PROCESS-CONTROL BLOCK DIAGRAM

Control System Objective

• In principle, the objective of a control system is to make the error in Equation exactly
zero, but the control system responds only to errors (i.e., when an error occurs, the
control system takes action to drive it to zero).
e(t) = r - c(t)……(1)
• Conversely, if the error were zero and stayed zero, the control system would not be doing
anything and would not be needed in the first place.
• Therefore, this objective can never be perfectly achieved, and there will always be some
error. The question of evaluation becomes one of how large the error is and how it varies
in time.
• A practical statement of control system objective is best represented by three
requirements:
1. The system should be stable.
2. The system should provide the best possible steady-state regulation.
3. The system should provide the best possible transient regulation.
• If the output of control system for an input varies with respect to
time, then it is called the time response of the control system. The
time response consists of two parts.
Transient response
Steady state response
• The response of control system in time domain is shown in the
following figure.
Steady State Response of Control System
• Steady state occurs after the system becomes settled and at the
steady system starts working normally. Steady state response of
control system is a function of input signal and it is also called as
forced response.
Transient Response
• After applying input to the control system, output takes certain time
to reach steady state. So, the output will be in transient state till it
goes to a steady state. Therefore, the response of the control system
during the transient state is known as transient response.
PROCESS CHARACTERISTICS:
The selection of what controller modes to use in a process is a function of the characteristics of the
process.

Process Equation:
• If any one of the above parameter changes a change in temperature.
• To bring the temperature back to the set point value the steam flow rate is
changed, That is heat input to the process.
• The process is described by the process equation
• The liquid temperature is TL is a function TL = F ( QA, QB, QS, TA,TS, TO )
• This process could be described by a process equation where liquid temperature
is a function as
FIGURE 9.1 Control of temperature by process control.

Curtis Johnson
Process Control Instrumentation Technology, 8e]
Process load
• It is possible to identify a set of values for the process parameters that
result in controlled variable having the set point values.
• The process load refers to this set of parameters excluding the controlled
variable.
• When all parameters have their nominal value, and is called nominal load
on the system.
• The parameter change from nominal value then than process load change
has occurred.
• The controlling variable is adjusted to compensate for this load change and
its effect on the dynamic variable to bring it back to the set point.
Process lag
• A process load change or transient cause a change controlled
variable.
• A process loop respond to assure some finite time later that the
variable return to the set point value. Part of this time consumed by
the process it self's and is called process lag.
(or)
• A delay in reaction of the controller variable to a change of load
variable.
• Inlet flow is suddenly doubled
• A large process load change radically change (reduce) the liquid temperature
• The control loop respond by opening the steam inlet valve to allow more steam
• And heat input to bring the liquid temperature back to the set point
• The loop itself react faster than the process
• The physical opening and of the control valve is the slowest part of the loop
• Once steam flowing at the new rate the body of the liquid must be heated by the
steam before the set point value reached again.
• This time delay or process lag is the heating function of process and not the
control system.
• No advantages in design of control system many times faster than the process lag.
The tendency to adopt some value to controlled variable for nominal load with no
control action. Self Regulation
Related Terms
• Process Load: The term process load refers to a set of parameters that
influences or bring changes in the process excluding the controlled
variable.
• Nominal Load: All the parameters have their normal or nominal value
• Transient : A temporary or sudden change or the variation of one of
the variable is called transient.
• Process Lag : A process control loop responds to ensure that some
finite time later, the variable returns to the set point value. Part of
this time is consumed by the process itself and that time is called
process lag.
Related Terms
• Control Lag : Control lag refers to the time for the process control
loop to make necessary adjustment to the final control element.
• Dead Time : Another time variable associated with process control is
a function of both process control system and the process. This is the
elapsed time between the instant of deviation (error) occurs and
when the corrective action first occurs.
• Cycling : Oscillation of error about the zero value. This means the
dynamic variable cycling above and below the set point. For cycling
we are interested in amplitude and period of oscillation
CONTROL SYSTEM PARAMETERS
• To review: (1) Inputs to the controller are a measured indication of
both the controlled variable and a set point representing the desired
value of the variable, expressed in the same fashion as the
measurement; (2) the controller output is a signal representing action
to be taken when the measured value of the controlled variable
deviates from the set point.
• The measured indication of a variable is denoted by b, and the actual
variable is denoted by c. Thus, if a sensor measures temperature by
conversion to resistance, the actual variable is temperature in degrees
Celsius, but the measured indication is resistance in ohms.
FIGURE 9.2 The error detector and controller.

