CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT FOR SOCIAL CHANGE

Defining Community
Community can be defined in several ways.

1. A community is usually discussed in terms of its geographic location. This is what is

normally meant when someone says they traveled from Kampala to Bugema, for
example. Our community is the location (i.e. city, town, village, or camp) where we live.
However, a community can involve more than boundaries based on geography.
2. Communities also come with histories and climates, as well as locations. Shared culture,
language, and beliefs or interests can define a community. When people share culture,
language, and beliefs, they are sometimes called “communities of interest,” and can
involve people who do not live in the same place. People in different places can all be
members of the same community of interest, for example, when we speak about the Inuit
community or the business community.
3. Community development is a set of approaches undertaken by individuals, informal
groups and organisations. We believe it should be practised by all sectors, whether
public, private or voluntary. It can be paid or unpaid, qualified or simply experienced.
Note:
1. The role of community development is to support people and community groups to
identify and articulate their needs, and to take practical, collective action to address them.
2. Those who practise community development come from a range of backgrounds and gain
their skills and knowledge both from formal qualifications and through practice.
Community development can – and should – be practised in all sectors, whether public,
private or voluntary.

Why do we need community development?

There are lots of reasons why we need community development now more than ever.

1. Expectations are increasing for communities to take on roles in service design and
delivery, planning and budgets for their local neighborhoods.
2. Accounting for differing and minority voices in the process will be a challenge for
diverse and rapidly changing communities.
3. The Localism Act and greater community control will see local people dealing directly
with statutory authorities, developers and others to negotiate financial benefits and
management or ownership of assets.

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 4. Reduced spending in the public sector brings dangers that deprived communities will
decline further, while prosperous communities may tip into deprivation or experience
widening inequalities. This often leads to tension and unrest.
5. Community development can address issues of power and inequality, and can help
competing community voices to be heard.
6. It can also create communities that are more resilient to stress, preventing tensions from
spilling into unrest.

A Developed Community
“A community is an organic, natural set of relationships, a group in which membership is
valued as an end in itself; which concerns itself with many significant aspects of the lives
of members; which allows competing factions; whose members share commitment to a
common purpose and to procedures for handling conflict in the group; whose members
have responsibility for actions of the group; and whose members have an enduring and
extensive personal contact with each other.”

(Hayden Roberts’, Community Development, p. 25)

Points to help us understand

a) What collective (community-based) problems are common in Kamira Parish?

b) Which of these problems are unique to one type of community or group of people?
c) Which of these problems are common to every community and people?
d) Which of these problems deserve top priority for community development?

Guiding Principles for community development for social change in any community
 Cultural integrity - preserving the primary relationships and values that come from our
cultures (the way of understanding the land and our relationship to it);
 Determination and realism - recognizing our limits and building on strengths;
 Community control - placing control of economic development in the hands of
community members;
 Co-operation and co-ordination – integrating economic development activities with
community efforts in the areas of community wellness, community learning, and
community governance;
 Sustainability - building sustainable economies to benefit future generations; and
 Self-Reliance – building the capacity of individuals, families, and communities in order
to reduce dependency and develop our skills and our resources
Source (SEDS draft 2003)

Typical work activities

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Community development work seeks to actively engage communities in making sense of the
issues which affect their lives, setting goals for improvement and responding to problems and
needs through empowerment and active participation.

A good deal of the work is project based, which means that community development workers
usually have a specific geographical community or social group on which to focus.

Tasks often involve:

 Identifying community skills, assets, issues and needs;

 Ensuring that local people have their say;
 Developing new resources in dialogue with the community and evaluating existing
programmes;
 Building links with other groups and agencies;
 Helping to raise public awareness on issues relevant to the community;
 Preparing reports and policies;
 Raising and managing funds;
 Developing and implementing strategies;
 Liaising with interested groups and individuals to set up new services;
 Mediating in matters of conflict;
 Recruiting and training paid and voluntary staff;
 Planning, attending and coordinating meetings and events;
 Overseeing the management of a limited budget;
 Encouraging participation in activities;
 Challenging inappropriate behaviour;
 General administrative duties.

Community work can be generic or specialised. Generic community work takes place in a
particular geographical area, focusing on working with the community to identify their needs and
issues, and formulating strategies to address those issues. The setting is either urban or rural,
with rural community development work increasingly attracting attention.

Specialised community work focuses on either specific groups within a region (such as the
homeless, the long-term unemployed, families with young children or ethnic minorities) or on
particular concerns such as:

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  Public transport;
 Health;
 Tackling drug abuse.
 Diseases
 Etc

Terms of Social Change

 Social change
 Social justice
 Social activism
 Civic engagement
 Civic dialogue
 Community building
 Social capital
 Community development
 Cultural vitality

What is comprehensive community planning?

Comprehensive community planning is a holistic process that enables a community to build a
roadmap to sustainability, self-sufficiency and improved governance capacity.

Comprehensive community planning is a holistic process undertaken with broad community

participation. Comprehensive approach:
 Enables the community to establish a vision for its future and implement projects to
achieve this vision
 Helps to ensure that community projects and programs are thought through, make sense
and are the best use of resources
 Integrates and links all other plans the community has produced

Processes that are driven by the community, for the community are most effective at achieving
positive change. That’s why the comprehensive community planning process is inclusive and
represents the perspectives of all members, whether they reside within or outside the community.
All members of the community, including Elders, youth, and family representatives, can offer
unique and valuable perspectives on community needs, values and priorities.

