured up to 60 m length.
An 0.30–0.35 degree of filling is recommended, depending on the material (e.g.,
filter dust and coal meal = 0.32, cement and raw meal = 0.35).
The FLSmidth Screw Conveyors designed in modules of 500 mm are supplied
with steel plate trough (standard) or for use in a concrete trough. The screw pitch
is individual for each of the ten conveyor sizes to attain lowest power consump-
tion and smooth transport. The screw is completely enclosed, so the conveyance is
weatherproof and dust-free. The maintenance requirements of the FLSmidth Screw
Conveyors are negligible.
End bearings take up axial as well as radial stresses. They are of the heavy roller
type and are grease packed. Intermediate block bearings support the screw at 4–6 m
intervals. Intermediate bearings can withstand the high temperatures and consist of
Cr-alloyed bearing shells and Cr–Mo-alloyed special hardened journals. Intermediate
bearings are suspended in open adjustable bearing bridges.
The major disadvantages of the conventional troughed belt conveyors are generation
of dust and the spillage of solids during transportation. This leads to the development
of enclosed material transport such as the pipe conveyors. The pipe conveyors were
developed towards the end of the seventies of the last century by Japan Pipe Conveyor
mainly to reduce dust and spillage and for economical reasons.
Figure 8.7 shows the operating principle of Metso Minerals Trellex FLEXOPIPE
conveyor belts.
nv n i n
di
n di din
n d
n di
d n nin nd
din i n
in
din in.
M i n in
nv n i n
n nd n d
din
nv
i n v .
i
n n
i n
In the loading area, the FLEXOPIPE belt is troughed like conventional belts.
After loading, special idlers form the belt into a pipe shape with overlapped belt edges.
The material being conveyed is completely enclosed by the belt. Hexagonally arranged
idler rolls keep the belt closed over the track. Close to the conveyor head the belt opens
out into a normal troughed belt supported by three roll idlers and runs flat over the dis-
charge pulley to unload the materials. In the return strand, the belt closes again into a pipe
where its overlapped edges, in general, are on the bottom. Hexagon rolls provide the pipe
shape also in the return run. At the end of the return strand the belt opens and runs flat
over the tail pulley to be loaded again. Figure 8.8 shows a FLEXOPIPE conveyor belt.
A special type of cross rigid rubber belts are used in the pipe conveyors which
maintains the constant contact of the belt with the idlers and to keep the round form
of the belt during transportation. The range of FLEXOPIPE belts comprises rein-
forcements with different elastic moduli. A more elastic belt allows narrower curves
and shorter transition lengths (distance between pulley and first regular hexagon
panel), but requires more take-up length.
Enclosed transport of hot materials does not allow heat exchange to the atmosphere,
therefore material temperatures must be lower than that in conventional installations.
nline arrangement set arrangement
The arrangement of idlers plays an important role in the operation and perfor-
mance of pipe conveyors. Figure 8.9 shows inline and offset arrangement of idler
rolls. In the inline arrangement, all the six idler rolls are mounted on the same side
of the frame with small gaps to avoid the belt edge to be trapped between two rolls.
While in the offset arrangement, three idler rolls are placed on either side of the
supporting frame which allows larger rolls and brackets.
The nominal pipe diameters, belt width, capacity, and maximum lump size for
FLEXOPIPE conveyor belts are given in Table 8.2.
The advantages of Metso Minerals Trellex FLEXOPIPE conveyor belts compared
to conventional troughed belt conveyors are
(i) horizontal and vertical curves enable the routing over difficult terrain
conditions;
Nominal pipe Belt idt Capacity Maximum lump

diameter mm mm m si e mm
150 600 45 50
200 780 80 70
250 1000 140 90
300 1100 160 100
350 1300 220 120
400 1600 350 140
500 1900 460 180
( Filling rate 75 %, speed 1 m/s, Filling rate 75 %, reduced filling rate allows larger lumps)
(ii) fewer transfer points lead to smooth treatment of the material to be conveyed
and reduces installation as well as operating costs;
(iii) the narrow width of the installations needs less space requirements on the track;
(iv) larger contact between material and belt allows increased angles of incli-
nation (depending on the kind of material being conveyed);
(v) material is completely enclosed, external environmental conditions such as
rain, wind, temperature, and dust have no negative influences; and
(vi) clean and spillage free material transport protects the environment and keeps
maintenance costs on a low level.
Pipe conveyors are used to transport cement, humidified ash, fly ash, minerals,
pulp and paper, wood chips, coal, coke, fertiliser, and food grains.
The conveyors discussed earlier in this section, viz., belt conveyors, screw conveyors,
and pipe conveyors, can lift solid materials at some angle of inclination, but none of
them can lift solid materials vertically. Bucket elevators are used only for vertical
transport of bulk solids.
A bucket elevator essentially consists of a number of buckets attached to a continuous
double-strand chain or belt which passes over two sprockets or pulleys located at different
elevations inside a casing, as shown in
Fig. 8.10. Solid materials are directly fed
into the buckets partly and are scooped
up from the boot partly, which are car-
ried up vertically and are discharged
into a hopper as the buckets turn over
the upper sprocket. The emptied buck-
ets faced downward travel vertically
i downward and again scoop up materials
Fi d as they pass the lower sprocket.
Bucket elevators are mainly of
three types:
(i) centrifugal-discharge type –
buckets are spaced;
(ii) continuous type – buckets are
very closely spaced; and
F d
(iii) positive-discharge type –
buckets are spaced and the
return belts or chains are
snubbed back beneath the
upper sprocket to invert them
for positive discharge.
Centrifugal-discharge bucket ele-
vators are mainly used to handle
free-flowing materials or small-lump
materials while continuous bucket
elevators are used for large-lump materials. But the positive-discharge bucket elevators
are used to lift sticky materials or cohesive solids and are slow speed equipments.
The FLSmidth fast-running bucket elevators

(Fig. 8.11) are designed for centrifugal discharge of materials and can handle lumps
up to 50 mm in size and can withstand temperatures up to 350°C. The chain speed
is 1.0–1.9 m/s. The chains are made of special hardened steel. For handling abrasive
materials, the digging edge of the buckets are reinforced.
The capacity of a bucket elevator depends on the lifting height, the bulk density of
the materials, the volume per unit time, and the chain speed.
FLSmidth bucket elevators are available with a belt width of 160 to 400 mm for
single casing and 500 to 1600 mm for double casing.
The maintenance requirements of the FLSmidth bucket elevators are negligible.
Chain wheels have replaceable segment rims.
❑
❑
❑
❑ =A Vr .
❑
⎛p ⎞ ⎛N⎞
❑ = Ci ⎜ Ds 2 ⎟ P ⎜ ⎟ rs Cf .
s
⎝4 ⎠ ⎝ 60 ⎠
❑
1. What are elevators 7. For which type of materials are

The conveyors which lift the solids verti- continuous spirals used in screw
cally are called elevators. conveyors
Continuous spirals are used for the
2. What are idlers
transportation of dry, granular, and free
Closely spaced rollers to support the
flowing materials.
loaded belt are called idlers.
8. What is the normal size for screw
3. When are the flat belts used
conveyors
Flat belts are used for transporting boxes,
The normal size varies from 3–20 inches
solid units, and solid particles with a
in diameter and 8–12 feet in length.
high angle of repose.
9. How does the capacity of a screw
4. What are the common materials of
conveyor alter with inclination
construction for the belts
The capacity is maximum for horizontal
The common materials for the construc-
and decreases with inclination.
tion for the belts include canvass or
rubber reinforced with steel wire, neo- 10. How does a pipe conveyor differ
prene, and vulcanised rubber. from other type of conveyors
This is a closed type of transport system.
5. What materials are used for belts to
handle hot and moist materials 11. What specific advantages are
Noeprene and vulcanised rubber can be obtained in a pipe conveyor
used as belt material. The specific advantages of pipe conveyors
are (i) reduces dust and spillage, (ii) clean
6. For which type of materials are
transportation, and (iii) economical.
screw conveyors used
Screw conveyors are used for transporting 12. Name a few materials for which
finely divided solids; sticky materials; and pipe transport is used.
semisolid materials including food waste, Cement, humidified ash, fly ash, coke,
municipal solid wastes, and boiler ash. coal, fertilisers, and food grains.
13. What is the essential difference 14. What are the factors on which the
between bucket elevator and the capacity of bucket elevators depend
other transport systems used in The capacity depends on (i) the lifting
industry height, (ii) bulk density of the materials,
Bucket elevator is a vertical transport (iii) volume per unit time, and (iv) chain
system. speed.
1. How do the conveyors carry solids 8. Give the important factors on which
on them? the capacity of screw conveyors
2. What are the considerations for the depends.
selection of conveying equipment? 9. What is the advantage of a pipe con-
3. What is the function of idlers in belt veyor over troughed belt conveyor?
conveyors? 10. What are the factors on which the
4. Give the important factors on which capacity of a pipe conveyor depends?
the capacity of a belt conveyor 11. What is the mechanism of transport
depends. in the bucket elevators?
5. What type of materials are trans- 12. What are the different types of
ported by screw conveyors? bucket elevators commonly used?
6. What are the different forms of 13. Differentiate between centrifugal
spiral surfaces used in screw discharge type and continuous-type
conveyors? bucket elevator.
7. Give the various advantages of screw 14. Give specific features of FLSmidth
conveyors. fast-running bucket elevators.
1. Limestone from a quarry is to be available. Check whether the available

transported at the rate of 900 tonne/h conveyor is suitable for the service.
by a belt conveyor at an incline of 16 to Data: Density of limestone = 2500 kg/
the stockyard. The particles of limestone m3, Ci = 0.9, Ka = 0.067, and belt speed =
are fairly dry and are of size 15–30 mm. 1.6 m/s
A belt conveyor of 1200 mm width is Ans. Suitable
1. The angle of inclination of the belt is (b) less than the angle of repose
(a) equal to the angle of repose of the (c) greater than the angle of repose
material (d) not related to the angle of repose
2. What is the normal inclination of the (a) Belt conveyor
belt in case of belt conveyors (b) Screw conveyor
(a) 2–5 degrees (c) Bucket elevator
(b) 5–10 degrees (d) Apron conveyor
(c) 10–20 degrees 6. What type of bucket elevator is used
(d) 15–25 degrees to lift sticky materials
3. Up to what horizontal length can a (a) Centrifugal discharge type
screw conveyor be used (b) Continuous type
(a) 40 m (c) Positive discharge type
(b) 60 m (d) All the above types
(c) 80 m 7. Centrifugal discharge bucket elevators
(d) 100 m are mainly used for:
4. The capacity of a screw conveyor (a) free flowing materials
depends on (b) large lumpy materials
(a) material size (c) sticky materials
(b) conveyor diameter (d) cohesive solids
(c) conveyor length 8. Humidified ash can be transported by
(d) screw diameter (a) belt conveyor
5. Which of the following conveyors can (b) screw conveyor
be used for the transportation of boiler (c) bucket elevator
ash (d) pipe conveyor
1(b); 2(c); 3(a); 4(d); 5(b); 6(c); 7(a); 8(d)

|
Mixin
i n
.
The objective of liquid mixing is to obtain a relatively uniform mixture from two or
more components, both miscible and immiscible. The degree of uniformity obtained
depends on the liquid characteristics. While it is possible to obtain an almost com-
plete homogeneity in case of the miscible liquids, in case of the immiscible ones, the
minor component is generally (but not necessarily) present as the dispersed phase
(drops or filaments) in a continuous phase of the major component.
In industry, the liquid mixing is generally achieved in vertical cylindrical vessels
with some form of paddle or propeller stirrer to bring uniformity in the final mixture.
These stirrers impart agitation to the system through radial, axial, or circumferential
flow patterns. The vessel is rounded and not flat so that sharp corners which are the
likely dead zones for mixing can be avoided.
For the success of the mixing process, it is necessary to have an effective agitation
of the components in the containing vessel. Agitation refers to the induced motion of
a material in a specified manner, usually in the circulatory pattern inside some form
of container. Agitation is generally accomplished by using mechanical impellers. The
impeller creates a flow pattern in the system, causing the liquid to circulate through
the vessel and return eventually to the impeller. The mechanical impellers broadly
belong to two categories, namely, radial flow and axial flow types. The blades of an
axial flow impeller make an angle equal to or less than 90° to the driving shaft to
produce currents in the liquid primarily parallel to the impeller shaft. Propellers and
fan turbines belong to this class. Propellers are widely used for agitating liquids of
low viscosity with speeds varying from 400 to 1750 rpm.
Radial flow impellers with blades parallel to the axis of the drive shaft produce
currents in radial or tangential direction in the liquid. Paddles and turbines belong to
this type of impeller. Normally, turbines have a number of short blades and operate at
high speed while paddles are large slower-speed impellers with two or four blades.
The necessary flow patterns to facilitate mixing action in the vessel is the axial or
longitudinal flow which is parallel to the impeller shaft caused by the rotation of
the impeller. In addition to the above flow patterns, however, some tangential flow
following a circular path around the shaft takes place. This is undesirable as it creates
a vortex at the liquid surface. To avoid this, baffles, which are vertical strips are fixed
perpendicular to the tank wall. For normal sized tanks, four baffles are adequate for
the purpose.
The most important parameter in the design of a stirred vessel for mixing is the
power consumption. Flow patterns and mixing mechanisms vary widely for low and
high viscosity systems. Here, the power consumption for low-viscosity Newtonian
systems is considered.
Let, m = viscosity of the liquid, N⋅s/m2

