GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING I (CE208)

MODULE VI

STABILITY OF SLOPES
 An earth slope is an unsupported, inclined surface of soil mass.
 They are formed for railway formations, highway embankments, earth dams, canal
banks and many other locations.

 The failure of slope may lead to loss of life and property. Therefore it is essential to
check the stability of slopes

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The stability of soil slope depends on the strength of the Soil slope. If the shear stress

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developed in the soil slope is more than the shear strength of the soil slope, then it will
fail.
 The factors causing slope failures can be classified into two:
1) The factors which cause an increase in the shear stresses.- stresses may
increase due to weight of water causing saturation of soils, surcharge loads,
seepage pressure, steepening of slopes or any other cause.
2) The factors which cause a decrease in the shear strength of the soil – loss of
shear strength may occur due to an increase in water content, increase in pore
water pressure, shock or cyclic loads or any other cause.
TYPES OF SLOPE FAILURE
Different types of slope failures are
1. Rotational failure
2. Translational failure
3. Compound failure
4. Wedge failure
Rotational failure
 Failure occurs by the rotation along a slip surface by downward and outward
movement of soil mass
 The slip surface is generally circular

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Rotational failures are further divided into
a) Toe failure: The failure occurs along the surface that passes through the toe
b) Slope failure: The failure occurs along the surface that intersect the slope above the
toe.
- Weak plane exists above toe
c) Base failure: The failure occurs along the surface that passes below the toe.
- Weak plane exist below toe

Translational failure
 Occurs in infinite slope
 Occurs along the surface parallel to the slope

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Compound failure
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Combination of rotational failure and translational failure
 A compound failure is curved at both ends and plane in the middle

Wedge failure
 A failure along an inclined plane
 It occurs when distinct blocks of soil are get separated

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SLOPE STABILITY ANALYSIS
- The stability of slopes depends on the stress developed and the strength of the slope.
- The ratio of strength to the stress developed is defined as the factor of safety of slope.
- The slope is stable if the factor of safety is greater than 1.
- The Factor of safety for slope is defined in three different terms

1. Factor of safety with respect to Shear strength (Fs)

The ratio of shear strength to the shear stress developed is defined as the factor of safety with
respect to Shear strength

S – shear strength
τm – Shear stress developed or mobilized shear strength
c – cohesion
cm – Cohesion mobilized (developed)
σ – Normal presusure
ϕ – friction angle

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ϕm – friction angle mobilized (developed)
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2. Factor of safety with respect to Cohesion (Fc)

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The ratio of available cohesion (c) to the mobilized cohesion (cm) is defined as the factor of
safety with respect to cohesion

3. Factor of safety with respect to friction (Fϕ)

The ratio of available friction (ϕ) to the mobilized friction (ϕm) is defined as the factor of
safety with respect to friction

In slope stability analysis, Generally the three factor of safety are taken equal

TAYLOR’S STABILITY NUMBER AND STABILITY CHARTS

Stability number
The stability number (Sn) is defines as

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Stability charts
- Stability charts indicates the stability number for different slope angle i and friction
angle ϕm

Fig 18.3
- There are 5 parameters, viz cm, γ, H, I and φm.
- If φm = 0 (purely cohesive soils), a sixth parameter Df becomes also important.

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Fig 18.4

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Uses
- The stability number can be used to determine the factor of safety of a given slope.
For the known values of I and φm, the value of stability number (Sn) is determined
from the chart and the factor of safety is determined as

- The stability charts can also be used to determine the steepest slope for a given factor
of safety. The stability number is computed from the equation

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GRAPHICAL METHOD OF SLOPE STABILITY ANALYSIS
1. Swedish Circle Method
2. Friction Circle Method
SWEDISH CIRCLE METHOD
 It is also called method of slices
 Actual shape of slip surface in the case of finite slopes is curvilinear. For
convenience, it is approximated as circular
Procedure
1. Consider a slope ADB
2. AB be the circular surface with radius r and center O
3. Take a trial wedge (AB) and divide it into number of slices
4. Determine weight of each slice
5. The weight is resolved into normal and tangential components

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 Normal component = N
Tangential component = T
6. The curved length of each slice is determined
7. The factor of safety is determined using equation

8. The whole procedure is repeated for a new trial wedge and corresponding factor of
safety is determined
9. The circular wedge which gives the minimum factor of safety is the critical circle

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FRICTION CIRCLE METHOD
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Failure slip surface is assumed as circular arc
Procedure
1. Determine c, ϕ, γ and slope angle i
2. Assume several values of ϕm
3. Determine Fϕ for each ϕm assumed