A comprehensive community plan addresses key planning areas, all of which are interrelated and
interdependent:
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  Governance
 Land and resources
 Health
 Infrastructure development,
 Culture, social issues, and
 The economy.
Consideration of all key planning areas through one unified process defines community planning
as a holistic and integrated exercise that can lead to sustainable development.

Benefits of planning to your community

Comprehensive community planning provides a framework and process for the community to
explore its core values, establish a vision for the future, and work toward achieving that vision.
Planning can benefit the entire community by creating positive change in a proactive way, while
also protecting the values of the community. Planning can improve the performance of the band
administration and any related organizations, and also enhance the community’s governance
tools and capacity.
Once in place, an effective community plan can:
 Empower the community. The community becomes more self-aware, creates its own
future, and has the tools to respond to change in an effective manner.
 Improve performance. Having a plan leads to informed decision-making, combines
fragmented efforts and decreases duplication, enables efficient use of resources, and
identifies and solves organizational problems.
 Build teamwork and expertise. Planning improves communications within the Nation’s
government, builds managerial and staff skills and supports capacity-building efforts.
 Coordinate future development. The planning process identifies the community’s
priorities for the use of its land base and territory, anticipates future infrastructure and
development needs, and helps to prevent conflicting developments.
 Protect resources. The community is able to identify and protect vulnerable or valuable
areas, traditions, or cultural values and practices.
 Celebrate traditions and culture. The cultural aspects of the community may be a focus
of the planning process.
 Promote healing and reconciliation. Planning helps the community to work together to
proactively address negative or painful community issues by establishing a positive
vision for the future, and by taking the steps necessary to achieve that vision.
 Create economic opportunities. Examining and identifying sustainable economic
opportunities is an essential part of creating a Comprehensive Community Plan. Having a
plan in place will also help to attract investment.

What’s needed to make planning work?

There are some basic needs that apply to all phases of the planning process:
 Community Engagement and Support
 Capacity Building and Training
 Communications
 Resources

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 CHAPTER TWO

SKILLS FOR WORKING IN THE COMMUNITY FOR SOCIAL CHANGE

To have a productive and satisfying working life, all people – whether disabled or not – need to
acquire and use a range of skills. While we often associate the word “skill” with a person’s
ability to perform specific, physical or mental tasks, this is only part of the story. As important as
such skills are, there are other, broader skill elements which need attention.

Types of skills
Skills can be grouped and categorized in many different ways – there is no universal standard
and people use a variety of terms, sometimes in overlapping or contradictory ways. To avoid
confusion, the key types of skills are listed here under the following four headings:
• Foundation skills

The ability to read, understand, and use written material and basic numerical information is an
important basic skill for our daily lives, as is the ability to understand social rights and
obligations.

“Literacy for all is crucial to our efforts to create a world free of poverty and discrimination. No
country can expect to seize the opportunities associated with globalization and technological
progress without equipping their people with basic capabilities.”
United Nations Development Programme

• Core skills for work

Sometimes called “generic skills”, “enabling skills”, “employability skills” or even “key skills”, core
skills for work have been defined as “the skills, knowledge and competencies that enhance a worker’s
ability to secure and retain a job, progress at work and cope with change, secure another job if he/she
so wishes or has been laid off and enter more easily into the labour market at different periods of the
life cycle” (Brewer unpublished. Considerable international attention is now being given to the
development of these skills in all workers. The specific requirements of disabled people in this important
skills area also need to be considered

Core skills for work include:

• Communication skills – listening and understanding, asking questions, using literacy and
numeracy in work settings, persuading, negotiating, sharing information, being assertive and
empathizing.
• Team skills – working with people of different ages, gender, race, religion, ethnicity, culture
and types of disabilities, working as both an individual and as part of a team, knowing how to
define one’s role in a team, identifying the strengths of other team members, coaching,
mentoring and giving feedback.
• Problem solving and decision making skills – identifying and solving problems both
independently and in teams, and developing practical solutions.
• Initiative and enterprise skills – adapting to new situations, being innovative and creative,
identifying opportunities not obvious to others, and translating ideas into action.
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• Planning and organizing skills – managing time and priorities, being resourceful,
establishing goals, planning the use of resources, evaluating alternatives, predicting risk,
collecting and organizing information, understanding basic business systems and their
relationships.
• Self-management skills – having a personal vision and goals, evaluating and monitoring own
performance, articulating own ideas and vision, taking responsibility, being on time, being
efficient, and being self-confident.
• Learning skills – managing own learning, being willing to learn on the job and off the job,
using various methods to learn (for example, mentors, peers, and courses), and applying learning.

Of these core skills for work, two are particularly important for disabled people in developing
countries – learning skills and communication skills.

Learning skills
People learn in different ways and skill development programmes need to understand that no
single approach works for every person or for every situation. Identifying what you know, what
you do not know, and what you can do about it are key learning skills.

Learning skills enable people to:

• Take more responsibility for their own learning;
• Spend their time effectively and stay on task;
• Select the best approach (es) for each task;
• Provide the knowledge and skills needed to begin, follow through, and complete tasks;
• Access a variety of content and reference materials;
• gain the confidence to know when and who to ask for help.

Note: Attitude and motivation are crucial factors in acquiring learning skills.