r = density of the liquid, kg/m3
I = diameter of the impeller, m
N = rotational speed of the impeller, rpm
t = diameter of the tank/vessel, m, and
P = power input to the impeller, N⋅m/s.
From dimensional analysis, the following relationship is obtained for the calculation
of power consumption in terms of dimensionless groups.
P ⎛ ρN 2
N2 W M ⎞
= f⎜ I
, I
, t
, , ,......⎟ (9.1)
ρN ⎝ μ
3 5
I
g I I I ⎠
where, = o er number, o,
ρN 3 D 5
ρ ND 2
= Reynolds number, R e , and
μ
N 2D
= roude number, r.
g
The other dimensionless length ratios in the left-hand side bracket of Eq. (9.1)
relate to specific impeller–vessel arrangement. So, in general terms (neglecting
the length ratios which pertain to specific vessel–impeller combination) the above
equation can be written as
Po = f (Re, Fr) (9.2)
As a power law function, the equation is
Po = K Rem Frn (9.3)
The values of K, m, and n are to be obtained from experimental measurements
which depend on impeller–vessel configuration and the nature of flow (laminar/
turbulent/transition) prevailing in the mixer.
In Eq. (9.3), the Froude number becomes significant only when there is gross vor-
texing and the propeller disturbs the liquid surface. It has been observed that below
a Reynolds number of 300, the Froude number has little or no effect. The Froude
number affects power consumption only if vortex is present. Generally, vortex is
avoided by putting baffles and hence in a baffled tank, the Froude number is not used
in the power calculation. So, Eq. (9.3) becomes
Po = K Rem (9.4)
From Fig. 9.12 and 9.13 of McCabe, 1993, it is seen that for Re < 10, m = 1. So,
the above equation reduces to
Po = K (Re)−1 (9.5)
Putting the expressions for Power number and Reynolds number, power input to
the impeller is
P = K m N 2 I3 (9.6)
For the flow conditions with higher Reynolds number (>10), the value of the
Power number can be obtained from the Fig. 9.12 and 9.13 of McCabe, 1993 and
the power consumption can be calculated thereafter.
At low values of the Reynolds number below about 300,
the Power number vs. Reynolds number curve for both the baffled and the unbaffled
tanks are identical. At a higher Reynolds number, vortex formation being prevalent,
the power is influenced by the Froude number also and the equation is modified as
Po
= K ′ ( Re ) (9.7)
F n
The exponent n is related to the Reynolds number as
− log10 Re
n= (9.8)
where, a and b are constants and their values depend on the type of the impeller.
The value of the Power number obtained from Po vs. Re plot for the unbaffled tank
is multiplied with (Fr)n to get the correct value of Po, from which power consumption
can be calculated.
Here, I = diameter of impeller = 0.6 m,
N = 90 rpm = 90/60 = 1.5 rps,
m = 10 cP = 0.1 g/cm.s = 0.1 × 10−1 kg/m.s, and
r = 1450 kg/m3.
ρ ND 2 (0.6) 2 × 1.5 × 1450
Thus, = = = 78300.
0.1 × 10 −1
e
μ
From the table, the value of Po may be taken as 6.
gC
Thus, = 6.
ρN 3 D 5
6 N 3 D 5 ρ 6(1.5)3 (0.6)5 × 1450 m.kg 232.7
So, = = = 232.7 = = 3.005 hp is the
gC 9.81 s 76.2
power consumption for the baffled mixer (Ans)
Here, Re = 78300 and Po = 6.0.

a − log10 1 − log10 78300
The value of n (Eq. 9.8) = e
= = − 0.097.
40
Since, Re > 300, the Froude number will effect the power consumption.
N 2D (1.5) 2 × 0.6
Froude number, r = = = 0.138.
g 9.81
Thus, ( r ) n = (0.138) −0.097 = 1.212.

Hence, the corrected power number = power number for baffled tank × (Fr)n =
6 × 1.212 = 7.272.
7.272 × (1.5)3 × (0.6)5 × 1450 m.kg 282.1
Thus, = = 282.1 = = 3.7 hp.
9.81 s 76.2
omment The power required for the same service is more in case of an
unbaffled tank as compared to the baffled one:
3.7 − 3.05
× 100 = 21.3%.
3.05
Thus, the power consumption is reduced by 21.3% by making the vessel baffled
(Ans)
Let us use the subscripts S for the small unit and L for the larger one.
To preserve geometrical similarity, the dimensional ratios should be the same in the
large tank as in the small.
Given that the full scale tank is three times the model one.
Thus, ( DT ) = 3( DT )S.
Depth of large tank L = 3 S = 3 × 0.7 = 2.1 m.
Propeller diameter in large tank = 3 ( I)S = 3 × 0.3 = 0.9 m.
For dynamic similarly, (Re)L = (Re)S
⎛ D 2 Nρ ⎞ ⎛ D 2 Nρ ⎞
⇒⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ μ ⎟
⎝ μ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠S
⇒ ( D 2 N ) = ( D 2 N )S .
2
( D 2 )S N S ⎛ 1⎞
So, N = = ⎜ ⎟ × 450 = 50 rpm is the speed of the impeller in the
(D 2 ) ⎝ 3⎠
large tank.
50 1500
For the large tank, Re = ( I
2
) L N L ρ /μ = (0.9) 2 × × = 155.8.
60 6.5
Since, Re < 300, the Froude number has no effect.
With Eq. (9.4) and using K = 41 and m = −1.
o = 41(155.8) −1
3
⎛ 50 ⎞
⇒ = 41(155.8) −1 × ( ρ N 3 D 5 ) = 41
−
(155.8) 1 × 1500 × ⎜ ⎟ × (0.9)5 = 134.8 J/s.
⎝ 60 ⎠
1 hp = 746 watt (J/s).
134.8
Thus, the power required to drive the motor = = 0.18 hp. (Ans)
746
Mixing of dry powders and granular solids, blending of pastes and plastic masses
come under this category.
A mixing process begins with the components put together in some container with a
suitable mixing device. With the progress of the mixing process, if samples are taken
at different time intervals and analysed then the proportions of the components are
found to approximate to the overall proportions of the components in the container.
Complete mixing can be achieved when all samples tested are found to contain the
components in the same proportions as in the entire mixture. Thus, the extent of
mixing at a particular instant can be expressed in terms of the deviation of the sample
compositions from the mean composition of the overall mixture. Mathematically, it
can be expresses as
1
S 2 = ⎡( x 1 − x ) + ( x2 − x ) + ............. + ( xn − x ) ⎤
2 2 2
(9.9)
n ⎣ ⎦
where, S = standard deviation;
n = number of samples;
x1, x2, . . . . . = fractional compositions of the component x in 1, 2, .., n samples
respectively;
x = mean fractional composition of the component x in the whole mixture; and
S 2 = variance of the fractional sample compositions from the mean composition.
Equation (9.9) can be simplified to
1
S 2 = ⎡⎣ ∑ ( xi ) 2 ⎤⎦ − ( x )
2
(9.10)
n
where, i refers to samples from 1, 2, .., n. If, So and Sr denote the initial and
random values of S, there is a decrease in the value of S 2 with the progress of the
mixing process. The course of mixing can be quantified through intermediate values
between So2 and Sr2 and a term mixing index can be defined as under:
So2 − S 2
= (9.11)
So2 − Sr2
where, M = mixing index.
If, 5% W is the desired mixture composition, then
So2 = 0.05(1 − 0.05) (9.12)
So2
And, Sr2 = (9.13)
N
where, N = number of particles in the sample analysed.
Note For very small-sized particles, the value of N is very high and then N → •.
The rate of mixing is expressed by
= K (1 − ) (9.14)
where, M = mixing index and K = constant.

On integration from t = 0 to t = t and M = 0 to M = M, we have
(1 − M ) = e−K t ⇒ M = 1 − e−K t (9.15)
The constant K depends on the type of the mixing equipment and the operating
conditions. With the value of K known, Eq. (9.15) can be used to predict the degree
of mixing after a given time interval and vice versa.
Although there is no necessary connection between energy consumption and the

progress of mixing in well-designed mixers, energy input can be related to mixing
process based on experimental investigations. In the mixing of pastes (e.g., plastics;
flour dough in the food industry) using high-speed mixers, the energy consumed
or the power input at any particular instant can be used to determine the necessary
mixing time.
After 5 minutes, the compositions of NaHSO3 in the samples can be

expressed in mass fractions as
xi = 0, 0.165, 0.032, 0.022, 0.126, 0.096, 0.002, 0.046, 0.005, and 0.085.
Here, n = 10 and x = 0.05
1
Using Eq. (9.10), we have S 2 = ⎡ ∑ ( xi ) 2 ⎤ − ( x ) 2
n⎣ ⎦
1
⇒ ⎡⎣ ∑ ( xi ) 2 ⎤⎦ − (0.05) 2 = 3.8 × 10 −3.
10
Value of So2 = (0.05) (1 − 0.05) = 0.0475.
So2
From Eq. (9.13), we have Sr2 = .
N
In the present case, since the number of particles are large (fine particles) N → •.
Thus, Sr2 ≈ 0.
Mixing index after 5 minutes:
So2 − S52 0.0475 − 3.8 × 10 −3
5 = = = 0.92 (Ans)
So2 − Sr2 0.0475 − 0
After 10 minutes, the compositions of NaHSO3 in the samples, expressed in mass
fractions are
xi = 0.034, 0.083, 0.072, 0.06, 0.043, 0.052, 0.067, 0.026, 0.043, and 0.02.
2
Using Eq. (9.10), S10 = S 2 (after 10 min) = 3.8 × 10−4.
And mixing index after 10 minutes:
So2 − S10
2
0.0475 − 3.8 × 10 −4
10 = = = 0.992 (Ans)
So2 − Sr2 0.0475 − 0
Fractional content of dried vegetables = 0.35.

Thus, (1 − P) = 0.65.
S 2 0.2275
Now, So2 = 0.35 × 0.65 = 0.2275 and Sr2 = o = = 0.0091 as number of
particles = 25. N 25
So2 − S 2 0.2275 − 0.07

Mixing index after 4 minutes: = = = 0.721, as
S2 = 0.07 (given). So2 − Sr2 0.2275 − 0.0091
With Eq. (9.15), we have M = 1 − e−K t.

