Students with Dyslexia / 1

Teaching Students with Dyslexia in the Regular Classroom

By: Elizabeth Waddington, Shirley Jacob and Sandra Bailey

From: Childhood Education, Fall, 1996

J. Geffen

Definition

1. Dyslexia is “a disorder of constitutional origin manifested by difficulty in

learning to read, write or spell, despite conventional instruction, adequate
intelligence, and socio-cultural opportunity” (Orton Dyslexia Society, 1988, p. 2).
Kamhi (1992) further defines dyslexia as a lifelong problem with processing
phonological information, which involves encoding, retrieving and using
phonological codes, and deficiencies in speech production and phonological
awareness. Simply put, dyslexia is a difficulty with language, not intelligence
(Wilkins, Garside & Enfield, 1993).
2. Experts make a distinction between developmental dyslexia (whose origin is
suspected to be congenital or hereditary) and acquired dyslexia (a disability that
occurs as the result of brain injury after learning to read) (Frith, 1986). Most
students with dyslexia in regular classrooms have developmental dyslexia, which
is thought to be connected to brain and chromosome differences (Lyon, 1995).
While dyslexia persists in spite of age and maturity, its effects may be lessened by
remediation and compensatory techniques (Clark, 1988).
3. Individuals with dyslexia frequently display outstanding strengths; many
dyslexics are creative, visual thinkers. Their unique abilities often make them
successful in art, science and technical fields. Some famous and talented people
who are suspected to have had dyslexia include Albert Einstein, Thomas Edison,
Leonardo da Vinci, Winston Churchill, George Patton and William Butler Yeats
(West, 1991).

Characteristics

4. Dyslexia affects each person in different ways (Wilkins, Garside & Enfield,
1993). Early signs of dyslexia may include difficulty in: learning to speak,
remembering, pronouncing words clearly, expressing ideas meaningfully,
listening or following directions. Lower elementary children may exhibit
difficulty with the following (singly or in combination): learning the alphabet,
sequencing, rhyming, word memory, reading, writing and spelling. Other signs
that may or may not accompany dyslexia include a poor sense of time or space,
an inability to finish work on time, extremely messy handwriting (dysgraphia),
inadequate organizational skills, an inability to pay attention or complete tasks, a
weak understanding of concepts such as “before”, “after”, “right” and “left”,
poor study habits, problems keeping up with possessions, and, sometimes,
difficulty with mathematics. Individuals with dyslexia may also be literal-minded
or inflexible. It should be emphasized that a person with dyslexia may have only
a few of these characteristics or may have many of them.
Students with Dyslexia / 2

5. Educators frequently find it difficult to differentiate between students with

learning disabilities, such as dyslexia, and slow learners. Students with learning
disabilities often do significantly well in some areas but very poorly in others;
slow learners, on the other hand, consistently perform at below-average levels in
most areas. Students with dyslexia also exhibit specific learning deficits in
information processing (i.e., organization of thinking skills, memory, learning
efficacy), but slow learners usually exhibit general limited ability (Brinckerhoff,
Shaw & McGuire, 1993).
6. Dyslexia may be accompanied by social, emotional and psychological
problems (Ryan, 1994). Parents and teachers often mistakenly view children with
dyslexia as bright students who just need to try harder. This attitude puts undue
pressure on these students, because they are likely already trying their hardest.
Also, individuals with dyslexia often perform erratically. They may be able to
accomplish a task easily one day but be unable to do it the next. Furthermore,
they may be able to do a very complex task yet flounder when attempting
something very simple. Or they may make the same mistake in several different
ways (e.g., misspelling a word five different ways in an assignment.
7. This fluctuation in dyslexia’s intensity makes it difficult for students to
compensate. In addition, individuals with dyslexia often misread social cues,
have a poor self image, are socially immature and have trouble communicating
orally. When they fail to meet others’ expectations or are unable to achieve their
own goals, they may feel frustrated, anxious, inadequate, depressed and angry.
Meeting the Needs of Students with Dyslexia
8. Federal law protects students with dyslexia under the Education for All
Handicapped Children Act (P.L. 94-142) (1975), the Individuals with Disabilities
Education Act (IDEA) (1990), which amends P.L. 94-142, and Section 504 of the
Rehabilitation Act of 1973 (Brinckerhoff, Shaw & McGuire, 1993). In order to
meet federal guidelines, public schools must meet these students’ needs in
appropriate ways.
9. To help schools meet students’ needs, the National Teacher Education
Initiative Task Force examined the delivery and content of programs designed to
teach students with dyslexia. The task force concluded that effective programs
directly teach systematic language concepts / skills (both sequential and
cumulative) by using simultaneous, multisensory methods (Greene, 1993;
Wilkins, Garside & Enfield, 1993). Individuals with dyslexia need to have
learning tasks broken down into their simplest components, after which they can
learn them step by step. They also need a predictable, structured, consistent
learning environment (Wilkins, Garside & Enfield, 1993).
10. Does this mean that teachers must throw out the textbook or abandon
proven theories and approaches to teach these special children? That would be
impractical, costly and even impossible in many situations. It is possible,
however, for regular classroom teachers to accommodate students and modify
the environment and tasks to help dyslexics learn.
11. When teaching students with dyslexia, teachers must often keep in mind
the terms “accommodation” and “modification”. In general, “accommodation”
refers to a strategy that changes the academic environment and, therefore,
enables students to demonstrate what they know. An accommodation usually
does not alter the information or amount of information that the student must
Students with Dyslexia / 3