Communication skills
Oral and written communication skills are the means for sharing knowledge, interests, attitudes,
opinions, feelings, and ideas in order to influence and ultimately lead others. (Van Linden and
Fertman 1998)
Communication skills are necessary to fully participate in the workplace, families, relationships
and society as a whole. They are truly a “life skill” as they enable people to demonstrate empathy
and sensitivity to others, form friendships, express themselves, listen to others and resolve
conflicts. In the workplace, they enable people to work in teams, to take and to give instructions,
to serve customers, to express their needs and to learn. Sometimes disabled people can be
deprived of opportunities to develop the communication skills necessary to succeed in the
workplace

Technical skills
Technical skills are those which equip someone to undertake a particular task. Examples are carpentry,
tailoring, weaving, metal work, lathe operation, basket making, tin-smithing, shoe making and so forth.
More advanced technical skills such as veterinary work, engineering, physiotherapy, and high-level
computer skills are normally referred to as professional skills.

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Entrepreneurial and business management skills
Entrepreneurial and business management skills are those required to succeed in a small
business. They include book keeping, risk assessment, market analysis, planning, goal setting,
problem solving, how to obtain information and other related skills. These skills can require
basic numeracy and literacy, but may be acquired by people with no education at all if the
training is appropriate and if the training materials are designed for people with low literacy. The
extent to which they might be coupled with technical skills varies. For example, managing a
small shop requires entrepreneurial skills but technical skills might not be so important. Running
a business as a tailor requires both highly developed technical and entrepreneurial skills.

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 CHAPTER THREE
COMMUNITY ASSESSMENT IN COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT FOR SOCIAL
CHANGE

A goal of community assessment is to develop an informed understanding of the gaps or needs that
exists within a community and their impacts upon the community members.

Community needs can affect a large or small number of a community members. – Any one who
claims membership in the community? If community needs affect a large number of community
members there will be more support for addressing the needs.

Sometimes community needs are refered to as “community Problems”. This reference should be
avoided in community assessment. Framing a “need” as a “problem” immediately establishes an “Us
versus Them” relationship that prevents collaboration and community building.

Community Assets

These are things that can be used to improve the quality of life.

Another goal of community assessment is to develop a detailed analysis of community assets, or

resources that currently exists in the community and can be used to help meet the community needs.

Community Assets include:

1. Organizations
2. People
3. Partnerships
4. Facilities
5. Funding
6. Policies
7. Regulations, and
8. Community Collective experiences

Any positive aspect of community is an asset that can be leveraged to develop effective solutions.

Approaches of identifying community assets

1. Identify assets that are already known for supporting community needs e.g. community
organizations and individuals that currently provide services to community members or
have provided financial support to address the needs
2. To identify community assets builds upon the experiences of other communities to
highlight resources that may be available. I.e. identify communities with similar
demographics that have successfully addressed similar needs and can provide insight
about the assets used in those communities. The community can then determine if similar
assets can be found in its community.

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Note: A community assessment is an exercise by which a collaborative partnership gathers
information on the current strengths, concerns, and conditions of children, families, and the
community. The information comes from many sources especially parents and family
members and is elicited by many techniques, including interviews, focus groups, and
scanning demographic data collected by local agencies. Because many types of partners
participate in community assessment strategic planners, program staff, administrators,
teachers, parents, and other community members the resulting information is broad, accurate,
and useful.

Guiding Principles of Community Assessments

1. A partnership's vision statement should guide the assessment. The vision

points you toward the information you need in order to take action; the clearer
your vision statement, the more focused and useful your assessment will be.
Refer to your vision statement as you make choices about what information to
look for and how to interpret what you learn. If your vision statement emphasizes
prevention, your assessment will focus on, among other things, young children's
health and nutrition.
2. An assessment should focus on specific information topics such as safety of
children or resources for families. Don't try to address all topics at once or you
may be overwhelmed by the process and lose sight of what you are trying to
accomplish.

3. Assessment is an ongoing process. Continuing your review of the community's

assets and needs over time will help you fine-tune your activities. In this sense,
assessment is closely tied to evaluation (see Chapter 4). Ongoing assessment
enables your partnership to respond to changing conditions--both those changed
by your partnership and those that are beyond your control.

4. An accurate assessment views the community from multiple perspectives. It

recognizes cultural, linguistic, ethnic, and economic diversity as well as special
needs. Information from diverse stakeholders including families, community
members, and agency staff produces a more complete picture of the community.
People's views vary regarding programs, agencies, services, and the relationships
between agency staff and community members. People may also have different
views on the issues strategies should address.

5. An effective assessment takes an in-depth look at diversity within a

community. Because ethnic groups often differ in their opinions about services,
you may want to separate some information by ethnicity. You should also note
differences among people who may be ethnically similar but culturally or
linguistically different--for example, the many groups of people of Hispanic
heritage. There may be differences among first-, second- and third-generation
immigrants. And don't forget that people who share racial or ethnic backgrounds
may or may not live in similar economic and social circumstances.

6. An information coordinator can facilitate information gathering by many

participants. This role is often filled by a staff member from one of the partner
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 organizations--perhaps the school district or the department of health and human
services. The coordinator should have first-hand knowledge of the community
and a thorough understanding of the partnership's vision.