Time, t = 4 min = 240 s.
Thus, solving the above, K = 0.005317.
Let, t = time in seconds, to get a variance (i.e., S 2) of 0.02 for the above condition.
Let, M ′ = new value of mixing index.
So2 − S 2 0.2275 − 0.02
Thus, ′= = = 0.95.
So2 − Sr2 0.2275 − 0.0091
With Eq. (9.15) we have 0.95 = 1 − e−0.005317 t.
Solving, t = 563 seconds.
Thus, additional mixing time required to reach the desired composition =
563 − 240 = 323 seconds (Ans)
3
75 + 375
Average current drawn in the first 10 seconds = = 225 amp.
2
Energy consumed in first 10 seconds, = power × time
= 3 V I (cos j) h q watt hour (where, h = mechanical efficiency and q in hours)
10 300
⇒ = 3 × 440 × 225 × 0.9 × 0.7 × = 300 watt hour = = 0.2 watt.h/kg.
3600 1500
Total energy consumed = 7.5 watt.h/kg.
Further, energy consumed per kg = 7.5 − 0.2 = 7.3 watt.h.
After 10 seconds, a steady current of 375 amp is drawn.
Additional time required will be 7.3 × 1500 × 3600

3 V (cos ϕ )η
7.3 × 1500 × 3600
= = 218.94 s ≅ 219 seconds.
3 × 440 × 375 × 0.9 × 0.7
Thus, total mixing time = 10 219 = 229 seconds = 3.82 minutes (Ans)
Mixtures of solids and liquids are blended in different types of equipment depend-
ing on the physical characteristics of the mixture. The mixing equipment, hereafter
mixers, are generally of three types: liquid mixers, solid (dry powder) mixers, and
paste or viscous mixers. Pumpable suspensions with thin consistency are normally
handled in tanks agitated with an impeller or fluid jet while non-flowing pastes are
handled in slow speed non-circulating mixers.
Mixing of miscible liquids, dispersing immiscible liquids, heat transfer in agitated

liquid, suspension of solids in liquids, etc. are generally carried out in agitated ves-
sels (Fig. 9.1) by using mechanical impellers, which are broadly classified into two
types: axial and radial.
In axial flow impellers, the impeller blade makes an angle equal to or less than
90° with the plane of impeller rotation. As a result, the locus of flow occurs along
the axis of the impeller (parallel to the impeller shaft), e.g., marine propellers and
pitched blade turbine. While in radial flow impellers, the impeller blade is parallel to
the axis of the impeller, and as a result, the radial-flow impeller discharges flow along
the impeller radius in distinct patterns, e.g., flat blade turbine, paddle, and anchor.
A few of the impeller designs are shown in Fig. 9.2.
in i d di
The mechanism of solid mixing, known as blending, is generally based on diffusion

and convection. Diffusion blending is characterised by small-scale random motion of
solid particles, whereas, convection blending is characterised by large-scale random
motion of solid particles.
Diffusion blending occurs where the particles are distributed over a freshly
developed interface. Tumbler blenders like the V-blenders and double cone blenders
function by diffusion mixing. In convection blending, groups of particles are rapidly
moved from one position to another due to the action of a rotating agitator or cascad-
ing of material within a tumbler blender. The blending of solids in ribbon blenders
and vertical-cone screw blenders is mainly due to convection mechanism. A few
equipments are discussed here.
The V-blender is one of the most commonly used tumbling blenders,

which is based upon the action of gravity to cause the powder materials to cascade
within a rotating vessel.
A V-blender essentially consists of two hollow cylindrical shells joined together
at an angle of 70° to 90°, as shown in Fig. 9.3. The blender shell is mounted on trun-
nions to allow it to tumble on a horizontal axis. The material to be mixed is charged
into the blender through either of the two upper ends. As the blender tumbles, the dry
powder material continuously splits and recombines, with the mixing occurring as
the material free-falls randomly inside the vessel. And the homogeneous material is
discharged generally from the apex port.
The blending efficiency is largely affected by the volume of the material taken
inside the blender vessel. The recommended fill-up volume for the V-blender is gener-
ally 50 to 60% of the total blender volume. The blending efficiency is also affected by
the blender speed and size. At lower blender speeds, the shear forces are low while at
higher blending speeds, due to more shear, greater dusting is observed. There is a criti-
cal speed above which the blending efficiency decreases considerably. The V-blenders
are generally operated at 50 to 80% of the critical speed. Also, with the increase in
blender size, the rotational speed decreases.
Unique Mixers and Furnaces V-blenders are available in all grades of carbon and
stainless steel materials with working capacities of 5 to 5000 litres.
V-blenders have the following advantages:
(i) due to the absence of any moving blades fragile materials can be handled;
(ii) they offer both short blending times and efficient blending;
(iii) charging and discharging of material is easy; and
(iv) they are easy to clean and maintain.
V-blenders are most often used for the dry mixing of free-flowing powders and are
generally used for food products, milk powder, coffee, ceramic powders, pigments,
pesticides and herbicides, plastic powders, fertilisers, baby foods, and cosmetics.
A vertical cone screw blender essentially consists
of a conical vessel to which a screw agitator is attached that rotates about its own axis
while orbiting around the vessel s periphery, as shown in Fig. 9.4. The drive system
of this type of blender consists of two motors–one for the rotation of the main drive,
while the second one for the rotation of the
screw. The screw is supported from the top drive
assembly.
The material to be mixed is charged from the
top of the vessel. During its operation, as the screw
shaft rotates around the periphery of the cone,
the material is lifted from the bottom section of
the vessel to the top section. And the mixing is
effected by the differential travel speeds of product
particles in the conical section of the vessel. The
mixed material is generally discharged through a
valve located at the bottom of the cone.
Since the effective blending volume at
any given time is a lot lesser than the hori-
zontal blenders, it results in a lower power
requirement.
The screw rotates at low speeds, generally
between 35 to 100 m/min. Thus, the blending
action in the vertical-cone screw blender is
much gentler than that taking place within the
horizontal blenders.
Advantages of the vertical-cone screw
blender include
(i) gentle blending action is ideal for
friable or shear sensitive materials and
also for heat sensitive products;
(ii) wear is lower because of lower operating
speed;
(iii) flexibility of batch size;
(iv) near 100% of the mixed materials are
discharged;
(v) lower risk of contamination;
(vi) easy cleaning;
(vii) homogenous mixing;
(viii) lower power requirements; and
(ix) occupies less floor space.
These blenders require a high head room for operation.
Unique Mixers and Furnaces vertical cone screw blenders are available in all
grades of carbon and stainless steel materials with working capacities of 5000 to
50000 litres.
These blenders are best suited for dry mixing of free-flowing powders, granules
requiring low shearing force and are excellent for bulk drugs and chemicals.
Mixing of heavy pastes, dough, plastic masses, and rubbery products require heavy-
duty machines, which involve stretching, folding, and compression of the masses many
times before the final mixing is effected. The popular viscous mixers are the kneading
machines, known as kneaders, which are slow-speed machines requiring high energy.
IKA kneading machines are of three different types:
(i) the horizontal kneading machines: IKA -DUPLEX and ZETA;
(ii) the vertical kneading machines: PLANETRON ; and
(iii) the continuous kneading and extrusion machine: CONTERNA.
IKA horizontal kneading machines of HKD

and HKS types are twin-bowl kneading machines with horizontally arranged knead-
ing shafts which differ in their kneading tools.
The HKD type is equipped with DUPLEX kneading blades, deeply intermeshing
and stripping each other. The different speeds of the kneading blades (speed ratio
2:1) cause the kneading blade surfaces to alternately move towards and away from
each other. This results in high pressure-, tensile-, and shear forces and thus in high
friction within the kneading product which cares for excellent dispersing and homo-
geneity. The HKD kneading machine is shown in Fig. 9.5.
The HKS type is equipped with two ZETA kneading blades, which distinguish by
left-hand and right-hand twisting. This twisting of the Z-blades causes continuous
movement of the material from the kneading bowl walls to its centre or vice versa,
depending on the direction of rotation. The different speed of the counter rotating
kneading shafts (speed ratio 5:3) creates high pressure and shear forces resulting in
an intensive mixing.
The use of these kneading blades patented by IKA results in a substantially
improved product homogeneity and a saving of up to 30 % of kneading time compared
to the classical Z-kneaders.
Vaccum-tight and double-jacketed kneading bowls, high-quality stainless steel for
all parts in contact with the product and high-quality shaft seals with easy access for
service and maintenance are part of the IKA basic equipment.
The applications of IKA horizontal kneading machines include glues (e.g., hot-
melts); rubber masses; plastic mixtures; ceramic masses, porcelain; colour mixtures
(e.g., printing inks); carbon pastes; and graphite mixtures.
IKA vertical kneading machines of PLANETRON
type are equipped with two DUPLEX-like kneading blades, as shown in Fig. 9.6.
The design of the PLANETRON allows for a bearing of the kneading shafts as
well as their sealing outside the product area. Thus, absolutely clean masses can be
produced. The excellent kneading and dispersing effect is based on the principle
of intermeshing kneading blades, where one kneading blade is planetarily rotating
around the central kneading blade and both blades are stripping each other. Thus cre-
ated increasing and decreasing pressure and shear forces result within shortest time
in an intensive kneading and finest dispersing of the product to be kneaded.
Compared to the classical planetary mixer with only one drive motor, the IKA -
PLANETRON vertical kneading machine in the execution with three drive motors
enables–additionally to the speed adjustment–a variable adjustment of the speed
relation of the two kneading blades. Due to this fact, also very sticky masses like
hot melts can now be processed in a vertical kneading machine. In standard plan-
etary mixers, these masses climbed up at the kneading blades and were thus no more
affected by the shear forces.
PLANETRON heavy-duty kneading machines work with kneading blades that
are only one-sided, running on bearings. Thus, the product to be kneaded neither
comes into contact with seals nor with bearings, resulting in highest product purity.
The applications of IKA vertical kneading machines include dental masses;
ceramic masses; pharmaceutical and cosmetic products; plastics; and food.
IKA continuous kneading machines of

CONTERNA type (HKC type) are a continuously working multi-chamber knead-
ing and extrusion machines having a modular design, i.e., according to application
and the requested results the number of kneading chambers as well as the execution
of the kneading tools and the discharge modules can be varied. This flexibility of
the CONTERNA adapted to the product requirements enables an adjustment of the
product residence time in the machine individually adjusted to each application.
Figure 9.7 shows a continuous kneading machine.
While due to its design, the residence time in a classical extruder is relatively short
and thus an energy input is limited to a certain time, the continuous multi-chamber
kneading system allows for an infinitely adjustable residence time of the product.
The CONTERNA design enables several process steps in one machine like mixing,
kneading, rolling, and extruding of medium to high viscous media.
IKA continuous kneading machines have the following advantages compared to
batch processes:
(i) less machine and personnel requirements, and
(ii) constant quality over time.
The applications of I A continuous kneading machines include rubber mas-
terbatches; plastics masterbatches; glues; sealing masses; food, animal food; and
silicone rubber.
❑
❑
❑
❑
P
= ,
ρNDI2 N 2 DI ρN 3DI5
= , = .
μ g
❑
❑
Po = K ′ ( Re ) ( Fr )n ,
m
a − log10 Re
n= .
b
❑
❑
❑
❑
❑
❑
❑
❑
❑
1. Why are mixing vessels rounded 2. What are the different types of
and not flat bottomed mechanical impellers
Mixing vessels are rounded and not flat The mechanical impellers are of two
bottomed so that sharp corners which are types: radial flow type and axial flow
the likely dead zones for mixing can be type.
avoided.
3. What types of liquids can be 8. What are kneaders
handled by propeller mixers Kneaders are slow-speed high-energy
Liquids of low viscosity can be handled consuming machines used for mixing of
by propeller mixers. heavy pastes, rubbery products, plastic
4. What is the difference between a masses, etc.
propeller and a paddle mixer 9. Name the various functions of a
The propeller mixer is of axial-flow type kneader while mixing heavy pastes.
while a paddle mixer is of radial-flow The various functions are stretching,
type. folding, and compression of mass.
5. What is the value of the Reynolds 10. What are the different types of
number for which its exponent is kneading machines
minus units -1 in the Power number The different types are horizontal knead-
Eq. 9.4 ers, vertical kneaders, and continuous
The value of the Reynolds number is less and extrusion kneaders.
than 10.
11. What is the mechanism of mixing
6. Under identical operating condi-
in V-blenders
tions and vessel dimensions, what
The mechanism of mixing is diffusion
is the effect of baffles on power
mixing.
consumption
Power consumption in an unbaffled tank 12. What is the design speed of
will be more compared to that in a tank V-blenders
with baffles. The design speed is 50–80% of the criti-
cal speed.
7. What are the different types of
mixers used in process industries 13. What is the rotational speed of
The different types of mixers used are the screw in the vertical-cone screw
liquid mixers, dry powder mixers, and blenders
paste or viscous mixers. The rotational speed is 35–100 m/minute.
1. What is mixing 7. How is mixing index related to