learn. Examples of common accommodations may include untimed tests or extra

time on assignments. On the other hand, a “modification” strategy changes the
work itself, making it different from other students’ and encouraging success.
Asking a child with dyslexia to give an oral report when other students are
required to do a written report is an example of a modification. Accommodations
and modifications often overlap, and many people use the terms interchangeably
(Louisiana State Department of Education, 1992). Rather than distinguishing
between the two terms, the authors will refer to both as interventions.
12. Keeping these facts about dyslexia and appropriate teaching strategies in
mind, the authors experimented with various interventions in the areas of
general instruction, study and organizational skills, language arts and test-
taking. Teachers should try these strategies and alter them as needed to meet
their own students’ needs. Many of these interventions also work very well with
children who are not dyslexic.

General Instruction

13. Teachers need to be aware of the dyslexic students’ needs during

instruction time. Teachers should clearly state each lesson’s objective and
present it visually on the board or overhead projector. Directions should be
explicit, explained orally and visually posted. Information should be
paraphrased with numerous concrete examples. An organized, structured
presentation using a variety of teaching methods (e.g., direction instruction,
cooperative groups, discussion) is appropriate. Since students with dyslexia have
trouble with sequencing, it is imperative that the alphabet, numerals, a calendar,
classroom procedures and other sequencing aids be posted in the classroom.
Step-by-step instructional sheets for projects and other assignments are also very
helpful.
14. Students with dyslexia should sit close to the instructional focal point. They
may need increased response time to formulate answers. They should be
informed about oral reading assignments and questions ahead of time so they
have time to practice their reading and responses. Because coping with dyslexia
is very tiring, students with dyslexia may require more rest time than other
students. Above all, students should not be embarrassed or made to feel stupid
by their teachers or peers. Instead, they should be praised for their strengths.
15. These students may need fewer and shorter assignments, especially reading
and writing assignments. Oral and visual presentations can be used to document
learning if writing is particularly troublesome. Photocopying a peer’s or the
teacher’s notes and transparencies allows these students to devote their energies
to listening, rather than to laborious notetaking or copying.
16. Lessons should incorporate multisensory techniques. Multisensory
instruction (i.e., involving some or all of the senses, and movement) sends
information along multiple pathways in the brain and accommodates a variety of
learning styles. As examples, students with dyslexia can write words in a sand
tray or on a carpet square with two fingers while saying them out loud, clap
syllables as they hear them during reading instruction, or act out action verbs
and prepositions with body movements and props. All students find such
multisensory instruction fun and motivating.
Students with Dyslexia / 4