Why conduct community assessment

“Not everything that counts can be counted and not everything that can be counted counts.” ~ Albert

Einstein

There are many benefits of conducting a community assessment

1. There is increased understanding within the community about its needs, why they exist,
and why it is important for the needs to be addressed.
2. Community members have the opportunity to share how the needs impact the quality of
life for the larger community.
3. Community engagement is increased because members from different parts of the
community are included in discussions about needs, assets, and the community’s
response.
4. The community’s strengths and weaknesses are identified.
5. There is an inventory of the resources currently available within the community that can
be leveraged to improve the quality of life for its community members.
6. Communities identify the asset gaps that exist in their communities.
7. Community members have an increased awareness of how they can contribute to their
community’s assets.
8. Community organizations can use the information about community needs to assess their
service delivery priorities.
9. There is data for making decisions about the actions that can be taken to address
community needs and how to use the available assets.
10. Data can be used to inform strategic planning, priority setting, program outcomes, and
program improvements.

THE COMMUNITY ASSESSMENT PROCESS

A six-step process for planning and conducting a community assessment:

Step 1: Define the Scope
Step 2: Decide to Go Solo or Collaborate
Step 3: Collect Data
Step 4: Determine Key Findings
Step 5: Set Priorities and Create an Action Plan
Step 6: Share Your Findings

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 CHAPTER FOUR
PERSPECTIVE OF COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT FOR SOCIAL CHANGE

Community development is a way of strengthening civil society by prioritising the actions of

communities, and their perspectives in the development of social, economic and environmental
policy.

It seeks the empowerment of local communities, taken to mean both geographical

communities, communities of interest or identity and communities organising around specific
themes or policy initiatives. It strengthens the capacity of people as active citizens through
their community groups, organisations and networks; and the capacity of institutions and
agencies (public, private and non-governmental) to work in dialogue with citizens to shape and
determine change in their communities.

Good community development is action that helps people to recognise and develop their ability
and potential and organise themselves to respond to problems and needs which they share.  It
supports the establishment of strong communities that control and use assets to promote social
justice and help improve the quality of community life.  It also enables community and public
agencies to work together to improve the quality of government.

Purpose: People want to live in healthy communities. These are communities in which they:

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  feel able to be who they are
 have positive prospects for their future
 experience respect and equal and fair treatment

Focus: To achieve this people want to be in a community that:

 creates wealth and gives everyone access to its benefits

 cares for all its members, when they need it, throughout their life span
 provides an environment that is safe and attractive
 enables people to express and celebrate their creativity and diverse cultures
 enables everyone to participate in decisions that affect their lives

Methods: To support them to contribute to the creation of such a community, community

development promotes:

 opportunity for people to learn and develop their own skills

 reaches out to and involves those who may be excluded or disadvantaged
 helps communities to create organisations that can tackle their needs and represent their
interests
 works to promote engagement and dialogue between communities and agencies that
affect their lives

A Working Statement on Community Development (from the Standing Conference for

Community Development - a UK wide development network).

This is adopted as a move towards our understanding of Community Development.

 Community Development is crucially concerned with the issues of powerlessness and

disadvantage: as such it should involve all members of society, and offers a practice that is
part of a process of social change.
 Community Development is about the active involvement of people in the issues which
affect their lives. it is a process based on the sharing of power, skills, knowledge and
experience.
 Community Development takes place both in neighbourhoods and within communities of
interest, as people identify what is relevant to them.
 The Community Development process is collective, but the experience of the process
enhances the integrity, skills, knowledge and experience, as well as equality of power, for
each individual who is involved.

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 Community Development seeks to enable individuals and communities to grow and
change according to their own needs and priorities, and at their own pace, provided this does
not oppress other groups and communities, or damage the environment.
 Where Community Development takes place, there are certain principles central to it. The
first priority of the Community Development process is the empowering and enabling of
those who are traditionally deprived of power and control over their common affairs. It
claims as important the ability of people to act together to influence the social, economic,
political and environmental issues which affect them. Community Development aims to
encourage sharing, and to create structures which give genuine participation and
involvement.
 Community Development is about developing the power, skills, knowledge and
experience of people as individuals and in groups, thus enabling them to undertake
initiatives of their own to combat social, economic, political and environmental problems,
and enabling them to fully participate in a truly democratic process.
 Community Development must take the a lead in confronting the attitudes of individuals
and the practices of institutions and society as a whole which discriminates unfairly against
black people, women, people with disabilities and different abilities, religious groups,
elderly people, lesbians and gay men, and other groups who are disadvantaged by society. It
also must take a lead in countering the destruction of the natural environment on which we
all depend. Community Development is well placed to involve people equally on these
issues which affect all of us.
 Community Development should seek to develop structures which enable the active
involvement of people from disadvantaged groups, and in particular people from Black and
Minority Ethnic groups.

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 CHAPTER FIVE

RELATIONSHIP - BUILDING IN COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT FOR SOCIAL

CHANGE

A guide to relationship building: Meeting and working with your neighbour

Intergovernmental relationships bind communities together in a positive way and encourage

collaboration and development and help ensure potential conflict is resolved more effectively when
pursuing a service agreement. Only in recent times has the relationship between Developed
nations/communities governments and local governments been identified as a significant national
opportunity. For much of Canada’s history, provinces, territories and local governments were only
marginally involved in Aboriginal issues. In the past few decades, a number of modern treaties have
resulted in increased interaction between Developed nations/communities and local municipal
governments. To develop a service agreement, Developed nations/communities and local municipal
governments will need to continue to interact and ensure that they are doing so in an effective
manner.