2. How are non-flowing pastes handled mixing time
in a mixer 8. Give the special features of the
3. How does the mixing of miscible CONTERNA-type (HKC type)
liquids differ from that of the immis- continuous kneading machine.
cible ones 9. Name the blenders which function
4. How does a turbine-type impeller on the mechanism of convection
differ from a paddle type mixing.
5. Why are baffles used in liquid 10. Give a few advantages of
mixers V-blenders.
6. What is the value of the exponent 11. Name a few process applications for
for Reynolds number in the Power V-blenders.
number Eq. (9.4) when Reynolds 12. Give the advantages of vertical-cone
number is less than 10 screw blenders.
1. A solution of sodium sulphate with a ata Density of 50% caustic soda
density of 1700 kg/m3 and a viscosity of solution = 1490 kg/m3, Viscosity of this
40 mNs/m2 is to be agitated by a propeller solution = 11.5 cP, and value of constants:
mixer of 0.6-m diameter in a baffled tank a = 1.0 and b = 40.0.
of 2.4-m diameter where the liquid depth is 18.3 hp
2.4 m. The propeller is situated 0.6 m above
3. Analysis of the sodium bicarbonate
the bottom of the tank. For a rotational
content of samples from a mixture of
speed of 2 revolutions per second, what
NaHCO3 and Na2CO3 in which the overall
will be the power consumption by the
NaHCO3 was 15%, gave the following
motor to drive the propeller
results expressed as percentages:
Note Power number remains almost
23.4, 10.4, 16.4, 19.4, 30.4, and 7.6.
constant at a value of 6.0 for Reynolds
number above 10,000. For this mixture, estimate the values
8.49 hp of S 2, So2, and Sr2 if the samples are 5 g
and the NaHCO3 and Na2CO3 are in
2. An unbaffled tank uses a flat-blade
0.05 g particles in the mixture.
turbine-type impeller installed centrally
S2 = 0.64 ¥ 10-2, So2 = 0.1275, and
positioned 0.7 m from the bottom of
Sr2 = 1.275 ¥ 10-3
the tank. The tank is 2.1 m in diameter
and the turbine is 0.7 m in diameter. 4. If the sample in example 9.4 was taken
The tank is filled to a depth of 2.1 m 8 minutes after the initial separate ingre-
with a solution of 50% caustic soda. dients i.e. NaHCO3 and NaCO3 were
The turbine is operated at 120 rpm. mixed, find the value of the mixing index
Estimate the power consumption for the after a further mixing for 6 minutes.
operation of the mixer. 0.996
1. The speed of propellers in mixing (c) 8

vessels for liquids vary from (d) 10
(a) 100–1000 rpm 3. The Froude number has negligible
(b) 200–1200 rpm effect in power calculation, when the
(c) 400–1750 rpm Reynolds number value is
(d) 500–2250 rpm (a) less than 100
2. For a normal-sized liquid mixing (b) less than 300
vessels, the number of baffles used is (c) less than 1000
(a) 4 (d) less than 3000
(b) 6
4. For colour mixtures (e.g., printing 6. The angle between the two hollow
inks) the mixing machine used is cylindrical shells of the V-blender is
(a) horizontal kneader (a) 30°–45°
(b) vertical kneader (b) 45°–60°
(c) continuous kneader (c) 60°–75°
(d) turbine mixer (d) 70°–90°
5. IKA continuous kneading machine- 7. Recommended fill-up volume for the
HKC type can be used for the mixing of V-blender is
(a) glue (a) 30–40%
(b) animal food (b) 40–50%
(c) silicone rubber (c) 50–60%
(d) all of the above (d) 60–70%
1(c); 2(a); 3(b); 4(a); 5(d); 6(d); 7(c)

x
+ +
A F d
In a size-enlargement operation, small particles are brought together purposely to
form larger ones, generally by some mechanical means. The size-enlargement
operations are many, namely, agglomeration, granulation, compaction, encapsulation,
pelletising, sintering, etc., and the agglomeration method is discussed here in brief.
Size-enlargement operations are followed in the process industries with a wide
variety of objectives, such as
(i) to improve storage and handling characteristics of materials;
(ii) to improve flowability and dosability;
(iii) to minimise dusting or material losses;
(iv) to create a safe working environment;
(v) to increase or control bulk density;
(vi) to control solubility and dispersibility;
(vii) to produce a product of definite shape and size; and
(viii) to enhance appearance.
A few applications of size-enlargement operations are associated with the
following:
(i) fertilisers (urea, ammonium nitrate);
(ii) pharmaceuticals (tablets);
(iii) chemicals (organic, inorganic, agricultural, ceramic);
(iv) coal fines;
(v) minerals;
(vi) instant foods (milk powder, coffee powder, dry soups, flours);
(vii) detergents; and
(viii) animal feeds.
Agglomeration is a process, where fine particles are brought together in a loose state of
binding to form larger particles and is a value-added step in a solids-processing plant.
While some materials possess the inherent quality to agglomerate in their tiny
form, others require the addition of binders or the application of heat or pressure
for the purpose. Binders condition the surface of the particles to develop adhesive
properties. Moistening with small amount of water, solvent, or oils, increases the
surface adhesion and causes the particles to gather into larger ones.
The type of end product is the key factor in selecting a proper equipment for
agglomeration. The selection of equipment mainly depends on
(i) particle size distribution;
(ii) shape;
(iii) hardness;
(iv) solubility and dispersibility; and
(v) binder addition.
The equipment are based on the type of agglomeration process adopted, which
can be categorised into
(i) press agglomeration;
(ii) composite agglomeration;
(iii) extrusion agglomeration; and
(iv) thermal agglomeration.
This is a dry method of agglomeration requiring little or no

binder addition. Material masses are subjected to a pressure in excess of 2000 kg/cm2
which results in partial crushing and realignment of the individual particles. Further
close proximity of the particles leads to binding as a result of inter-particle forces.
This method is applied to cases where
(i) large particles (> 25 mm) or particles of controlled size are desired;
(ii) high density or resistance to attrition is required; and
(iii) binder addition is not permissible.
The equipment under this category are roll compactors, tablet presses, and piston
presses.
In a Kompaktor , a type of double-roll compactor, the finely dispersed bulk
material is fed by means of a pre-densifier screw to the nip area of two compact-
ing rolls working in opposite direction. On the one hand, the pre-densifier screw is
responsible for the preliminary aeration of the material and on the other hand for the
pressure build-up in the roll gap. The nip area of the rolls and, therefore, the proper
compacting area, begins when the relative speed between the product and the roll
surface goes towards zero. To receive a final product with a granule bulk weight
> 1.000 g/l later, a flake density of 2.1 g/cm3 minimum must be achieved. This
density is achieved without any problems when using a ompaktor type MS 300
(Fig. 10.1) with a roll diameter of 712 mm, roll width of 310 mm, roll drive of
315 kW, roll speed of 28 rpm, and an effective specific press force of 100 kN/cm2
working width.
Size enlargement of powders by roll compactors is of two types: compaction and
bri uetting.
Fine powders are compacted and pressed into a solid form called fla es by using
either smooth or profiled rolls. The flakes are gently milled to the required parti-
cle-size distribution as required by the process. The compaction benefits are insur-
ing good flow properties; increasing bulk density; particle-size control; low energy
consumption; minimal product heating; dust-free processing; and good dosing
properties. Figure 10.2 shows the compaction operation while flakes produced are
shown in Fig. 10.3.
+ +
+ +
Figure 10.4 shows the briquetting operation. Briquetting processes utilise spe-
cially made compaction rolls enabling production of a variety of sizes and shapes.
Typical shapes include pillow, almond, and stick, as shown in Fig. 10.5.
Figure 10.6 shows two of the roll patterns: integral roll (options for alloy overlay
against corrosion or welded-on hardfacing) and roll tires (made of stainless steel).
This is a wet method of agglomeration handling fine

powders as feed material. The material masses are combined with a binder and sub-
jected to rolling or tumbling process resulting in loose agglomerates. Agitation can
be high or low and binding is generally achieved through liquid bridges or chemical
reaction.
The units used for tumbling agglomeration include drum or cone mixers, pan or
disc agglomerators, and pin or paddle mixers.
A few products made by tumbling agglomeration include detergents, instant drink
mixes, and agricultural chemicals. Good flowability, low density, rounded shape, and
easy dispersion are common characteristics of the above materials.
This method is practised when

(i) the feed is a wet cake or paste;
(ii) spherical shape or pellets are desired; and
(iii) small and uniform-sized particles are desired.
n i
In extrusion agglomeration, feed materials are subjected to forces pressing them

through a die plate to form pellets. The feed must be a wet cake, paste, or dough. In
addition, it must either have a melting component or a binder, or moisture must be
added to it, so that it is formable by the die.
Equipment for this type of agglomeration process include single screw extruder,
gear pelletiser, basket-type extruder, and pellet mill.
Figure 10.7 shows a gear pelletiser and its material flow diagram. Dry, moist, or
pliable materials are formed into pellets using a pelletiser.
+ +
A few products made by extrusion agglomeration include animal feeds, wood
products, and polymers. Products from the process are cylindrical in shape with
diameter between 1 to 10 mm and of fairly uniform length. Extrusion agglomerates
will have a density between those of the tumbling and pressure agglomerates.
Heat-transfer processes are used to effect agglomera-

tion in this case. The processes include sintering through heat application, solidifi-
cation through cooling, or coagulation through melting. Drum flakers, rotary kiln
modulisers, and prilling towers are the equipment used in this process.
A common example of thermal agglomeration is a prilling tower using hot melt
as feed material falling in the form of droplets through the tower against a coun-
ter-current flow of air. The product comes out as hard and nearly spherical with a
typical size of 300 microns. With greater falling distance, large-sized products can
be obtained. A prilling tower is generally followed by a fluid-bed dryer to get dry
agglomerates.
Products from thermal agglomeration include stearic acid prills, urea prills, fatty
acids, and gelatin.
The phenomenon of the formation of solid particles within a homogeneous phase

like solution, melt, or vapour is called crystallisation. However, the discussion here
will be limited to that of solutions only. Crystallisation from solution is an impor-
tant industrial operation since a large number of marketed products are crystalline.
Further the crystals, product of any crystallisation process, usually separate out as a
substance of definite composition from a solution of varying compositions. Thus, the
process of crystallisation can be practised for the two basic purposes, namely, crystal
production and product purification.
For crystallisation to occur from a solution, it must be supersaturated. That is to
say, the solution has to contain more solute dissolved than it would contain under
equilibrium conditions, i.e., in its saturated state. To achieve this, one of the following
methods is followed:
(i) cooling of the solution;
(ii) addition of a second solvent for the reduction of solubility of the solute—a
technique called anti-solvent;
(iii) chemical reaction;
(iv) change in pH; and
(v) solvent evaporation.
While the feed solution giving rise to the formation of crystals is called the mother
liquor, the two-phase mixture of the mother liquor and crystals withdrawn as product
from the crystallisation process is called the magma.
The crystallisation process consists of two major steps, namely, (i) nucleation, and
(ii) crystal growth.
ucleation is the step when the dispersed solute molecules in the solvent begin
to flock into clusters on the nanometer scale. A stable cluster conforming to some
defined atomic arrangement results in a desired crystal structure to form an ultimate
stable nucleus of critical size. Such critical size is dictated by the operating conditions,
i.e., temperature and supersaturation.
The crystal growth is the subsequent enlargement of the nuclei which succeed
in achieving the critical cluster size. Nucleation and crystal growth continue to
occur simultaneously while the supersaturation exists. Supersaturation being the
prime driving force, the local operating conditions will decide whether nucleation
or growth is predominant over the other and as a result, crystals of various sizes and
shapes are obtained. With the supersaturation condition exhausted, the solid–liquid
system reaches equilibrium and the crystallisation process comes to an end unless the
operating conditions are modified to alter the equilibrium.
The problems generally confronted by the engineers relating to crystallization are
(i) yield and purity of a given product;
(ii) size and shape of the individual crystals;
(iii) energy requirement for the process steps like cooling, evaporation, etc.;
(iv) uniformity or size distribution of the crystals; and
(v) rate of production of the desired crystals.
The average size to which crystals are grown may be decided by the use to which
they are put such as granulation of sugar or the preparation of salts for various use.
Normally, fine crystals have chance for agglomeration, occlude less mother liquor,
but with the relatively greater surface area they create greater difficulty for the
complete removal of the mother liquor.
A well-formed crystal is generally pure, but it retains mother liquor when removed
from the magma. Filtration or centrifuging removes most of the mother liquor while
the balance is removed by washing with fresh solvent. Effectiveness of purification
primarily depends on the size and the uniformity of crystals.
Many of the important inorganic substances crystallise with water of crystallisa-
tion to maintain the crystalline structure. A salt with water of crystallisation is called
a hydrate. Removal of this water makes the crystalline substance amorphous. A few
inorganic hydrates are given in Table 10.1.
C emical formula C emical name Common name