4. For the slope angle i, determine Sn For each ϕm from the stability charts
5. Determine cm for each Sn

6. Calculate Fc for each cm

7. Plot a graph between Fc and Fϕ and determine the factor of safety Fc = Fϕ = Fs

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 COMPACTION OF SOIL
 Compaction means pressing the soil particles close to each other by mechanical
methods
 Air during compaction is expelled from the void space in the soil mass and hence
mass density is increased
 Compaction is an entirely different process than consolidation

Basic differences between compaction and consolidation are:

COMPACTION CONSOLIDATION

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Reduction in volume due to expulsion of air Reduction in volume due to expulsion of

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from voids
Rapid process by mechanical methods
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Gradual process under sustained, static

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Artificial process to increase density
loading
Natural process

Objectives of compaction

 To increase strength and bearing capacity of soil

 To reduce the settlement of soil
 To reduce the permeability of soil

LABORATORY COMPACTION TEST

 To determine the optimum moisture content to obtain maximum density

 Two tests
1. Light compaction test (Standard Proctor test)
2. Heavy compaction test (Modified Proctor test)

1. LIGHT COMPACTION TEST (STANDARD PROCTOR TEST)

Test Apparatus

1. Cylindrical mould with diameter of 100mm and height of 127.3 mm.

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 2. Hammer with a mass of 2.6 kg and free fall height of 310 mm.

Procedure:

1. 3 kg soil passing through 4.75 mm sieve is taken.

2. Water is added to the soil to bring its water content to about 4% if the soil is coarse-

3. Mould is cleaned and greased lightly.

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grained and to about 8% if it is fine-grained.

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4. Mass of empty mould without collar and with base plate is taken.

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5. Collar is fitted to the mould.
6. The soil is filled in three equal layers in the mould and each layer is compacted by 25
blows of rammer with a free fall of 310 mm.
7. Collar is removed and soil is trimmed off.
8. Mass of mould with base plate and compacted soil is taken.
9. The bulk density of compaction can be calculated as

10. Dry density of soil is calculated as

- The values of dry density determined can be plotted against the corresponding
moisture contents
- Dry density first increases with increase in water content till maximum density is
attained. With further increase in water content dry density decreases.

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 - Water content corresponding to maximum dry density is known as Optimum Moisture
Content (OMC) or Optimum Water Content.

Compaction curve

- For a given water content, theoretical maximum density, (ρd) theomax is obtained
corresponding to the condition when there are no air voids (ie S=100%)
- Theoretical maximum dry density is also known as saturated dry density, (ρd)sat.

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Theoretical maximum dry density occurs when S = 100%

2. HEAVY COMPACTION TEST (MODIFIED PROCTOR TEST)

Test Apparatus

1. Cylindrical mold with diameter of 100mm and height of 127.3 mm.

2. Hammer with a mass of 4.89 kg and free fall of 450 mm.

Procedure:

- The procedure is same as that of light compaction test. The soil taken is 5 kg. The soil
is compacted in five layers with 25 tamping.
- Dry densities are obtained for different water contents and compaction curve is drawn

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 - The curve is higher than and to the left of that obtained from a standard Proctor test.
- The heavier compaction increases the maximum density but decreases the optimum
water content

COMPACTION OF SANDS

- In case of pure sandy soils, effect of water content on dry density is not well defined
when the water content is below the optimum value.
- Dry density decreases with an increase in water content, due to capillary tension in
pore water.
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Capillary tension resists the tendency of soil particles to take a dense state and hence
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the volume increase. This phenomenon is known as bulking of sand.

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- Maximum bulking occurs at a water content of about 4 to 5%
- With further increase in water content dry density increases as the meniscus is
destroyed and particles are able to shift and take a closer packing. Maximum dry
density occurs when the soil is fully saturated
- If the water content is increased beyond this point, the dry density again decreases.

FACTORS AFFECTING COMPACTION

1. Type of soil : Coarse grained soil attain high dry density at low OMC than that of fine
grained soil (Fig f1)

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 2. Water content: Initially the dry density increases with water content. Beyond a
certain limit the dry density decreases (Fig f2)
Initially at lower water content, soil is stiff. As the water content increases the soil get
lubricated. Hence on compaction the soil particles slide over the other and achieve
most dense state increasing the density of soil. But beyond optimum, water takes up
the spaces that would have been occupied by the solid particles. Hence density
decreases.

Fig f1 Fig f2 Fig f3

3. Compaction effort: As the amount of compaction (or number of blow) increases, the
dry density also increases. (Fig f3)

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4. Method of compaction: The soils in the fields are compacted using different

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methods. The density achieved also depends on the methods adopted.

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5. Admixtures: The compaction of a soil can be improved by adding some admixtures.