Tips for working effectively toward strong relationships

Show respect
• It is important to not just talk to Developed nations/communities when you need something — get
to know them as individuals.
• Take time to learn about community history, achievements and challenges.
• Refusing food or drink from the hosting Developed nations/communities may be considered
disrespectful.
• Communicate in person rather than by email or telephone.

Communicate effectively
• Let people finish what they are saying and respect silences after someone has finished speaking.
• Be prepared to work in a highly emotional environment when discussing some issues, and be
prepared to listen and not take an issue personally.
• Never refer to Developed nations/communities as stakeholders nor use the term institutionalize;
both have negative associations.
• Some individuals avoid direct eye contact as a sign of respect; do not interpret this as shyness or
being untrustworthy.
• Remember, keep things light! Humour is important.

Make effective decisions

• Plan a sufficient amount of time for meetings, especially if decisions need to be made.
• Try to avoid situations with authoritative decision making or imposed solutions; look for building
consensus in the group, and decisions will be more legitimate.
• Individuals can become uncomfortable if asked to make decisions for the group. Oftentimes,
community consultation, collective decision making, and permission to make decisions must occur.

Why work together

The incentives for service agreements include economies of scale and other benefits to building
partnerships, such as the following:
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• Improving relationships (community-to-community, government-to government)
• Enhancing social standards
• Providing growth and new opportunities to both municipal and developed nations/communities
• Building a stronger labour force
• Increasing capacity with both political and technical staff, due to knowledge sharing
• Implementing working partnerships that become business as usual
• Accommodating regulatory changes; working together to meet standards
• Improving levels of service
• Realizing financial savings

Tips for working effectively toward strong relationships

The following section outlines some quick tips that are commonly overlooked and should be kept in
mind by both parties while building relationships and discussing community needs.
 Ensure that you are talking to the right person
 Attend as many events as possible
 Technical concerns
 Distinguish the political from the technical
 Political concerns

Community engagement
Community engagement can involve community gatherings and meetings, door-to-door information
sharing, press releases, emails and information flyers. Although community engagement is by no
means mandatory, it acts as a powerful mechanism:
o It improves local support of communities working in partnership.
o It addresses concerns and myths from community members.
o It helps bring about behavioural changes from residents of both communities.
These benefits ensure the sustainability of cooperation and service agreements in the long term.

Checklist for positive relationship-building

The following section highlights ways in which both Developed nations/communities governments
and poor communities/developing nations governments can ensure effective relationships.
Be respectful
A successful working relationship will be based on a solid foundation of respect. This means taking
time to learn about your partner, their values, perspectives and community. Being respectful also
means carefully considering the impact of your actions on the other.
Communicate openly
The best way to get to know your neighbour is to have regular face-to-face meetings where open and
respectful communication is encouraged. Service agreements cannot be negotiated by
correspondence; the issues are too complex for such an approach. Open, in-person discussions will
help avoid misunderstandings.
Create value for both parties
Creating mutual goals and keeping your eye on the big picture will help relationships move forward
and help everyone strive to overcome obstacles.
Have realistic expectations
Although it may be obvious, it is worth stating that the issues to be addressed in a service agreement
cannot be resolved in only one meeting. The goal of the first meeting between the poor
communities/developing nations and Developed nations/communities should simply be for each

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party to gain a better understanding of the other party’s concerns and what may be needed to address
them.
Use bottom-up approaches
When working between governments, it is easy to forget that cooperation and solid relationships also
need to occur at a community level. By engaging citizens in information sessions, workshops and
consultations, the entire community benefits and cooperation agreements will be more widely
accepted
Practise integrity
Practicing integrity means working honestly and openly and following through on promises and
obligations. It is closely linked with being trustworthy and being able to trust others, all of which are
important to keep in mind while building relationships.
Use resources and experts
Don’t go it alone! Although the process of relationship building seems overwhelming, there are
plenty of resources, contacts, and experts available to help you. They can answer any questions you
may have about relationship building, dispute resolution, service agreements and community
infrastructure. Refer to our chapter-end references, annotated bibliography and case study section for
more information.
Be flexible
While working in large groups and dealing with complex issues, it is easy to become frustrated and
overwhelmed and to experience delays. By being flexible, you are being responsive to change and
reducing stress and disappointment if things do not go exactly as planned.
Practise equality
Make sure that everyone in the relationship feels like they are being treated fairly. If equality is not
possible, ensure that there is a well-understood reason for any difference in treatment.
Think long-term
Plan for the long term and establish where you would like to see your community in 25–50 years.
You will then be better able to establish your priorities today and identify possibilities for
collaboration in the future.
Clarify decision-making processes and responsibilities
To make your partnership most effective, it is important that both parties clarify decision making
processes (i.e., consensus-based, vote-based) and that parties understand their responsibilities to
attend meetings, participate in decisions and use dispute resolution techniques when necessary. It is
important for everyone to understand exactly what the various actors can offer and what they cannot.
By being open, it is easier to establish each actor’s role in achieving shared objectives.
Establish systems for dispute resolution
In cases where there are disagreements among parties, an established dispute-resolution system can
help parties resolve conflict before relationships are negatively affected