CuSO4.5H2O Copper sulphate pentahydrate Blue vitriol
ZnSO4.7H2O Zinc sulphate septahydrate White vitriol
MgSO4.7H2O Magnesium sulphate septahydrate Epsom salt
Na2SO4.10H2O Sodium sulphate decahydrate Glauber s salt
CaSO4.2H2O Calcium sulphate dihydrate Gypsum salt
(CaSO4)2.H2O Calcium sulphate hemihydrate Plaster of paris
CaCl2.6H2O Calcium chloride hexahydrate Dow flake
FeSO4.7H2O Ferrous sulphate heptahydrate Green vitriol
K2SO4.Al2(SO4)3.2H2O Potassium Aluminum sulphate dihydrate Potash alum
Some crystalline solids do not contain water of crystallisation. A few examples
are potassium chloride (KCl), sodium chloride (NaCl), potassium nitrate (KNO3),
sodium nitrate (NaNO3), ammonium sulphate (NH4)2SO4, and silver iodide (AgI).
If the crystals are anhydrous, the solid phase contains no solvent and the calculation is
straightforward from the material balance. For crystals with water of crystallisation,
the accompanying water must be considered in the material balance and accordingly,
the crystal yield is calculated.
Say, F = amount of feed solution, kg;
M = amount of mother liquor left after crystallisation, kg;
C = amount of crystals formed, kg;
E = amount of evaporation during crystallisation, kg;
xF = solid fraction in feed solution, kg solid per kg total solution;
xM = solid fraction in mother liquor, kg solid per kg of mother liquor; and
xC = solid fraction in crystals, kg solid (free of water of crystallisation) per kg
of crystal formed.
Thus, the overall material balance is F = M C E (10.1)
and the solid balance is FxF = MxM CxC (10.2)
And, xC = 1 for crystals formed without water of crystallisation.
Molecular weight of FeSO4 = 152 and of FeSO4.7H2O = 278.

Solubility at 50°C is 140 parts of FeSO4.7H2O per 100 parts of excess
152
water = × 140 = 76.55 parts FeSO4 per 100 parts of water.
278
76.55
So, x = = 0.434.
100 + 76.55
Solubility at 18°C is 75 parts of FeSO4.7H2O per 100 parts of excess
152
water = × 75 = 41 parts of FeSO4 per 100 parts of water.
278
41
So, x = = 0.291.
100 + 41
152
And, xC = = 0.547.
278
From Eq. 10.1, we have F = M C E
Since, E = 0, we have M = F − C.
And from Eq. 10.2, we have FxF = MxM CxC
⇒ F × 0.434 = (F 1000) × 0.291 (100 × 0.542)
⇒ F = 1790.2 kg is the feed to crystalliser (Ans)
Amount of KCl present = 2500 kg.
Solubility of KCl at 90°C is 54 parts per 100 parts of water.
54
So, x = = 0.3506.
154
At 20°C, solubility of KCl is 35 parts per 100 parts of water.
35
So, x = = 0.259.
35 + 100
154
Amount of solution cooled at 90°C = 2500 × = 7129.6 kg.
54
7129.6
Volume of the solution = = 5.94 m3 .
1200
Thus, the required capacity of the tank = 5.95 m3 (Ans)
Now, from Eq. (10.2), we have FxF = MxM CxC
⇒ 7129.6 × 0.3506 = (7129.6 – C) 0.259 C (as xC = 1 and M = F C)
⇒ C = 881.3 kg is the weight of crystals obtained (Ans)
The crystallisation equipment, hereafter crystallisers, are of two main types: cool
ing crystallisers and evaporative crystallisers. Tank and scraped surface types are
two cooling crystallisers while forced circulating–liquid evaporator and circulating–
magma vacuum types are two evaporative crystallisers. A few are discussed here.
It is the simplest and the oldest type of equipment for crystal-

lisation still used in some specialised cases. A saturated solution is allowed to cool by
natural process and some evaporation may also occur to the atmosphere. Advantages
of this type of crystalliser include
(i) simple construction and low first cost;
(ii) favours formation of large size crystals; and
(iii) economical process for crystallisation of small quantity of materials.
However, these types of equipment have a number of disadvantages like
(i) batch process;
(ii) no control over crystal size; and
(iii) inefficient with regard to yield per unit floor space or unit time due to slow
rate of cooling.
It is a continuous crystalliser which can be either of
(i) single scraped surface or (ii) double–pipe scraped surface. The Swenson–Walker
crystalliser is of single scraped surface type crystalliser and is a more commonly used
scraped surface crystalliser. It consists of an open trough of about 60 cm wide with
a semicircular bottom cross-section to provide the heat exchange surface between
the annular cooling water jacket and the crystallising solution which is in the trough.
Cooling can also be effected by circulating through a hollow screw conveyor or some
hollow discs attached a rotating longitudinal axis which plunges in the solution of the
trough. Crystals precipitate on the cold surface of the screw and the discs from which
they are removed by scrapers.
The crystalliser is normally built in 3-m long sections of which up to 4 sections
can be operated with a single drive. For the removal of crystals from the end of the
crystalliser, an inclined spiral flight conveyor is used which lifts the crystals either to
a drain board or to a conveyer for transporting to centrifuge.
Double-pipe scraped surface crystallisers also called votator crystallisers and
they can be of two types: (i) double-pipe heat exchanger type construction fitted
with internal helical ribbons with cooling water in the annular space and the crys-
tallising solution in the tube, and (ii) a double-drum apparatus with the inner drum
rotating rapidly and the crystallising solution entering to the annular space between
the two drums. The cooling is effected by a cooling jacket surrounding the outer
drum. A double-pipe scraped surface crystalliser is used in crystallising ice cream
and plasticising margarine.
Both crystallisation
and evaporation are combined here which become the driving force for the
supersaturation.
Feeding is one type of conveying operation, generally used to transport materials

over a short distance. Feeding is necessary to deliver solid materials (dry or moist
fractions of rock or minerals) at a uniform rate into solids-handling processes like
crushing, grinding, screening, classification, transportation, mixing, weighing, etc.,
because these processes show better results at a uniform feed rate.
A feeding equipment, hereafter feeder, essentially consists of a bin and a con-
veyor. A great variety of feeders are available and a few popular ones discussed here
are apron feeders, vibrating feeders, and POSIMETRIC feeders.
Figure 10.8 shows an apron feeder. Metso Minerals apron feeders are available in a
wide variety of sizes and meet the material handling needs in feeding and controlled-
quantity applications in mining, quarrying, and basic industrial operations. They
can be used with dry, wet, or sticky materials and operate in polluted or corrosive
environment.
The feed capacity depends on the feeder width, material layer

height, conveyor speed, material type and size, and fill factor [Metso, 2007].
C ain speed C ain idt
m min
mm mm mm mm
tonne m tonne m tonne m tonne m
3 64 40 107 67 150 93 240 150
5 107 67 178 111 248 155 400 250
7 150 93 248 155 350 218 560 350
9 192 120 320 200 448 280 720 450
11 235 147 390 244 550 343 880 550
* Always considering materials with bulk density of 1.6 tonne/m3.
(for STPH multiply by 1.1)
Table 10.2 shows feed capacity details of apron feeders. The feed capacity of apron
feeders is given by
QA = 60 × B × × rb × A ×j (10.3)
where, QA = feed capacity the apron feeder, tonne/h;
B = hopper width, m;
= height of the layer of material to be conveyed, m;
rb = material bulk density, tonne/m3;
A = conveyor speed, m/min; and
j = fill factor.
Vibrating feeders are generally designed to handle large-size materials and are mainly
used to feed primary crushers. Figure 10.9 shows a vibrating feeder. Sometimes these
are compared with grizzly screens as they remove the fines to bypass the primary
crusher. These have a low purchase cost when compared to apron feeders. Metso
Minerals vibrating feeders are available in different sizes, with a capacity range of 25
to 1500 tonne/h (15 to 1000 m3/h).
The capacity of vibrating feeders is calculated using the following

formula:
QV = 3600 × j1 × j2 × × L × , m3/h (10.4)
where, j1 = size factor,

(1 for sand,
0.8 to 0.9 for crushed stone up to 6″, and
0.6 for sizes over 6″)
j2 = moisture factor,
(1 for dry material,
0.8 for wet material, and
0.6 for clayish material)
= speed of the flow of material on the vibrating plate according to
the graph shown in Fig. 10.10, as a function of rotation (rpm) and
amplitude (mm),
L = table width, and
= height of the material layer on the table, which depends on the load type and
the size of the material and which may not exceed the following:
≤ 0.5 × L for large stones,
≤ 0.3 × L for crushed stone up to 6″,
≤ 0.2 × L for sand and small stones.
In Metso vibrating feeders, amplitude a can be adjusted from 3 mm to 7 mm by
changing the eccentric weights.
General characteristics of apron and vibrating feeders are briefed in Table 10.3.
V
/ 7
6
0
5
4
02
01
500 600 700 00 00

/ .2
25.4
Mac ine Apron feeder ibrating feeder
Capacity range Up to 10,000 tonne/h Up to 2,000 tonne/h
Max. size of material Up to 50 % of chain width Up to 80 % of table width
Main applications – Heavy-duty use – Heavy-duty use
– Primary feed – Feeding of primary crushers
– Reclaiming of large – Reclaiming where large sizes
volumes are involved
Advantages – High impact strength – High operating safety
– High load per unit area – Pre-separation of fines
– High availability – Easy and reduced maintenance
– Good flow control – Good feed control
– Ability to lift the material – Low purchase cost
– Length according to
needs
– Reduction of plant height
– Good handing of clayey
materials with high
moisture content
Disadvantages – High purchase cost – Inability to be used to lift
– Bad sealing (accumulates material
fines requiring a belt – Limited length
or a chain conveyor for – High installed power
maintaining cleanness) – Lower capacity with material
– Does not classify or scalp that is clayey or has higher
fines moisture content; may become
inoperative under certain
conditions
(for STPH multiply by 1.1)
From Eq. (10.4), the capacity of the feeder is

QV = 3600 × j1 × j2 × × L × .
Here, j1 = 0.8 for stone size of 6″ (conservative value is taken instead of 0.9) and
j2 = 0.8.
= 0.3 L = 0.3 × 1.0 = 0.3 m.
From Fig. 10.10, for 800 rpm and 4 mm amplitude, = 0.2 m/s.
Thus, QV = 3600 × 0.8 × 0.8 × 0.2 × 1.0 × 0.3
2650
= 138.24 m3 /h = 138.24 × = 366.34 tonne/h.
1000
Hence, the available feed is not suitable.
Modification in design
Let, L = new table width.
Thus, = 0.3 L.
So, 400 = 3600 × 0.8 × 0.8 × 0.2 × 0.3 L × L × (2650/1000)
Solving, L = 1.045 m.
Hence, a vibrating feeder with a width of 1.045 metres will be required for this
purpose (Ans)
For 700 rpm and 3-mm amplitude, = 0.1 m/s (Fig. 10.10).
Here, j1 = 0.8 and j2 = 1.0.
= 0.28 L.
Thus, QV = 3600 × 0.8 × 1.0 × 0.1 × 1.5 × 0.28 × 1.5 = 181.44 m3/h.
Thus, for dry dolomite the capacity of the feeder = 181.44 × 2.8 = 508 tonne/h.
Keeping all other operating conditions same and considering limestone to be dry,
the capacity of the feeder = 181.44 × 2.65 = 480.8 tonne/h (Ans)
Pennsylvania POSIMETRIC feeders are designed to handle wet, dry, lumpy, sticky,
abrasive, or granular materials. These feeders are virtually immune to jams and
can accept dry, light particles at 544.32 kg/h (1,200 pounds per hour), or heavy
sticky materials at 3398.4 m3/h (120,000 cubic feet per hour). Figure 10.11 shows a
POSIMETRIC feeder.
This feeder delivers materials with high accuracy of up to 99.5 per cent, unless
the material changes. Regardless of moisture content, this delivers materials at a
constant rate with each rotation delivering a fixed volume.
This feeder essentially consists of a single moving part—the rotating duct. Because
the feed material helps to turn this duct, only a small motor, usually less than 10 hp
is required to drive it. This results in very low stresses. In addition, wear is negligible
because there is almost no abrasive action of material against the working parts. The
maintenance is also low for these feeders. Pennsylvania, 2006 .
With capacity enhanced and to save on labour, automatic weighing of solids has been
largely adopted in chemical process plants in place of manual weighing. Further,
automatic weighing is more dependable from the point of view accuracy. The weigh-
ing of bulk solids can be either batch or continuous.
In case of batch weighing, a given unit of batch is measured and then the desired
total weight is to be obtained through multiples of the given unit. To carry out small
weighings either singly or a few in sequence, batching scales are used. In most of
the batch scales, a vessel is mounted on a beam which is counterbalanced by a set of
weights nearly equal to the desired weighing. A signal generated by the motion of the
scale beam activates or stops a feed source mounted over the feed vessel. The activa-
tion is by electrical controls. The principle of operation of batch type scales is based
on the concept that a flowing stream has constant density.
In continuous weighing, the material stream in course of its transport is subjected to