Copyright ©2006 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Curtis Johnson
Upper Saddle Rivr, New Jersey 07458
Process Control Instrumentation Technology, 8e] All rights reserved.
Error
• The deviation or error of the controlled variable from the setpoint is
given by

• Equation (2) expresses error in an absolute sense, or in units of the

measured analog of the control signal. Thus, if the setpoint in a 4- to
20-mA range corresponds to 9.9 mA and the measured value is 10.7
mA, we have an error of -0.8mA .
Controller Modes
Two modes of control action
 Discontinuous control mode
 Continuous controller
Discontinuous control mode
• In Discontinuous mode the controller command intimates a
discontinuous change in the controller parameters.
Different types of discontinuous modes
•Two position mode •Multi position mode •Floating control mode
Continuous mode
• In continuous mode, smooth variation of the control parameters is
possible

Different types of continuous modes

• Proportional controller (P)
• Integral controller (I)
• Derivative controller (D)
• Composite control modes
Composite controller modes Composite controller modes combine the
continuous control modes
• Proportional – Integral (PI)
• Proportional – Derivative (PD)
• Proportional – Integral – Derivative (PID)
• P depends on the present error
• I on the accumulation of past errors
•D is a prediction of future errors, based on current rate of change
So the importance of PID comes from the above

(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=g7apd9a7Jxs)
Output Response for Step Input Signal for:
The Characteristics of P, I, and D Controllers
 A proportional controller (Kp ) will have the effect of reducing the rise
time and will reduce but never eliminate the steady state error.
 An integral control (Ki ) will have the effect of eliminating the steady state
error for a constant or step input, but it may make the transient
response slower.
 A derivative control (Kd ) will have the effect of increasing the stability of
the system, reducing the overshoot, and improving the transient response.
In fact, changing one of these variables can change the effect of the other
two. With the PID controller we can set the P+I+D values so that we will not
have any Over or undershoot and reach set point directly.
PID controller has all the necessary dynamics: fast reaction on change
of the controller input (D mode), increase in control signal to lead error
towards zero (I mode) and suitable action inside control error area to
eliminate oscillations (P mode).
This combination of{Present + Past + Future} makes it possible to
control the application very well.
Control actions
• The error that result from the measurement of the controlled
variable may be positive or negative.
Types of control action
• Direct action
• Reverse action
Direct action
• A controller is said to be operated with direct action when an increasing
value of the controller output.
Example level control system.
• If the level rises (controlled variable increases) the control output should
increase to open the valve more to keep the level under control.
Reverse action
• A control is said to be operating with reverse action when an increasing
value of the controlled variable causes a decreasing value of the controller
output.
Example a simple temperature control of furnace with fuel as heat energy.
• If the temperature increases, the control output should decrease to close
the valve for decreasing the fuel input to bring the temperature under
control
ON - OFF Controller
• Two position control is a position type of a controller action in which
manipulated variable is quickly changed to either maximum (or)
minimum value depending upon whether the controlled variable is
greater or less than the set point
• Two position control mode is also called ON – OFF control mode
 P = 0% Cp > Sp
= 100% Cp < Sp
P = controller output
Cp = controlling parameter
Sp = set point
The controller output in two position Mode can be expressed as Two
position mode
ON - OFF Controller
• The minimum value of manipulated variable is zero (off)
• The maximum value is the full amount possible (on)
DISCONTINUOUS CONTROLLER MODES
Two-Position Mode
• The most elementary controller mode is the ON/OFF, or two-position,
mode. This is an example of a discontinuous mode. It is the simplest
and the cheapest, and often suffices when its disadvantages are
tolerable. Although an analytic equation cannot be written, we can, in
general, write

This relation shows that when the measured value is less than the setpoint, full controller
output results. When it is more than the setpoint, the controller output is zero. Aspace heater
is a common example. If the temperature drops below a setpoint, the heater is turned ON.
If the temperature rises above the setpoint, it turns OFF.
ON - OFF Controller The relation
ship shows that
• When the measured value is less
than set point, full control output
result.
• When is more than set point,
the controller output is zero.
Applications
• Liquid bath temperature control
• Level control
• Room heating System
• Air conditioners Applications
Advantages
• Simplest and cheapest.
• Two position controller is suitable for system with slow process rates.