Tools: Templates for relationship building

1. Letter of intent
A letter of intent is a brief letter, usually no more than one page, that outlines why and how your
community would like to build a relationship with the letter recipient’s community. This type of
letter can be used to encourage future meetings and informal discussions where individual
community visions can be discussed and ways in which joint concerns may be dealt with. A letter of
intent is a broad form of communication. It can be used when communicating between high-level
elected officials such as the Chief, the Mayor, the band council or the poor communities/developing
nations council.
.
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 2. Communications protocol
A communications protocol agreement defines the parameters of a relationship between two or more
communities. A communications protocol may also be called a memorandum of understanding,
community accord, relationship agreement or communications agreement. Generally, communities
that have established a mutual interest and identified common community or regional goals will enter
into a communications protocol agreement.
This ensures that regular meetings and ongoing information sharing will occur beyond the current
terms of elected governments. It is a representation of a long-term commitment.
The terms of the protocol may be as specific or vague as the parties prefer, including whether the
agreement is intended to be binding or non-binding. Generally, a communications protocol will
outline the following basic ideas:
Date and Parties: Signatories and when the agreement was created.
Whereas: General statements which outline why cooperating or communicating are important,
statements recognizing jurisdiction and rights, any other statements which reflect the general feeling
of the document.
Now therefore parties agree to the following:
• Purpose and objectives of the agreement
• Principles and values: To guide the relationship (e.g., fairness, transparency, respect, recognition)

Key interests: topics of mutual interest/concern (e.g., service agreements, roads, environmental
sustainability, youth engagement, planning)
Process:
• Frequency of policy and administrative level meetings
• Creation of implementation committees or working groups
• Engagement between administrative and technical levels
• How to share and safeguard information
• How meetings will be chaired
• How agendas will be produced
• The process for decision making
• Time/location of meetings
Dispute resolution: What to do with misinterpretation or disagreement
Terms: how document takes effect, how it gets revised or amended, how long it is valid for
Signatures: who, when, where
A communications protocol must be tailored to meet the unique needs of both communities; sections
may be added to or deleted from the template (below) as necessary.
Note: The template provided is not a legal document and is intended for guidance purposes only.

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 CHAPTER SIX
ASSET – BASED COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT FOR SOCIAL CHANGE

What is Asset Based Community Development (ABCD)

Asset Based Community Development (ABCD) is a strategy for sustainable community-driven
development. Beyond the mobilization of a particular community, ABCD is concerned with how to link
micro-assets to the macro-environment. The appeal of ABCD lies in its premise that communities can
drive the development process themselves by identifying and mobilizing existing, but often unrecognized
assets, and thereby responding to and creating local economic opportunity.

Guiding Principles for ABCD

Most communities address social and economic problems with only a small amount of their total
capacity. Much of the community capacity is not used and is needed! This is the challenge and
opportunity of community engagement. Everyone in a community has something to offer. There is no one
we don’t need.
• Everyone Has Gifts with rare exception; people can contribute and want to contribute. Gifts must be
discovered.
• Relationships Build a Community see them, make them, and utilize them. An intentional effort to
build and nourish relationships is the core of ABCD and of all community building.
• Citizens at the Center, it is essential to engage the wider community as actors (citizens) not just as
recipients of services (clients).
• Leaders Involve Others as Active Members of the Community. Leaders from the wider community
of voluntary associations, congregations, neighborhoods, and local business, can engage others
from their sector. This “following” is based on trust, influence, and relationship.
• People Care About Something agencies and neighborhood groups often complain about apathy.
Apathy is a sign of bad listening. People in communities are motivated to act. The challenge is to
discover what their motivation is.
• Motivation to Act must be identified. People act on certain themes they feel strongly about, such as;
concerns to address, dreams to realize, and personal talents to contribute. Every community is
filled with invisible “motivation for action”. Listen for it.
• Listening Conversation – one-on-one dialogue or small group conversations are ways of discovering
motivation and invite participation. Forms, surveys and asset maps can be useful to guide
intentional listening and relationship building.
• Ask, Ask, Ask – asking and inviting are key community-building actions. “Join us. We need you.”
This is the song of community.
• Asking Questions Rather Than Giving Answers Invites Stronger Participation. People in
communities are usually asked to follow outside expert’s answers for their community problems.
A more powerful way to engage people is to invite communities to address ‘questions’ and
finding their own answer-- with agencies following up to help.
• A Citizen-Centered “Inside-Out” Organization is the Key to Community Engagement A “citizen-
centered” organization is one where local people control the organization and set the
organization’s agenda.
• Institutions Have Reached Their Limits in Problem-Solving all institutions such as government,
non-profits, and businesses are stretched thin in their ability to solve community problems. They
can not be successful without engaging the rest of the community in solutions.
• Institutions as Servants people are better than programs in engaging the wider community. Leaders
in institutions have an essential role in community-building as they lead by

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FIVE KEY ASSETS IN ABCD
Communities can no longer be thought of as complex masses of needs and problems, but rather diverse
and potent webs of gifts and assets. Each community has a unique set of skills and capacities to channel
for community development. ABCD categorizes asset inventories into five groups:
• Individuals: At the center of ABCD are residents of the community that have gifts and skills.
Everyone has assets and gifts. Individual gifts and assets need to be recognized and identified. In
community development you cannot do anything with people’s needs, only their assets. Deficits
or needs are only useful to institutions.
• Associations: Small informal groups of people, such as clubs, working with a common interest as
volunteers are called associations in ABCD and are critical to community mobilization. They
don’t control anything; they are just coming together around a common interest by their
individual choice.
• Institutions: Paid groups of people who generally are professionals who are structurally organized
are called institutions. They include government agencies and private business, as well as
schools, etc. They can all be valuable resources. The assets of these institutions help the
community capture valuable resources and establish a sense of civic responsibility.
• Physical Assets: Physical assets such as land, buildings, space, and funds are other assets that can be
used.
• Connections: There must be an exchange between people sharing their assts by bartering, etc. These
connections are made by people who are connectors. It takes time to find out about individuals;
this is normally done through building relationships with individual by individual.