weighing and is widely used in mineral processing industries. In general, the continu-
ous weighing machines consist of a belt conveyor, a section of which is suspended
with the help of rods from weighing levers. The weight is counterbalanced on the
balance beam by means of an iron float in a mercury bath. With the change in weight
on the belt, a change in the position of the beam takes place actuating a mechani-
cal integrator. Speed of the belt can also actuate the integrator. By blank setting, the
weight of the empty belt can be considered. For this method of measurement, calibra-
tion of the meter has to be done from time to time.
The coagulation and flocculation processes facilitate the removal of suspended solids
and colloidal particles. It is used in the first stage of solid-liquid separation like settling,
floatation, and filtration. In solid-liquid separation operations like sedimentation
and filtration, an important physical property of solid which finds application is the
tendency of the particulate phase of colloidal dispersions to aggregate. The aggrega-
tion of the colloids is termed as coagulation or flocculation. van der Waals forces and
electrostatic forces are the generally occurring forces between the colloidal particles.
While aggregation or coagulation is primarily due to van der Waals attractive forces,
stability is due to repulsive interaction between identically charged double-layers.
The rate of coagulation of particles in a liquid depends on the frequency of
collisions between particles due to their relative motion. eri inetic coagulation is the
result of particle motion due to Brownian movement while ortho inetic coagulation
takes place when relative particle motion is a consequence of velocity gradients.
Coagulation-flocculation influences the sedimentation process. In a coagulated
suspension, the aggregates of fine particles or flocs are the fundamental structural
units. In gravity sedimentation which is a low shear rate process, the settling rates
and sediment volumes of flocs largely depend on volumetric concentration of flocs
and inter-particle forces. Flocculated suspensions exhibit settling behavior which
depends primarily on the initial solids concentration and chemical environment.
Coagulation is the destabilization of colloidal particles brought

about by the addition of a chemical reagent called a coagulant. Flocculation is the
agglomeration of destabilized particles into microfloc and after into bulky floccules
which can be settled called floc. The addition of another reagent called flocculant or
a flocculant aid may promote the formation of the floc.
The factors, which can promote the coagulation-flocculation, are the velocity
gradient, the time, and the pH. The time and the velocity gradient are important
to increase the probability of the particles to come together. Moreover the pH is a
prominent factor in the removal of colloids.
Coagulation and flocculation occur in successive steps intended to overcome the
forces stabilizing the suspended particles, allowing particle collision and growth of
the floc. If step one is incomplete, the following step will be unsuccessful.
The first step destabilizes the charges of the particle. Coagulants with charges
opposite those of the suspended solids are added to neutralize the negative charges
on dispersed non-settlable solids and colour producing organic substances if present.
Once the charge is neutralized, the small suspended particles are capable of sticking
together. The slightly larger particles formed through this process and called micro-
flocs, are not visible to the naked eye.
A high energy, rapid-mix to properly disperse the coagulant and promote particle
collisions is needed to achieve good coagulation. Over mixing does not affect coagu-
lation, but insufficient mixing will leave this step incomplete. The mixture is slowly
stirred to induce particles to clump together into flocs.
Coagulation and flocculation process are essential pretreatments for

many water purification systems. All waters, especially surface waters, contain both
dissolved and suspended particles. Coagulation and flocculation processes are used
to separate the suspended solids and turbidity from water to prepare it for use or for
further treatment. This step typically uses the difference in density between the water
and the suspended material for separation. The process of coagulation along with
flocculation is used whenever the natural settling rate of suspended material is too
slow to provide effective clarification. Coagulants are used to neutralize the charge
of the suspended solids, bringing the particles together to create a small pinfloc. To
generate larger particles or flocs for faster settling, a high molecular weight, organic
flocculant is generally used in combination with a coagulant.
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1. What is the function of a binder reduction of solubility of a solute in a

A binder conditions the surface of the solvent is called an anti-solvent.
particles to develop adhesive properties.
7. What is mother liquor
2. When is pressure agglomeration The feed solution giving rise to the forma-
recommended tion of crystals is called mother liquor.
Pressure agglomeration is applied to the
8. How are crystals purified from
cases where (i) large particles or particles of
mother liquor
controlled size, (ii) high density particles,
and (iii) resistance to attrition are desired. Filtration or centrifuging removes most
of the mother liquor while the balance is
3. What are the common character- removed by washing with fresh solvent.
istics of tumbling agglomerates
These agglomerates have good flowabil- 9. What happens to a hydrate when the
ity, low density, rounded shape, and easy water of crystallisation is removed
dispersion. The crystalline structure is lost and is
converted to amorphous powder.
4. Give the names of a few equipment
for extrusion agglomeration. 10. What is a votator crystalliser
The equipment include single screw Double-pipe scraped surface-type crys-
extruder, gear pelletiser, basket-type talliser is called a votator crystalliser. It
extruder, and pellet mill. is a cooling crystalliser.
5. Name a few products of thermal 11. Name the factors on which the
agglomeration. capacity of an apron feeder depends.
The products include prills of urea and The factors include (i) hopper width,
stearic acid, fatty acid, and gelatin. (ii) height of the material layer, (iii) bulk
6. What is an anti-solvent density of the material, (iv) conveyor
Addition of a second solvent for the speed, and (v) fill factor.
12. What type of feeder is recom- 17. Differentiate between perikinetic
mended for wet or sticky materials and orthokinetic coagulation.
Apron feeder. Perikinetic coagulation is the result of
13. What is the advantage of a particle motion due to Brownian move-
vibrating feeder over an apron ment while orthokinetic coagulation takes
feeder place when relative particle motion is a
Low purchase cost. consequenc of velocity gradients.
14. What are the main field of appli- 18. Name the factors, which promote
cations of a vibrating feeder the coagulation-flocculation operation.
The applications are (i) heavy duty use, Velocity gradient, time, and pH.
and (ii) feeding to primary crushers. 19. What are coagulant and floccu-
15. Why the POSIMETRIC feeders lants
require a small motor Coagulant is a chemical reagent added
These feeders have a single rotating duct for the destabilization of colloidal par-
(the only moving part). Because the feed ticles. The addition of another reagent
materials help to turn this duct, only a called flocculant or a flocculant aid may
small motor, usually less than 10 hp is promote the formation of the floc.
required to drive it. 20. What are microflocs and flocs
16. Name the forces responsible for Flocculation is the agglomeration of
coagulation. destabilized particles into microfloc and
van der Waals forces and electrostatic after into bulky floccules which can be
forces. settled called floc.
1. Name a few industries where size 9. What is the difference between

enlargement is practised at the final- mother liquor and magma
product manufacturing stage. 10. How does nucleation takes place in a
2. What are the different factors crystallising solution
which decide upon the selection of 11. What are the common problems
agglomerators encountered in industrial crystalli-
3. Name the primary types of agglom- sation
erators. 12. What is the criterion for deciding the
crystal size
4. What are the different equipment
13. Name a few hydrates of industrial
used for tumbling agglomeration
importance.
5. Name a few products made by
14. What are the different types of crystal-
extrusion agglomeration.
lisers used in industrial practise
6. Give some examples of the thermal 15. Give the working principle of a
agglomeration process. Swenson–Walker crystalliser.
7. What are the main objectives of 16. What are the advantages of apron
crystallisation feeders
8. Name the various methods by which 17. Give a few advantages of vibrating
a solution attains supersaturation. feeders.
18. What are the factors on which the 20. Discuss the weighing principle of
capacity of the vibrating feeder batch and continuous weighing
depends machines.
19. Give the capacity range for the 21. Discuss the coagulation-flocculation
POSIMETRIC feeders. process.
1. 3000 kg/h of an aqueous solution 2. A jaw crusher crushing wet dolomite

of NaNO3 is cooled from 90°C to of 10-cm size and density 2800 kg/m3 at
40°C in a continuous crystalliser. The the rate of 360 tonne/h needs a vibrating
solution contains 16 moles of NaNO3 feeder. If the feeder has to operate at
per 1000 g of water at 90°C. When the 800 rpm with an amplitude of 4 mm,
solution is cooled, water simultane- find the width of the feeder. Height of
ously evaporates to an amount equal the feed material above the table feeder
to 3% of the initial amount of solution. may be taken as equal to 30 % of the
If the solubility of NaNO3 is 12 moles width.
per 1000 g of water at 40°C, find the 0.96 m
crystal yield per hour.
522 kg
1. Pressure agglomeration can produce (c) gear pellitiser