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The commonly using admixtures are lime, cement and bitumen

EFFECT OF COMPACTION ON PROPERTIES OF SOIL

- The effect of compaction on various soil properties is discussed below.

- Here dry of optimum means when the water content is less than the optimum and wet
of optimum means when the water content is more than the optimum

Soil properties Dry side Wet side

1. Soil structure Flocculated structure Dispersed structure
Decrease with increase in water Increase with increase in water
2. Permeability
content content
3. Swelling More swelling Less swelling
4. Pore water
Less PWP High PWP
pressure(PWP)
5. Shrinkage Less shrinkage More shrinkage
6. Compressibility Less compressible Highly compressible

7. Stress-strain Steeper stress-strain curve and Flattened stress-strain curve and

relationship high modulus of elasticity low modulus of elasticity

8. Shear strength More Shear strength Less Shear strength

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FIELD COMPACTION METHODS

Several methods are used for compaction in the field.

1. Tampers
2. Rollers
3. Vibratory compactors
4. Vibrofloatation Method
5. Compaction by pounding
6. Compaction by explosives
7. Compaction Piles

1. Tampers

 Tampers used to compact soil adjacent to existing structures, where other methods
cannot be used
 Can be used to compact all types of soil
(i) Hand operated tamper
a. consist of block of iron connected to a wooden rod
b. Tamper is lifted and dropped to the soil to be compacted
(ii) Mechanical operated tamper

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c. Powered by compresses air or gasoline

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2. Rollers
Types of rollers KTU
1. Smooth wheel roller
2. Pneumatic-tyred roller
3. Sheep foot roller
Smooth wheel roller

 Consist of three wheels

 2 large wheel at the rear & 1 small wheel in the front

 Front wheel made of heavy steel

 Powered by diesel engines

 Used for finishing operations

 Used for compaction of granular base course of highways

Pneumatic-tyred roller
• Consist of 9 to 11 heavy wheels

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 • Compact the soil by kneading action
• Used for both cohesive and cohesionless soils
• Best roller for general use
Sheep foot roller
• Consist of a hollow drum with large number of projections
• Hollow drum is filled with water or aggregates to increase the weight
• Ideally used for cohesive soil
• Compaction done by tamping and kneading action
3. Vibratory Compactors
• Vibrations are induced in the soil during compaction
• Suitable for granular soil
• Vibratory roller
• Vibrating plate compactor
4. Vibroflotation Method
• For compacting thick , loose sandy soil
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•
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Consist of a cylindrical tube fitted with water jet and rotating eccentric weight to
cause vibration
5. Compaction by Pounding
• Also called dynamic compaction
• Dropping a heavy mass from a large height
• A closely spaced grid pattern is selected for compaction
• Suitable for granular soil
6. Compaction by Explosives
• The shock waves and vibration due to explosion is used to compact soil
• Consist of dynamite, gelatin dynamite and ammonite
• For saturated cohesionless soil
7. Precompression or Preloading
• For silt and clay
• Soil is preloaded before construction
• Preloading in the form of earthen fill

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 • Removed after necessary compaction is achieved
8. Compaction Piles or Sand Piles
• For cohesionless soil
• A pipe pile is driven into the soil
• Soil is compacted by the vibration
• The space left is backfilled with sand

PLACEMENT WATER CONTENT

 The water content applied in the field for compaction is called placement water
content
 It may be different from OMC obtained in the lab.
 To avoid large swelling, soils are compacted with water content more than the OMC
 To obtain more shear strength, soil is compacted with water content less than the
OMC

RELATIVE COMPACTION

- The maximum dry density obtained in the field may be different from maximum dry

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density obtained in the lab

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The ratio of dry density in the field to the maximum density obtained in the lab is

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known as the Relative Compaction
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COMPACTION CONTROL

 It is necessary to check the density and water content in the field to achieve effective
compaction
 Compaction control is done by measuring the dry density and water content of the
compacted soil in the field

Control of Density

 Dry density in the field are measured by core cutter method or sand replacement
method

Control of Water content

 Water content in the field is measured by calcium carbide method, alcohol method,
sand bath method and Proctor needle method

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Compaction control by Proctor needle method

 Used to measure the water content in the field indirectly

 Proctor’s needle consists of a rod attached to a spring-loaded plunger. The stem of
plunger is marked to read the resistance recorded during the test.
 The needle shank has graduations to indicate the depth of penetration
 Varying cross sections of needle points are available.
 The needle is penetrated into the soil after the soil has been compacted at a given
water content in the compaction test in the laboratory
 The penetration force is read on stem at top
 The force required for penetration depends upon the water content
 A calibration curve is prepared between water content and penetration resistance
 Water content is determined from the calibration curve corresponding to the
penetration resistance of the compacted soil in the field

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Proctor Needle

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