At the core of ABCD is its focus on social relationships. Formal and informal associations, networks, and
extended families are treated as assets and also as the means to mobilize other assets of the community.
By treating relationships as assets, ABCD is a practical application of the concept of social capital.

What is Social Capital?

Social Capital refers to features of social organizations such as networks, norms, and trust which increase
a society’s productive potential. It is built on a web of relationships that exist within any given
community that allows people to succeed or advance through associating together. Social capital is
present in the networks, norms, and social trust inherent in associations whose members work together in
concerted collaborative action. In a literal sense, social capital is the store of good-will and obligations
generated by social relations.

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 CHAPTER SEVEN
COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT PROCESS
As community development is dynamic, a fixed blueprint for the perfect community

development process is unrealistic.

The main components of the community development framework are outlined in the following
four sections:
1. Building Support
2. Making A Plan
3. Implementing and Adjusting the Plan
4. Maintaining Momentum

1. Building Support

The first step is to create awareness, understanding and support for the community
development process. To build support for community development in your community, you
should know the answers to the following questions:
 Why do you believe a community development approach should be initiated?
 What are the benefits that will result from this approach?
 What first steps need to be taken?
 Who are the key people and/or organizations that should be taking a leadership role?
 What are the longer-term implications of the initiative?

Commitment to any long-term process or action should not be made without

understanding what is to be done, why it is being done, the anticipated benefits and who will be
involved. Community development is a broad concept, so people may have difficulty knowing
where to start and what is expected of them.
This is why identifying the first steps in the process is very important. When interest is
created, you want an immediate way to turn this interest into further exploration and
commitment. Building support for a community development initiative is an on-going task.

Who Should Be Involved?

Community development is an inclusive process. Community members with a shared vision and
a sense of belonging to their community usually initiate the community development process. It
is important, however, that the process be expanded to include the wide range of interests (i.e.
economic, social, environmental) and organizations (i.e. government, labour, business, social
services) that are part of the community.

Don't make assumptions about traditional roles and responsibilities or levels of interests. For
example, many private sector businesses have become increasingly interested in social
development issues and some government agencies are now entering into partnerships with
community organizations to provide effective programs and services covering a wide range of
interests.

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The individual make-up of a community influences who needs to be involved and what activities
will be viewed as legitimate. Ensuring that different cultures and interests are respected and
involved (in a meaningful way) is important.

For example, respecting cultural traditions and religious holidays, being aware of different styles
of communication and ensuring that persons with disabilities can participate fully are all ways
that you can build credibility and support.

Community planning Participants

1. Labour organizations
2. Politicians
3. Financial institutions
4. Community residents
5. Community and Social Services, Churches
6. Government representatives
7. Businesses, Chamber of Commerce, Boards, Clubs
8. Education Health, Justice, Safety
9. Communication and media

The following are a few common mistakes made when a wide cross-section of interests is
present:
 Misunderstanding silence or the tone of voice in both presentations and responses;
 Presenting ideas instead of asking for input;
 Assuming needs instead of investigating and/or clarifying them;
 Treating interactions as competitions instead of learning opportunities;
 Developing frameworks that do not include appropriate examples or thinking
patterns;
 Judging or stereotyping people by their gender, appearance or past; and
 Giving more credence and attention to officially recognized leaders
2 Making a Plan

What is a planning? “the process of determining what to do and how it will be done in the
future, in an organized way, so that the objectives of an individual, a group, a community or an
organization are achieved”.

Developing a community plan involves systematically assessing alternatives and making choices
in the context of a defined community vision. Planning is a process that assists community
members in translating knowledge, concerns and hopes into action.
A community plan is a written document created by community members.
It outlines the following things:
 Where you are now (community strengths, weaknesses, resources);
 Where you want to be (the ideal future for your community);
 The general direction you want to take to close the gap between where you are now
and where you want to be;
 The specific actions within each general direction required to close the gap;
 The resource and capacity issues that need to be addressed; and
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  What success will look like and how to tell when you have been successful.

Community development planning is useful for a number of different things, such as bringing
a community together and finding solutions. The plan and the process should be:
 Integrated,
 Inclusive,
 Realistic,
 Appropriate,
 Results-based,
 Community-based and
 Easy to understand.

Not all community development initiatives require formal plans. Many valuable outcomes have
been obtained through ad hoc or less structured processes

The Benefits of a Community Plan

The benefits of a community plan are that it:
 Creates a long-term framework for decision-making and action;
 Provides a holistic and comprehensive approach to community development;
 Enhances the community's ability to make informed decisions about its development;
 Provides a valuable resource for communicating vision and actions to individuals inside
and out of the community;
 Identifies objectives and actions that can be measured over time; and
 Integrates the perspectives of various community members.