particle size larger than (d) prilling tower
(a) 5 mm 5. Supersaturation in a solution can be
(b) 10 mm achieved by
(c) 15 mm (a) cooling the solution
(d) 25 mm (b) addition of anti-solvent
2. A tablet press is a/an: (c) change in pH
(a) tumbling agglomerator (d) all of the above
(b) pressure agglomerator 6. Nucleation in crystallisation starts
(c) extrusion agglomerator when the solute molecules in the solvent
(d) thermal agglomerator begin to flock in clusters which is in
3. In a pressure agglomerator, material the
masses are subjected to pressure in (a) nanometer scale
excess of (b) picometer scale
(a) 500 kg/cm2 (b) 1000 kg/cm2 (c) micrometer scale
2
(c) 2000 kg/cm (d) 5000 kg/cm2 (d) nothing in particular
4. An example of an extrusion agglom- 7. The hydrate which is known as green
erator is a vitriol has the composition of
(a) roll compactor (a) CuSO4.5 H2O
(b) paddle mixer (b) FeSO4.7 H2O
(c) ZnSO4.7 H2O (c) 10,000 tonne/h
(d) MgSO4.7 H2O (d) 50,000 tonne/h
8. A sodium chloride crystal will have 12. The maximum size of the material
(a) two molecules of water of crystalli- that can be fed to a vibrating feeder in
sation terms of the table width is
(b) one molecule of water of crystalli- (a) up to 90%
sation (b) up to 80%
(c) no molecules of water of crystalli- (c) up to 60%
sation (d) up to 50%
(d) nothing in particular 13. The capacity of a vibrating feeder
depends on
9. An example of an evaporative
(a) feed size
crystalliser is
(b) moisture content of the feed
(a) tank crystalliser
(c) table width
(b) double-pipe scraped surface crystal-
liser
(c) circulating magma vacuum crystal- 14. For crystallising ice cream, the
liser equipment needed is
(d) Swenson–Walker crystalliser (a) tank crystalliser
(b) double-pipe scraped surface
10. Size-enlargement operation is crystalliser
practised to produce a product of (c) Swenson–Walker crystalliser
(a) definite shape and size (d) vacuum crystalliser
(b) increased bulk density
15. The factors upon which the
(c) enhanced appearance
coagulation-flocculation operation
depends on are:
11. The capacity range of apron feeders (a) pH, solid concentration, and density
can be up to (b) velocity gradient, time, and pH
(a) 1,000 tonne/h (c) viscosity, density, and pH
(b) 5,000 tonne/h (d) density, velocity gradient, pH
1(d); 2(b); 3(c); 4(c); 5(d); 6(a); 7(b); 8(c); 9(c); 10(d); 11(c);
12(b); 13(d); 14(b); 15(b)
yler uivalent Indian Sieve opening (mm) ire diameter
(mesh) standards (mm)
(No.)
4 480 4.750 1.540
5 400 4.000 1.370
6 340 3.350 1.230
7 280 2.800 1.100
8 240 2.360 1.000
9 200 2.000 0.900
10 160 1.700 0.810
12 140 1.400 0.725
14 120 1.180 0.650
16 100 1.000 0.580
20 85 0.850 0.510
24 70 0.710 0.450
28 60 0.600 0.390
32 50 0.500 0.340
35 40 0.425 0.290
42 35 0.355 0.247
48 30 0.300 0.215
60 25 0.250 0.180
65 20 0.212 0.152
80 18 0.180 0.131
100 15 0.150 0.110
115 12 0.125 0.091
150 10 0.106 0.076
170 9 0.090 0.064
200 8 0.075 0.053
250 6 0.063 0.044
270 5 0.053 0.037
325 4 0.045 0.030
S mes Inc es Microns Millimeters
3 0.265 6730 6.73
3-1/2 0.223 5660 5.66
4 0.187 4760 4.76
5 0.157 4000 4.00
6 0.132 3360 3.36
7 0.111 2830 2.83
8 0.0937 2380 2.38
10 0.0787 2000 2.00
12 0.0661 1680 1.68
14 0.0555 1410 1.41
16 0.0469 1190 1.19
18 0.0394 1000 1.00
20 0.0331 841 0.84
25 0.0280 707 0.71
30 0.0232 595 0.59
35 0.0197 500 0.50
40 0.0165 420 0.42
45 0.0138 354 0.35
50 0.0117 297 0.297
60 0.0098 250 0.250
70 0.0083 210 0.210
80 0.0070 177 0.177
100 0.0059 149 0.149
120 0.0049 125 0.125
140 0.0041 105 0.105
170 0.0035 88 0.088
200 0.0029 74 0.074
230 0.0024 63 0.063
270 0.0021 53 0.053
325 0.0017 44 0.044
400 0.0015 37 0.037
IS IN S Std ASTM Tyler BS
E
microns microns S mes Mes BS mes
26,5 25 1.06 1.05 –
25 22,4 1 – –
22,4 20 7/8 0.883 –
19 18 3/4 0.742 –
16 16 5/8 0.624 –
13,2 14 0.530 – –
12,5 12,5 1/2 – –
11,2 11,2 7/16 0.441 –
9,5 10 3/8 0.371 –
8 8 5/16 2.5 –
6,7 7,1 0.265 3 –
6,3 6,3 1/4 – –
5,6 5,6 3 3.5 3
4,75 5 4 – 3
4 4 5 5 4
3,35 3,55 6 – 5
2,8 2,8 7 – 6
2,36 2,5 8 8 7
2 2 10 – 8
1,7 1,8 12 10 10
1,4 1,4 14 12 12
1,18 1,25 16 14 14
1 1,0 18 16 16
Microns mm Microns mm
850 900 – – 18
– 800 20 20 –
710 710 25 24 22
600 – 30 28 25
500 500 35 32 30
(Continued )
IS IN S Std ASTM Tyler BS
E
microns microns S mes Mes BS mes
– 450 – – –
425 430 40 35 36
355 355 45 42 44
300 – 50 48 52
250 250 60 60 60
212 224 70 65 72
180 180 80 80 85
150 – 100 – 100
125 125 120 115 120
106 112 140 150 150
90 90 170 170 170
75 – 200 200 200
63 63 230 250 240
53 56 270 270 300
45 45 325 325 350
38 40 400 400 400
32 32 450 450 440
25 25 500 500 –
20 20 635 635 –
16 16 – – –
10 10 – – –
Badger, W. L. and Banchero, J. T., Introduction to C emical Engineering, McGraw-
Hill, Singapore, 1995.
Brown, G. G., et. al., nit perations, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1950.
Chattopadhyay, P., nit perations of C emical Engineering olume , 2nd ed.,
Khanna Publishers, Delhi, 1996.
Coulson, J. M., Richardson, J. F., Backhurst, J. R., and Harker, J. H., Coulson &
Ric ardson s C emical Engineering olume Fluid Flo eat Transfer and
Mass Transfer, 6th ed., Elsevier, India, 1999.
Foust, A. S., et. al., Principles of nit perations, 2nd ed., John Wiley & Sons,
Singapore, 1980.
Gaudin, A. M., Principles of Mineral ressing, Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Co.
Ltd., New Delhi, 1971.
Haver, W., Personal Communication (walter.haver@haverboecker.com).
McCabe, W. L., Smith, J. C., and Harriot, P., nit perations of C emical Engineering,
5th ed., McGraw-Hill, Singapore, 1993.
Metso Minerals Inc., Crus ing and Screening andboo , Finland, 2007.
Narayanan, C. M. and Bhattacharyya, B. C., Mec anical perations for C emical
Engineers, 3rd ed., Khanna Publishers, Delhi, 2003.
Pennsylvania Crusher Corp., andboo of Crus ing, USA, 2006.
Perry, R. H. and Green, D. W., Editors, Perry s C emical Engineers andboo ,
7th ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, 1997.
Peters, M. S., Timmerhaus, K. D., and West, R. E., Plant esign and Economics for
C emical Engineers, 5th ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, 2003.
Richards, R. H. and Locke, C. E., Text Boo of re ressing, 3rd ed., McGraw-Hill,
New York, 1940.
Richardson, J. F., Harker, J. H., and Backhurst, J. R., Coulson & Ric ardson s C emical
Engineering olume Particle Tec nology & Separation Processes, 5th ed.,
Elsevier, India, 2002.
Roy, G. K., Solved Examples in C emical Engineering, 9th ed., Khanna Publishers,
Delhi, 2010.
Subrahmanyam, N., Sixty ears of t e Indian Institute of C emical
Engineers IIC E and C emical Engineering in India, Indian Chemical Engineer,
Vol. 49, No. 4, 2007, pp. 458–468.
Taggart, A. F., andboo of Mineral ressing res and Industrial Minerals, John
Wiley & Sons, New York, 1945.
Thixton, J., The inventor of Supaflo high rate thickener, Personal Communication
(thixton.john@gmail.com).
llmann s Encyclopedia of Industrial C emistry ol Si e Enlargement to Starc ,
6th ed., Wiley-VCH, Germany, 2003.
llmann s Processes and Process Engineering ol Separation and Classification
Mixing Particle Tec nology eat Generation, Wiley-VCH, Germany, 2004.
1. Pennsylvania Crusher Corporation, USA
www.penncrusher.com
2. Outotec Oyj., Finland
www.outotec.com
3. Ronald Gill Associates, UK
www.trommel.co.uk
4. M/S. Hosokawa Micron India Pvt. Ltd., India
www.hosokawa.com
5. JOEST Australia Pty. Ltd., Australia
www.joest.com.au
6. Eriez Manufacturing Company, USA
www.eriez.com
7. Metso Minerals Inc.
www.metso.com
8. Sandvik Mining and Construction, Sweden
www.sandvik.com
9. Vedanta Aluminium Ltd., India
www.vedantaresources.com
10. Supaflo High Rate Thickener
www.supaflo.com
11. M/S. Amar Equipments Pvt. Ltd., India
www.amarequip.com
12. Orissa Sponge Iron & Steel Limited, India
www.orissasponge.com
13. FLSmidth A/S, Denmark
www.flsmidth.com
14. Unique Mixers & Furnaces Pvt. Ltd., India
www.uniquemixer.com
15. M/S. IKA Werke GmbH & Co. KG., Germany
www.ika.net
16. IKA India Private Limited, India
www.ika.net.in
17. Hosokawa Bepex GmbH, Germany
www.bepexhosokawa.com
18. Sturtevant Inc., USA / Leevams Inc., India
www.sturtevantinc.com / www.leevams.in
19. Pampa Enterprises, India
www.pampa.co.in
20. Haver & Boecker OHG, Germany
www.haverboecker.com / www.diedrahtweber.com/en/
Problems with Flow of Bulk Solids 27
Agglomeration 289 Erratic Flow 27
Classification 289 Flushing 27
Composite Agglomeration 292 No Flow 27
Extrusion Agglomeration 292 Segregation 27
Gear Pelletizer 294 Storage of Bulk Solids 24
Press Agglomeration 289
Inter-particle Forces 289
Roll Compactors 289–290 Cascading 74, 76
Briquetting 290 Cataracting 74
Compaction 290 Centrifuging 75–76
Flakes 290 Characterization of Solid Particles 12
Roll Patterns 292–293 Classification with Water 150
Integral Roll 293 Dewatering 151, 155
Roll Tires 293 Laws of Classification 151
Thermal Agglomeration 295 Sizing 150
Selection of Agglomeration Sorting 150
Process 289 Classifying Equipments
Angle of Bite 62 (Classifiers) 151
Angle of Break 76 Mechanical Classifiers 151, 157
Angle of Internal Friction 23 Rake Classifier 158
Angle of Nip 62 Settling Zones 158
Angle of Repose 23 Classification Zone 158
Dynamic Angle of Repose 23 Settled Solids Zone 158
Static Angle of Repose 23–24 Transport Zone 158
Automatic Setting Spiral Classifier 158
Regulation-intelligent 54 Non-mechanical
Average Particle Sizes 17 Classifiers 151–152
Density Separators 155–157
Gravity Settling Classifiers 152
Hydrocyclone Classifiers 153
Bi-Flow System 70 Forces Acting on Particles 154
Blending 275 Forward 153
Convection 275 Reverse 153
Diffusion 275 Vortex 154
Bulk Solids 22 Primary 154
Flow of Bulk Solids 25 Secondary 154
Expanded Flow 26 Vortex Finder 154
Funnel Flow 26 Spitzkastan Classifiers 152
Mass Flow 26 Coagulation 306
Pressure and Density during Coagulant 306
Flow of Bulk Solids 27 Floc 306
Flocculant / Flocculant Aid 306 Materials 138
Microfloc 306 Diamagnetic 138
Orthokinetic 306 Ferromagnetic 138
Perikinetic 306 Paramagnetic 138
Coefficient of Flowability 22 Magnetic Field 138–145
Coefficient of Friction 37, 61, 62, 73 Magnetic Susceptibility 138–142
Comminution 35, 39 Magnets 138
Constants 4 Electromagnet 138–139, 142
Conversion Factors to SI Units 5 Permanent 138–139, 142
Critical Class 102, 104 Equipments 139
Critical pH 167 High Gradient Magnetic
Critical Speed 75–76 Separators 142
Crystallization 295 Induced Roll Magnetic
Anti Solvent 295 Separators 142
Average Size of Crystals 296 Magnetic Drum Separators 139
Equipments (Crystallizers) 298 Dry 139–140
Forced Circulating Liquid Evaporator Wet 139–140
Crystallizers 299 Rare Earth Magnetic Rolls 140
Scraped Surface Crystallizers 299 Superconducting High Gradient
Tank Crystallizers 298 Magnetic Separators 143
Hydrate 296
Inorganic Hydrates 296
Magma 295 Feed Openings 52
Mother Liquor 295 Active 52
Nucleation 295 Effective 52
Supersaturation 296 Feeding 81, 299
Yield 297 Choke 82
Equipments (Feeders) 299
Apron Feeders 299
Dewatering 180, 197, 213 Capacity 299–301
Dimensionless Groups 7 General Characteristics of Apron and
Discharge Openings 54 Vibrating Feeders 303
Open Side Setting 54 Posimetric Feeders 304
Closed Side Setting 54 Vibrating Feeders 301
Draining 180 Capacity 302
Drying 180, 204, 217 Free 82
Filtration 180, 197
Cake 197
Equipments 210
Electrical Separation 138 Classification of Cake Filters 210
Electrostatic Separation 138, 145 Filter Press 210
Charging Mechanisms 145–146 Plates and Frames 212–213
Conductive Induction 145–146 Plate and Frame Filter Press 211
Contact Electrification / Side Bar 211
Triboelectrification 145–147 Overhead Beam 211–212
Ion Bombardment 145–148 Recessed-Plate Filter Press 214
Equipments 146 Operating Principle 214–215
Ion-Bombardment Leaf Filters 215
Separators 148 Leaves 215
Triboelectrostatic Separators 147 Vertical Leaf Filters 215–216
Magnetic Separation 138 Rotary Disc Filters 219–221
Rotary Drum Filters 217–219
Filtration ones 218 Gas-Solid Separation 232
Operating Principle 217–218 Equipments 232
Selection of Equipments 210 Air Classi ers 239
Filter Aids 201 Side Draft 242
Filter Medium 197, 200 SuperFine 241
Filtrate 197 Whirlwind 239
Filtration Mechanism 197 Cyclone Separators 237
Cake Filtration 197 Vortex Finder 237
Constant Pressure Filtration 200 Electrostatic Precipitators 236
Constant Rate Filtration 200 Collection Ef ciency 236
Factors Affecting the Rate of Cottrell Precipitators 236
Filtration 200 Factors Affecting Collection
Principles 200 Ef ciency 236
Deep-Bed Filtration 197 Fabric Filters (Bag Houses /
Filtration Theory 201 Bag Filters) 233
Batch Filtration 201 Mechanical Shaker 235
Batch Filters 203 Reverse Air 235
Compressibility Exponent Reverse et 235
of Cake 202 Gravity Settling Chambers 233
Cycle Time 203 Inertial Separators 233
Idle Time 203 Impingement Separators 233
Output of a Batch Filter 203 Viscous Air Filters 233
Rate Equation 202 Wet Scrubbers 235
Speci c Cake Resistance 202 Venturi Scrubbers 235
Continuous Filtration 203 Wet Collectors 235
Septum 197 Factors Affecting Gas-Solid
Floatation 166 Separation 232
Concentrate 166 Gas Cleaning 232
Equipments 168 Mechanism of Gas Cleaning 232
Classi cation of Floatation Gravity Concentration 159
Cell 169 Principles of Gravity
Floatation Cell 169 Concentration 159
Floatation Reagents 167 Density 159
Activators 167–168 Film Sizing 159
Collectors 167–168 Shaking 160
Depressors 167–168 Equipments 160
Frothers 167–168 Heavy Medium Separators 160
pH Regulators 167 Sink-and-Float
Froth 166 Separation 160
Froth Floatation 166 igs 160
Operating Principle 167 Differential Acceleration
Conditioning Step 167 igging Action 161
Process of Liberation 167 Ragging 161
Surface Wetting Properties 166 Shaking Tables 164
Hydrophilic 166–169 Left and Right Hand Shaking
Hydrophobic 166–169 Tables 165
Tailings 166 Rif es 164–165
Flocculation 306 Spiral Concentrators 161
Free Crushing 82 Flow Patterns 163–164
Free Grinding Limit 76 Grinding Gas 80
Hammer Types 68 Nip 52, 59
Hurricane Rotor 70
Properties of Solids 22, 37–38