Organizational and Study Skills

17. Individuals with dyslexia need help with organization. Parents and teachers
should help them keep a daily and long-range calendar marked with due dates
and events. Projects should be broken down into elements with steps and due
dates for each part. Students should ask the teacher for feedback when each
component is completed, rather than waiting until the end of a project.
18. It often helps students to tape classes. They should also have access to taped
textbooks. Parents and volunteers can tape passages from the books, and
students should be encouraged to join an organization called Recording for the
Blind and Dyslexic, which loans out taped books.
19. Schools should adopt well-organized textbooks with bold main headings
and clear illustrations. Students with dyslexia should be able to write in
textbooks and highlight passages. When this is not possible, they may use Post-
it™ notes to organize and emphasize information within texts. Using book covers
to color-code textbooks and notebooks helps students quickly select the
appropriate books for classes and homework.
20. Teachers may find that students benefit from receiving outlines of lectures
and activities before class begins. Frequent reviews, especially before tests, are a
necessity. Review sheets and study guides are very helpful. Students with
dyslexia do need, however, to be taught note-taking skills. It is sometimes
necessary to pair a student with dyslexia with another student for note taking
and review.
21. These students need special help learning how to study in a multisensory
manner. Study techniques can be similar to the teaching techniques used in class.
When studying a content area passage, for example, students may read the
selection aloud and highlight important parts. They then might tape-record the
highlighted parts to listen to as they continue to study. They could also tape-
record vocabulary words / definitions or formulas / explanations and finger write
them on a rough surface as they listen to the tape. In addition, students with
dyslexia benefit from using mnemonic devices, integrating learning with music
and rhymes, and being part of study groups.

Language Arts

22. Teachers should remember that many individuals with dyslexia expend a
great deal of energy decoding information. Consequently, they have little
strength left for comprehension. Or the reverse may be true: students may
comprehend very well through the use of context and prior experiences, yet may
be unable to pronounce the words. As with all students, these students should be
encouraged to build upon their strengths and learn to improve or compensate for
their weaknesses.
23. Direct, sequential, multisensory instruction for language arts should be
used. The Bowman Gray Program Project sponsored by the National Institute of
Child Health and Human Development (Lyon, 1995) indicates that dyslexic
readers need highly structured, explicit and intensive instruction in phonics rules
and their application to print. They profit from building a base of phonetically
regular words before learning nonphonetic sight words (Greene, 1993). This does
Students with Dyslexia / 5

not mean, however, that these students will not benefit as well from holistic
methods based on a whole language philosophy – balance is the key (Vail, 1993).
24. Students with dyslexia often read very slowly; therefore, they need advance
notice of outside reading assignments and more time for in-class ones. As
mentioned earlier, the assignment lengths might have to be adjusted. Taped texts
and peer reading that allow students to follow along as others read are helpful.
Pre-reading questions help students organize information and discern what is
important. Read-alouds from interesting, language-rich literature help students
build vocabulary and concepts that are far beyond their own reading levels.
25. Because many of these students also write very slowly, they require
advance notice of tasks and more time in class. Some students find that a word
processor helps them compose more quickly and more meaningfully. Others find
it beneficial if they first compose into a tape player and later transcribe and edit.
Teachers and peers may be needed to help with editing.
26. Spelling is especially difficult for most individuals with dyslexia. Students
should not be penalized for misspellings in content area subjects. The use of
spell- checkers and personal spelling “demon charts” should be allowed when
writing. Students with dyslexia may have to be tested on fewer spelling words
each week, with only the most important words included for memorization.
Because spelling is so perplexing for most of these students, they need special
encouragement.
27. Teachers should lower their expectations for students’ handwriting if
dysgraphia is a problem. Handwriting that is legible, if not perfect, should be
accepted and praised. Using a typewriter or word processor can circumvent this
problem. In some cases, students may have to read their work aloud to the
teacher if their handwriting is indecipherable.