Disadvantages
• Over shoot and Under shoot resultant continuous oscillation
• Neutral zone
 Neutral zone
• In practical implementation of the two position controller
• There is an overlap as ep increases through zero or decreases through
zero
• In this span, no change in controller output occurs fig.1
The controller output changes to 100% when the error changes above
Δ ep
• The controller output changes to 0% when the error changes below Δ
ep Neutral zone
Neutral zone
• The range 2 Δ ep is called as the neutral zone
• This is also called as differential gap
• This is purposefully designed above a certain
level
• This prevents excessive cycling
• This is a desirable Hysteresis in a system
Multi position mode
• A logical extension of two position control is to provide several intermediate
rather than only two settings of the controller output.
• Multi position mode is used to reduce the cycling behavior and over shoot &
undershoot inherent in two position mode.
• A three position mode is one in which the manipulated variable takes one of
three value. • High • Medium • Low
This mode is represented by following equation

Three - position controller is best example for multi position controller • The
controller output in 3- position controller is
• As long as the error is between e2 and e1 of the set point the controller stays at
some nominal setting indicated by a controller output as 50%.
• If the error exceeds the set point by e2 or more then the output is increased to
100%.
• If the error is less than set point by -e1or more , the controller output is zero.
• Three position controller action can be shown in figure (1)
Advantages
• Reduce the cycling behavior
• Reduce the overshoots
• Reduce the undershoots
Disadvantages
• It requires more complicated final control element (It requires more
than two settings).
Proportional control
• A proportional control system is a type of linear feedback control system.
• Proportional action is a mode of controller action in which there is a continuous
linear relation exist between the controller and error.
• Proportion action is mode of control action In which there is a continuous linear
relation between value of the deviation and manipulated variable.
• The action of control variable is repeated and amplified in the action of the
control element.
Proportional controller also called • Correspondence controller • Droop control •
Modulating controller
• In the proportional control algorithm, the controller output is proportional to the
error signal, which is the difference between the set point and the process variable.
• In other words, the output of a proportional controller is the multiplication
product of the error signal and the proportional gain.
•In this control mode a linear relationship exists between the controller
output and error.
P = Kpep + p0
Kp = proportional gain between error and controller output (% per %)
P0 = controller output with no error (%)
ep = error Proportional control mode
Proportional Band (PB)
•It is defined as the range of error to cover 0% to 100% controlled
output.
PB can be expressed by the equation
PB = 100/ Kp
Kp = proportional gain
PB = proportional band
• PB is dependent on gain. High gain means large response to an error
 A plot of the proportional mode output verses error shown in fig.
• Po has been set to 50% and two different gains have been used.
• Proportional band is depend on the gain.
• A High gain means large response to an error but also a narrow error
band with in which output is not saturated.
• A High percentage of PB (Wide band ) correspond to less sensitive
controller settings.
• The characteristics of proportional mode
a) If the error is zero, the output is constant equal to Po.
b) If there is error, for every 1 % of error a correction of Kp percent is
added to or subtracted from Po. depending on the reverse or direct
action of the controller.
Advantages of Proportional Control
• Does not require precise analytical model of the system being controlled.
• Simple implementation.
• Proper for Applications with simple requirement (Overshoot, settling time,
oscillation and so on).
Disadvantages of Proportional Control
• Inaccurate model may cause steady-state error nonzero
• Disturbance input is non zero
• Reference input is non zero
• Noise input
• Inaccurate model may cause oscillations.
Applications
• Proportional control generally used in processes where large load changes
are unlikely or with moderate to small process lag.
OFFSET

• Offset is a permanent ‘residual error’ in the operating point of the

controlled variable when load change occurs
• Offset can be minimized by a larger value of Kp (proportional gain).
OFFSET
• consider a system under nominal load with the controller at 50% and
the error zero as shown in Fig 2.
• If the transient error occurs the system respond by changing
controller output in correspondence with the transient to effect return
to zero error
• Proportional control alone is unable to eliminate the offset
error, which is the difference between the desired value and the
actual value, SP − PV error, as it requires an error to generate an
output.
• When a disturbance (deviation from existing state) occurs in the
process value being controlled, any corrective control action, based
purely on proportional control, will always leave out the error
between the next steady state and the desired setpoint, and result in
a residual error called the offset error.
• If the transient error occurs the system respond by changing
controller out put in correspondence with the transient to effect return
to zero error.
• A load change error that requires a permanent change in controller
output to produce the zero error state.
• One to one correspondence exist between controller out put and
error , it is clear that a new zero controller out put never be achieved.
• The system produces a small permanent offset in reaching a
compromise position of controller output under new load
Integral controller
• Integral action is a mode of action in which the value of the
manipulated variable is changed at rate proportional to the derivation.
• Integral controller can also be called as Reset Controller.
• If the deviation is double over a previous value , the final control
element is moved twice as faster.
• When the controlled variable is at the set point (zero deviation), the
final control element is stationary.
• For actual controller output equation 1 can be integrated and is given
by
p(t) = kI ∫e(t)dt + p(0)
Where p (0) = the controller output at t = 0.
• This equation shows that present controller output p(t) depends
upon the history of error from when observation started at t=0
• Figure a shows how the rate of change of
controller output depends upon the value of
error and the size of the gain.
• Figure b shows how the actual controller
output would look if a constant error occurred.
• You can see how the controller output begins to
ramp up at a rate determined by the gain.
• In the case of gain , the output finally saturates
at 100%, and no further action can occur
(perhaps a control valve is fully open, for
example).
• We see that the faster rate provided by Ki causes much greater
control output at a particular time after the error is generated.
Characteristics of integral controller
• If the error is zero, the output stay fixed at a value to what it was
when error went to zero.
• If the error is not zero, the output will begin to increase or decrease
at a rate of ki percent per second for every one percentage of error.
Advantages
• Eliminate the offset.
• If increase gain KI to produce faster response the system become
more oscillatory and may be led to instability.
Disadvantages
• Slow response
• Process lag is to large cyclic response
Applications
• The integral control mode is not used alone but can be for systems
with small process lags and correspondingly small capacities.
Table Comparison of P and I controllers