Interparticular Crushing 54
Reduction Ratio 36, 42, 59, 82

Jaw Plate Profiles 50–51 Rittinger s Number 42
Rock-on-Rock Action 70
Roll Tooth Patterns 59–60
Kneaders 278
Screen 100
Mechanical Separators 96 Deck 103, 129, 133, 137
Mixing of Solids 265 Efficiency (Effectiveness) and
Equipments (Mixers) 274 Capacity 117
Liquid Mixers 274 Effect of Feed Rate on
Agitated Vessels 274–275 Effectiveness 119
Impellers 274 Factors Affecting Effectiveness
Axial Flow 274 and Capacity 120
Radial Flow 274 Limiting Screen 101
Impeller Types 274–275 Recovery 118
Solid Mixers 275 Rejection 118
V-Blenders 276 Retaining Screen 101
Vertical Cone Screw Blender 277 Screen Sizes 106
Viscous Mixers (Kneaders) 278 Aperture 106
Continuous Kneading Mesh 106–115
Machines 279 Screen Analysis 114, 117
Horizontal Kneading Cumulative 115–118
Machines 278 Differential 115–118
Vertical Kneading Machines 279 Screening 100
Liquid Mixing 266 Actual Screening 127–128
Baf es 266–268 Overlap Zone 128
Froude Number 267–268 Blinding 101, 105, 128
Power Consumption 267 Ideal Screening 127
Baf ed Tank 267 Cut Diameter 127
Unbaf ed Tank 268 Mechanism 101
Power Number 267–268 Separation Probability 101–103
Objectives 266 Stratification 101–104
Solid Mixing (Blending) 270 Factors Affecting Stratification 102
Energy Consumption 272 Pegging 105
Measurement of the Extent of Screening Operation 100
Mixing 271 Dry 101
Mechanism of Solid Mixing 275 Wet 101
Mixing Index 271 Factors Affecting Screening
Rate of Mixing 271 Operation 104
Standard Deviation 271 Surfaces 104
Mohs Scale of Hardness 37 Material of Construction 105
Parallel Bars / Rods 104 Floatation 185
Punched Plates 104 Hindered Settling Velocity 186
Staggered 104–105 Newton s Law Region 185
Straight Row 104–105 Porosity or Volume Fraction 186
Woven Wires 104 Reynolds Number 184
Rectangular Screens 104–106 Richardson-Zaki Index 186
Square Screens 104–105 Settling Ratio 185
Weaving Patterns 105 Stokes Law Region 184
Throughput 102–103 Settling Zones 182
Screening Equipments 128 Separation of Solids 93
Banana Screens 137 Separation Processes 94
Grizzly Screens 128 Chemical / Diffusional 94
Gyratory Screens 136 Mechanical 94
Moving (Revolving, Shaking, or Settling 151
Vibrating) Screens 128 Free Settling 151
Stationary Screens 128–129 Hindered Settling 151
Trommels 129 Shape 12
Compound Trommels 130 SI Prefixes 4
Factors Affecting the SI Units 4
Operation of Trommels 130 Sieve 114
Single Trommel 130 Sieve Shaker (Ro-Tap) 114–115
Trommel Arrangements 130, 132 Sieving Procedure 114–115
Vibrating Screens 133 Standard Sieves 106–114
Electrical 133 Standard Sieve Scales 106–114
Mechanical 133 Testing Sieves 114
Particle Motion 134 Sink-and-Float Separation 160
Projection and Free-passing Area 135 Size 12, 15
Theory of Vibrational Separation 134 Average Particle Sizes 17
Sedimentation (Thickening and Arithmetic Mean Diameter 18
Clarification) 180 Mass Mean Diameter 17
Equipments (Thickeners and Sauter Mean Diameter 17
Clarifiers) 190 Volume Mean Diameter 17
Bridge-Supported Thickeners 191 Measuring Techniques 101
CableTorq Thickeners and Mixed Particle Sizes 15
Clarifiers 193 Size Enlargement 288
Caisson Thickeners 192 Objectives 288
Column-Supported Thickeners 192 Size Reduction 34–35
Solids-Contact Reactor Clarifiers 196 Effective Methods for Operating Size
Supa o Thickeners 197–199 Reduction Equipments 81–82
Traction Thickeners 192 Open / Closed-Circuit Grinding 67,
Free Settling 181 77, 82–84
Hindered Settling 181 Energy and Power Consumption 38
Sedimentation Test 181 Crushing Efficiency 39–40
Sedimentation Theory 182 Mechanical Efficiency 40
Bulk Density 186 Surface Energy 38–41
Bulk Viscosity 186 Equipments 48
Buoyancy Force 183 Classification of Size Reduction
Drag Coefficient 183 Equipments 48
Drag Force 183 Selection Criteria 49
Elutriation 185 Autogenous / Semi-Autogenous
Equal Settling Particles 185 Mills 71–72
F d
Fin nd/ Fin nd/

ii ii
vi vi
in in
i n
ind d in
F d
Fin /
/ i
nd/
i ii
vi in
1 i n/ i i n
i nd
1 i i n d n i
2 i n xi v i
i n n
4 n ii n n
5 i n d n i
n
6 n n nn
n
2
i
4
5
ii vi 6
i ii vi
Bradford Breakers 64 Shear 36
Cage Mill 65 Objectives of Size Reduction 35
Coalpactors 66 Principles of Size Reduction 37
Fine Impact Mills 78, 79 Specific Surface 16–18, 38
Fluidized Bed Opposed Specific Surface Ratio 16
Jet Mills 80–81 Sphericity 12
Granulators 65 of different shapes 13
Gyratory Crushers 53–54, 56 of some materials 14
Hammer Mills 36, 64, 67 Storage Vessels 23, 25
Nonreversible 67–69 Bins 23–25
Reversible 67–69 Silos 23–25
for Coal 68 Surface Shape Factor 14
for Rock and Minerals 68–69
Jaw Crusher 50
Blake Jaw Crusher 50 Terminal Settling Velocity 151, 181,
Double Toggle Jaw 183, 185
Crusher 51–52 Thickeners and Clarifiers 190
Single Toggle Jaw Crusher 51–52 Transportation of Solids 249
Capacity 53 Equipments (Conveyors and
Dodge Jaw Crusher 50 Elevators) 249
Roll Crushers 57 Belt Conveyors 249
Capacity 62 Belt Conveyor Profiles 251
Double Roll 59 Flat Belts 250
Single Roll 57 Troughed Belts 250
Spiral Jet Mills 79 Capacity 251
Tumbling Mills 72 Idlers 250
Characteristics of Tumbling Bucket Elevators 258
Mills 73 Pipe Conveyors 254
Ball Mill 73 Idler Arrangements 257
Factors Affecting Size of Screw Conveyors 252
Product 76 Capacity 253
Pebble Mill 71–73 Screw Conveyor Pitch Designs 253
Rod Mill 77 Selection of Equipments 249
Tube Mill 72–73
Vertical Shaft Impactors 69
Factors Affecting Size Reduction 38
Unit Operations 2
Laws of Comminution 41
Unit Processes 2
Bond s Law 42
Unit Systems 3
Generalized Law 43
Kick s Law 42
Rittinger s Law 41
Methods 35 Volume Shape Factor 14
Attrition 36
Compression 36
Cutting 35 Weighing 305
Impact 35 Batch 305
Dynamic Impact 35 Continuous 305
Gravity Impact 35 Work Index 43

Dokumen - Pub Mechanical Operations 0070700222 9780070700222

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Anup Kumar Swain is presently Assistant Professor,

Department of Chemical Engineering at Gandhi Institute

Hemalata Patra is presently Assistant Professor,

Copyright © 2011 by Tata McGraw Hill Education Private Limited.

This edition can be exported from India only by the publishers,

ISBN (13): 978-0-07-070022-2

Head—Higher Education Publishing and Marketing: Vibha Mahajan

Late Aditya Prasanna Marhual

2. Properties and Storage of Solids 11

3. Size Reduction of Solids 34

4. Separation of Solids: Introduction 93

6. Solid-Liquid Separation 179

7. Gas-Solid Separation 231

8. Transportation of Solids 248

9. Mixing of Solids 265

10. Auxiliary Operations 287

Anup Kumar Swain

1. Pennsylvania Crusher Corporation, USA

Anup Kumar Swain

Characterisation of solids, handling of solids (transporta-

Sedimentation, filtration, fluidisation, elutriation

Mixing of solids, cohesive solids, and liquids

Mechanical operations play an important role in almost all chemical-process

Factor Prefix Symbol

Acceleration due to gravity, g = 9.81 m/s2

Name Symbol Formula Significance

Bingham number, Bm t y .L Yield stress/Viscous stress

Biot number, BI h.Δ X Thermal resistance/Surface film

Brinkman number, Br m v2 Heat production by viscous

Cavitation Number, s 2( p − pv ) Excess pressure above vapour

Eckert number, Ec v2 Flow s kinetic energy/Flow s

Elasticity number, EI λ .m Elastic force/Inertial force

Euler number, Eu Δp Friction pressure loss/Velocity

Fanning friction factor, f D.Δp Wall shear stress/Velocity head

Gratz number, Gz m.CP Thermal capacity/Convective

Grashof number, Gr L3 .r 2 .g .β ′.ΔT Buoyancy force/Viscous force

Nusselt number, Nu hD Total heat transfer/Conductive

Power number, Po P Drag force/Inertial force

Weber number, We L.V 2 .r Inertial force/Surface tension

The simplest of the three-dimensional shapes is the sphere. The dimension-

Particle iagram Sp ericity Particle iagram Sp ericity

Sphere 1.0 Cube 0.81

Sand 0.9 Crushed 0.6 to 0.8

Cylinder 0.87 Flakes 0.2

Tetrahedron 0.671 Octahedron 0.846

Dodecahedron 0.91 Icosahedron 0.939

Ideal Cone 0.794 Hemisphere 0.84

From Eq. (2.1), we have the sphericity of a cube as

Here, for this cube, p = a3 and Sp = 6a2.

where, xi = Mass fraction in a given increment,

For spherical particles, NSSR = 1.

The volume–surface mean diameter, Dvs, is

This is also known as the Sauter mean diameter.

This is also known as the mass mean diameter.

This is the diameter of the average volume of particles

where, NT = Total number of particles.

For finding these, we have to proceed as follows:

Average diameter Mass fraction xi g g xi

0.0252 0.088 3.492

The volume–surface mean diameter is given by the relation

–710 + 300 505 30 0.117 0.00023

Mes Mes Avg particle Mass Mass Cumulative pi avg

The Sauter mean diameter (Eq. 2.13) is given by