Test-Taking

28. Students with dyslexia may require assistance with test instructions and
procedures. Teachers can read directions to students and have them highlight
important words, such as “underline” and “choose two examples”. Students
should be given the option of taping oral directions to replay as needed.
29. Tests should have large-print text and be easy to read. Items should be
grouped according to type (e.g., multiple choice, alternate response, essay). A
variety of item types should be utilized and lengthy test sections should be
avoided. It is beneficial, for example, to group 10 short answer items into two
sections of only five items each.
30. Testing time for students with dyslexia may need to be lengthened and, in
some cases, the number of test items should be reduced. Students may need to
write directly on the test, rather than using an answer sheet. Students should not
be penalized for spelling or other mechanical errors. Oral tests or taping test
answers should be considered as options. Some students may require a reader
(e.g., parent volunteer, resource teacher, teaching assistant).
31. As with all students, the testing environment should be as stress-free as
possible. Knowing that extra time or more explicit instructions are available can
greatly ease anxiety. Occasionally, it may be necessary to allow a student to take
Students with Dyslexia / 6

the test in another room or at another time. Knowing that the teacher is fair and
compassionate certainly helps alleviate apprehension.

Conclusion

32. An appropriate academic intervention program is necessary for students

with dyslexia (Richardson, 1994). As inclusive classrooms become increasingly
prevalent, more and more teachers will be called upon to meet the needs of
students with dyslexia. Teachers should remember that although dyslexia is
“invisible”, it is a very real disability. These interventions are meant to give the
student with dyslexia an equal chance, not an unfair advantage. They should
serve only as a starting point. As teachers struggle with balancing the needs of
students with dyslexia with those of other students, it is hoped that they will
create strategies of their own that will be practical and beneficial.
Students with Dyslexia / 7

References
Brinckerhoff, L., Shaw, S., & McGuire, J. (1993). Promoting postsecondary
education for students with learning disabilities. Austin, TX: Pro-Ed.
Clark, D. (1988). Dyslexia: Theory & practice of remedial instruction. Parkton,
MD: York Press.
Frith, U. (1986). Beneath the surface of developmental dyslexia. In K.E.
Patterson, J.C. Marshall, & M. Coltheart (Eds.), Surface dyslexia (pp. 301-30).
Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Greene, J. (1993, Conference Edition), Programs that work: Perspectives.
Baltimore, MD: Orton Dyslexia Society.
Kamhi, A.G. (1992). Response to historical perspective: A developmental
language perspective. Journal of Learning disabilities, 25(1), 48-52.
Louisiana State Department of Education. (1992). Guidelines for the
implementation of the Louisiana Law for the Education of Dyslexic Students.
Baton Rouge, LA: Author.
Orton Dyslexia Society (1988). Definition. Perspectives. Baltimore, MD: Author.
Richardson, S. (1994). Doctors ask questions about dyslexia. Baltimore, MD:
Orton Dyslexia Society.
Ryan, M. (1994). The other sixteen hours. Baltimore, MD: Orton Dyslexia
Society.
Vail, P. (1993, Conference Edition). Watch out for the hole in whole language.
Perspectives. Baltimore, MD: Orton Dyslexia Society.
West, T. (1991). In the mind’s eye. Buffalo, NY: Prometheus Books.
Wilkins, A., Garside, A., & Enfield, M. (1993). Basic facts about dyslexia.
Baltimore, MD: Orton Dyslexia Society.

Answer in your own words in English, unless otherwise indicated.

1. What possible misconception are the writers hinting at in paragraph 1?

Answer :

2. Distinguish in Hebrew between developmental and acquired dyslexia.

Answer :

Answer the question below in English.

3. What hope does paragraph 2 offer to the dyslexics?
Answer :

Answer the question below in English.

4. In what important respect – paragraphs 4-5 – do slow learners differ from
students with learning disability?
Answer :
Students with Dyslexia / 8

Answer the question below in English.

5. What are dyslexics – paragraph 6 – often suspected of?
Answer :

Answer the question below in English.

6. Explain the difference between accommodation and modification –
paragraphs 10-11?
Answer :

Answer the question below in English.

7. Why are visual and oral presentations of the lesson’s objective –
paragraphs 13-14 – so important for dyslexics?
Answer :

Complete the sentence below.

8. In the case of those students who comprehend very well through the use of
context and prior experiences – paragraph 22 – one may safely assume that they
will eventually

Answer the question below in Hebrew.

9. The various techniques suggested by the writers will serve by their own
admission – paragraph 32 – merely as a starting point; what can and should be
done beyond that point?
Discuss: