Chapter 4:

Network Access

Introduction to Networks

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 Chapter 4: Objectives

Students will be able to:

 Explain how physical layer protocols and services
support communications across data networks.
 Build a simple network using the appropriate.
 Explain the role of the data link layer in supporting
communications across data networks.
 Compare media access control techniques and logical
topologies used in networks.

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Chapter 4
4.1 Physical Layer Protocols
4.2 Network Media
4.3 Data Link Layer Protocols
4.4 Media Access Control
4.5 Summary

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Getting it Connected
Connecting to the Network

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Getting it Connected
Connecting to the Network

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Getting it Connected
Network Interface Cards
Connecting to the Wireless LAN with a Range Extender

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Purpose of the Physical Layer
The Physical Layer

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Purpose of the Physical Layer
Physical Layer Media

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Purpose of the Physical Layer
Physical Layer Standards

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Purpose of the Physical Layer
Physical Layer Standards

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Fundamental Principles of Layer 1
Physical Layer Fundamental Principles
Physical
Media Frame Encoding Technique Signalling Method
Components
• UTP • Manchester Encoding • Changes in the
• Coaxial • Non-Return to Zero (NRZ) techniques electromagnetic field
• Connectors • 4B/5B codes are used with Multi-Level • Intensity of the
• NICs Transition Level 3 (MLT-3) signaling electromagnetic field
Copper cable • Ports • 8B/10B • Phase of the
• Interfaces • PAM5 electromagnetic wave

• Single-mode Fiber • Pulses of light • A pulse equals 1.

• Multimode Fiber • Wavelength multiplexing using • No pulse is 0.
• Connectors different colors
Fiber Optic • NICs
cable • Interfaces
• Lasers and LEDs
• Photoreceptors

• Access Points • DSSS (direct-sequence spread- • Radio waves

Wireless • NICs spectrum)
• Radio • OFDM (orthogonal frequency division
media
• Antennae multiplexing)

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 Fundamental Principles of Layer 1
Bandwidth
 Bandwidth is the capacity of a medium to carry data.
 Digital bandwidth measures the amount of data that can flow from one place
to another in a given amount of time.
 Bandwidth is typically measured in kilobits per second (kb/s) or megabits per
second (Mb/s).
The practical bandwidth of a network is determined by a combination of
factors:
 The properties of the physical media
 The technologies chosen for signaling and detecting network signals
 Physical media properties, current technologies, and the laws of physics all
play a role in determining available bandwidth.

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Fundamental Principles of Layer 1
Throughput

Throughput is the
measure of the
transfer of bits
across the media
over a given
period of time.
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Fundamental Principles of Layer 1
Types of Physical Media
 Various standards organizations have contributed to the definition of the
physical, electrical, and mechanical properties of the media available for
different data communications

Ex: different types of interfaces and ports available on a 1941 router

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Network Media
Copper Cabling

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Network Media
Copper Cabling
• Networks use copper media because it is inexpensive,
easy to install, and has low resistance to electrical current.
• Copper media is limited by distance and signal interference
 Electromagnetic interference (EMI) or radio
frequency interference (RFI) - caused by fluorescent
lights or electric motors, can distort and corrupt the data
signals being carried by copper media.
 Crosstalk - caused by the electric or magnetic fields of
a signal on one wire to the signal in an adjacent wire.

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Copper Cabling
Characteristics of Copper Media

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Copper Cabling
Copper Media

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Copper Cabling
Unshielded Twisted-Pair (UTP) Cable
• Unshielded twisted-pair (UTP) cabling is the most common
networking media.
• RJ-45 connectors

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Copper Cabling
Shielded Twisted-Pair (STP) Cable
• Shielded twisted-pair (STP) provides better noise protection
than UTP cabling.
• STP more expensive and difficult to install than UTP
• RJ-45 connector
Braided or Foil Shield

Foil Shields

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 Copper Cabling
Coaxial Cable
• Coaxial cable was
traditionally used in cable
television capable of
transmitting in one direction
• The coaxial cable design
has been adapted for use in:
 Wireless installations:
Coaxial cables attach
antennas to wireless
devices.
 Cable Internet
installations: Cable
service providers are
currently converting their
one-way systems to two-
way systems to provide
Internet connectivity to
their customers.
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Copper Cabling
Cooper Media Safety

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UTP Cabling
Properties of UTP Cabling

UTP cable have discovered that they can limit the negative effect
of crosstalk by:
•Cancellation: pair wires in a circuit, two wires in an electrical
circuit are placed close together, their magnetic fields are the
exact opposite of each other
•Varying the number of twists per wire pair: UTP cable must
follow precise specifications governing how many twists or braids
are permitted per meter (3.28 feet) of cable.
•Each colored pair is twisted a different number of times.
Presentation_ID © 2008 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 23
 UTP Cabling
UTP Cabling Standards

Note: Some manufacturers are making cables

exceeding the TIA/EIA Category 6a
specifications
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UTP Cabling
UTP Connectors

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UTP Cabling
UTP Connectors

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UTP Cabling
Types of UTP Cable

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 UTP Cabling
Testing UTP Cables

AUTP cable tester should be

used to test for the following
parameters:
 Wire map
 Cable length
 Signal loss due to attenuation
 Crosstalk

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Fiber Optic Cabling
Properties of Fiber Optic Cabling

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 Fiber Optic Cabling
Properties of Fiber Optic Cabling
Optical fiber cable:
 very popular for interconnecting infrastructure network devices.
 It permits the transmission of data over longer distances and at
higher bandwidths (data rates) than any other networking
media.
 Bits are encoded on the fiber as light impulses.
 To transmit light between the two ends with minimal loss of
signal.
 fiber-optic cable can transmit signals with less attenuation and
is completely immune to EMI and RFI.

Presentation_ID © 2008 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 30
 Fiber Optic Cabling
Properties of Fiber Optic Cabling
Fiber-optic cabling is now being used in four types of industry:
 Enterprise Networks: Fiber is used for backbone cabling
applications and interconnecting infrastructure devices.
 FTTH and Access Networks: Fiber-to-the-home (FTTH) is used
to provide always-on broadband services to homes and small
businesses. FTTH supports affordable high-speed Internet
access, as well as telecommuting, telemedicine, and video on
demand.
 Long-Haul Networks: Service providers use long-haul terrestrial
optical fiber networks to connect countries and cities. Networks
typically range from a few dozen to a few thousand kilometers
and use up to 10 Gb/s-based systems.
 Submarine Networks: Special fiber cables are used to provide
reliable high-speed, high-capacity solutions capable of or
surviving in harsh undersea environments up to transoceanic
distances.
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Fiber Optic Cabling
Fiber Media Cable Design

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Fiber Optic Cabling
Types of Fiber Media

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 Fiber Optic Cabling
Network Fiber Connectors
• Straight-Tip (ST): An older
bayonet style connector
widely used with multimode
fiber.
• Subscriber Connector
(SC): It is a widely adopted
LAN and WAN connector.
This connector type is used
with multimode and single-
mode fiber.
• Lucent Connector (LC): is
quickly growing in popularity
due to its smaller size. It is
used with single-mode fiber
and also supports multimode
fiber.
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Fiber Optic Cabling
Network Fiber Connectors

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Fiber Optic Cabling
Testing Fiber Cables
Three common types of
fiber-optic termination and
splicing errors are:
•Misalignment: The fiber-
optic media are not
precisely aligned to one
another when joined.
•End gap: The media
does not completely touch
at the splice or
connection.
•End finish: The media
ends are not well polished
or dirt is present at the
termination.
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Fiber Optic Cabling
Fiber versus Copper

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Wireless Media
Properties of Wireless Media

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Wireless Media
Types of Wireless Media

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Wireless Media
Wireless LAN

Cisco Linksys EA6500 802.11ac wireless router

The benefits of wireless data communications technologies:

• the savings on costly premises wiring
• the convenience of host mobility.
• However: network administrators need to develop and apply
stringent security policies and processes to protect wireless
LANs from unauthorized access and damage.

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Wireless Media
802.11 Wi-Fi Standards

Backwards
Standard Maximum Speed Frequency
compatible

802.11a 54 Mbps 5 GHz No

802.11b 11 Mbps 2.4 GHz No

802.11g 54 Mbps 2.4 GHz 802.11b

2.4 GHz or 5
802.11n 600 Mbps 802.11b/g
GHz
1.3 Gbps 2.4 GHz and 5.5
802.11ac 802.11b/g/n
(1300 Mbps) GHz

7 Gbps 2.4 GHz, 5 GHz

802.11ad 802.11b/g/n/ac
(7000 Mbps) and 60 GHz

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Purpose of the Data Link Layer
The Data Link Layer

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Purpose of the Data Link Layer
Data Link Sublayers

Network

LLC Sublayer

Data Link

MAC Sublayer

Bluetooth
Ethernet

802.15
802.11
Wi-Fi
802.3
Physical

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Purpose of the Data Link Layer
Media Access Control

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 Purpose of the Data Link Layer
Providing Access to Media
At each hop
along the path, a
router:
• Accepts a frame
from a medium
• De-encapsulates
the frame
• Re-encapsulates
the packet into a
new frame
• Forwards the
new frame
appropriate to the
medium of that
segment of the
physical network
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Data Link Layer
Layer 2 Frame Structure

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Layer 2 Frame Structure
Creating a Frame

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Data Link Layer
Layer 2 Standards

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Layer 2 Standards
Data Link Layer Standards
Standard
Networking Standards
organization

• 802.2: Logical Link Control (LLC)

• 802.3: Ethernet
• 802.4: Token bus
IEEE • 802.5: Token passing
• 802.11: Wireless LAN (WLAN) & Mesh (Wi-Fi certification)
• 802.15: Bluetooth
• 802.16: WiMax

• G.992: ADSL
• G.8100 - G.8199: MPLS over Transport aspects
ITU-T • Q.921: ISDN
• Q.922: Frame Relay

• HDLC (High Level Data Link Control)

ISO • ISO 9314: FDDI Media Access Control (MAC)

ANSI • X3T9.5 and X3T12: Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI)

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Topologies
Controlling Access to the Media

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 Topologies
Physical and Logical Topologies
Physical topology:
Refers to the physical
connections and
identifies how end
devices and
infrastructure devices
such as routers,
switches, and wireless
access points are
interconnected.

Logical topology:
• the way a network
transfers frames from one
node to the next.
• consists of virtual
connections between the
nodes of a network.
• data link layer protocols.
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WAN Topologies
Common Physical WAN Topologies

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WAN Topologies
Physical Point-to-Point Topology

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WAN Topologies
Logical Point-to-Point Topology

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WAN Topologies
Half and Full Duplex
Half Duplex

Full Duplex

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LAN Topologies
Physical LAN Topologies

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LAN Topologies
Logical Topology for Shared Media

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LAN Topologies
Contention-Based Access

Characteristics Contention-Based Technologies

• Stations can transmit at any time • CSMA/CD for 802.3 Ethernet networks
• Collision exist • CSMA/CA for 802.11 wireless networks
• There are mechanisms to resolve
contention for the media

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LAN Topologies
Multi-Access Topology

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LAN Topologies
Controlled Access

Characteristics Controlled Access Technologies

• Only one station can transmit at a time • Token Ring (IEEE 802.5)
• Devices wishing to transmit must wait • Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI)
their turn
• No collisions
• May use a token passing method

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LAN Topologies
Ring Topology

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Data Link Frame
The Frame

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Data Link Frame
The Header

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Data Link Frame
Layer 2 Address

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Data Link Frame
The Trailer

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Data Link Frame
LAN and WAN Frames

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Data Link Frame
Ethernet Frame

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Data Link Frame
Point-to-Point Protocol Frame

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Data Link Frame
802.11 Wireless Frame

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Network Access
Summary
• Physical Layer Protocols
• Network Media
• Data Link Layer Protocols
• Media Access Control

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Presentation_ID © 2008 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 71