Controller Initial behaviour Steady state behaviour

p Acts immediately. Offset error always present.

Action according to Kp. Larger the Kp, smaller the error.

I Acts slowly. Error signal always become zero.

It is the time integral of the error
signal.
Derivative controller
• The derivative mode of controller operation provides that the controller
output depends on the rate of change of error.
Other Terms of Derivative controller
• Rate action• Lead component • Anticipatory controller
Controller output depends on the rate of change of error
P=KDdep /dt

KD = derivative gain constant

dep /dt = rate of change of error
P = controller output
• Figure illustrates how derivative action changes
the controller output for various rates of
change of error.
• For this example, it is assumed that the
controller output with no error or rate of
change of error is 50%.
• When the error changes very rapidly with a
positive slope, the output jumps to a large
value, and when the error is not changing, the
output returns to 50%.
• Finally, when the error is decreasing—that is,
has a negative slope—the output
discontinuously changes to a lower value.
• The characteristics of the derivative control mode are:
a) If the error is zero, the mode provides no output.
b) If the error is constant in time, the mode provides no output.
c) If the error is changing in time, the mode contributes an output of KD percent for every
1% per second rate of change of error.
d) For direct action, a positive rate of change of error produces a positive derivative mode
output.
Advantages
• The derivative term the controller anticipate what the error will be in the immediate
future and applies control action which is proportional to the current rate of change of
error.
• Fast response (Derivative mode predict process error before they have evolved and take
corrective action in advance of that occurrence).
Disadvantages
• Noisy response with almost zero error it can compute large derivatives and thus yield
large control action, although it is not needed.
Applications
Flow controlling • Chemical reactors • Petroleum industries • Power production
Composite Control Modes

• Due to offset error, proportional mode is not used alone. Similarly,

integral and derivative modes are not used individually in practice.
Thus, to take the advantages of various modes together, the
composite control modes are used. Composite modes of controller
operation combine advantages of each pure mode. The various
composite control modes are:
1. Proportional + Integral mode (PI)
2. Proportional + Derivative Mode (PD)
3. Proportional + Integral + Derivative Mode (PID)
Proportional-Integral Control

• This is a control mode that results from a combination of proportional

mode and integral mode. The analytical expression for this is:
p(t) = Kp e(t) + Kp Ki ∫ e(t) dt + p(0)
• The main advantage of this composite control mode is that the one-
to-one correspondence of proportional mode is available and integral
mode eliminates the inherent offset.
Proportional-Derivative Control Mode

• This involves the series or cascade combination of proportional and

derivative modes. The controller output could be expressed as:

• This system cannot eliminate the offset of proportional controllers.

However, it can handle fast process load changes as long as the offset
error is acceptable.
Proportional Integral Derivative Controller (Three
Mode Controllers)
• The three mode controller uses proportional, integral and derivative (PID)
action and is the most versatile of all controller actions.
• The proportional part of this controller multiplies the error by a constant.
The integral part integrates the error. Finally, the derivative part
differentiates the error.
• The functions of the individual proportional, integral and derivative
controllers complement each other.
• If they are combined it is possible to make a system that responds quickly
to changes (derivative), tracks required positions (proportional), and
reduces steady state errors (integral).
The output of the controller is the sum of the previous three signals as given
in the following equation:

• Where Kp, Ki and Kd are the proportional, integral and derivative gains
respectively.
• The proportional, integral and derivative terms must be individually
adjusted or tuned to a particular system.
Advantages
1. This mode eliminates the offset of proportional mode.
2. It provides the most accurate and stable control of the three controller
types.
3. It is recommended in systems where compensation is required for
frequent changes in load, set point, and available energy.
4. It can help achieve the fastest response time and smallest overshoot.
END