We have to distinguish between the two forms of plans: formal plans and informal plans
 A FORMAL PLAN: is an organized and detailed plan, normally written, for a funded
project
 AN INFORMAL PLAN: is a simple plan; it may not be written – it is a mere statement
of intentions

 THE IMPORTANCE AND SIGNIFICANCE OF PLANNING

1. Planning is very important part of management
2. Without planning, implementation is disorganized and difficult
3. The plan is the basis for project management
4. It is the basis for assessing progress towards your objectives
The planning cycle
Planning often occurs in a chain of activities called the planning cycle. It is called a cycle
because it repeats itself. The planning cycle is composed of the following steps

23
The different steps are supposed to answer the questions below:
1. Situation analysis: where we in relation to where we want to be?
2. Problem analysis and prioritization: of all the problems we have, what are the priorities
that we need to address urgently
3. Programming: what are our goals and objectives? What set of activities should be
implemented and how should they be arranged
4. Implementation: what implementation strategies do we need to put in place to ensure
that the planned activities are implemented
5. Monitoring and evaluation: to what extent have we achieved what we want to achieve
in the plan?
CHARACTERISTICS OF PLANNING
Planning has several characteristics:
1. Planning may be done for a one time operation e.g. a project
2. Planning may be done for a continuous programme
3. Planning may be short – term or long term
4. A plan may be written or unwritten
Principles of planning

Do you need simple or complex plans?

We need to note that most times we do not need a complex plan.

24
The size of the plan depends on:
1. The type of project and the size of the project
2. The source of funds for the project
3. The ownership of the project and its purpose
4. The capacity to implement the project
The Seven Steps in a Community Planning Process
The following diagram provides an illustration of the community planning process. This process
is not linear or static, but a living and dynamic one.

1. Create a vision
2. Asses the current situation
3. Set goals
4. Establish objectives
5. Develop action plan
6. Implement the Plan
7. Evaluate progress and Results

FACTORS THAT CONTRIBUTE TO SUCCESSFUL PLANNING

The following are needed to ensure the successful development of a community plan:
 A shared vision;
 Long-term commitment;
 Leadership;
 Resources — financial, physical and human;
 Support — community and political;
 A realistic appraisal of the current situation;
 A desire to build on the accomplishments and efforts of the past;
 An inclusive process and the ability to work as a team;
 A strong commitment and the discipline to take the time needed to work through the
logic of a planning process;
 A push beyond traditional approaches and that which is comfortable in order to
identify innovative possibilities and options for consideration; and
 A commitment to use the plan as a tool and to modify and make adjustments as
needed.

As you develop your community development plan and begin to make decisions about
activities and resources, there will be differences of opinion. The vision will help to ground
and direct these difficult decisions, and the goals will help you stay on track and focused on
the results you are trying to achieve.

IMPLEMENTING AND ADJUSTING THE PLAN

Creating an inclusive community development plan can be a time-consuming process. The pay-
off for investing this time and energy comes as you begin to implement the plan.
Implementation, however, has its own challenges. The implementation process must be well-
planned and well-managed if it is to be successful. Implementation challenges include:

25
  Integrating and coordinating a variety of tasks and activities,
 Being a good steward of resources,
 Helping individuals keep focused on the big picture,
 Remaining positive and not getting discouraged by the unexpected or by the fact that
things may not be working out as envisioned,
 Identifying and building on community capacity,
 Making hard decisions when resources are limited,
 Timing actions so they build upon rather than compete with the actions of others,
 Keeping community members motivated and connected,
 Ensuring community ownership remains strong, and
 Communicating and celebrating results.

Successfully managing the activities listed above requires strong leadership and a structure to
support implementation. When you started the community development process, you may have
found that there was a core of individuals who were very active in almost all the activities being
undertaken. As a small group, informal communication and organizational arrangements were
probably all that were needed to work together effectively. As you move to implementation of
the community development plan, the level and the nature of your activities may no longer make
this casual approach possible. A structure or organization that supports your efforts could be
necessary.

Failing to have a solid structure can lead to:

 Burnout of your community leaders,
 Wasted effort,
 Confusion,
 Conflict and/or
 Loss of credibility and legitimacy.

Maintaining Momentum
Creating a firm foundation for community development and taking the first steps in a long-term
process is exciting. Equally exciting, but more challenging, is building and maintaining
momentum. This section outlines seven key areas that require careful thought when developing
an approach to maintaining momentum for your community development efforts. These key
areas are:
 Leadership,
 Partnerships,
 Building on community capacity,
 Funding,
 Reviewing and adapting the community development plan,
 Communication and
 Using technical support and expertise.

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 CHAPTER EIGHT
INDIGENOUS APPROACHES TO COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT FOR SOCIAL
CHANGE

CHPATER NINE
FEMINISTS APPROACHES TO COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT FOR SOCIAL CHANGE
The 1970s: Women in development
Feminist critiques of the concept of development emerged in the 1970s, about twenty years after
the new global North-South hierarchy was launched by the United States president, Harry
Truman5. Following the 1968 uprisings, the 1970s produced the “Second Wave” of the feminist
movement, not only in the industrialised countries but also to a great extent in Latin America.
This included left-wing counter-cultural feminism as much as liberal feminism.

With the introduction of the concept of “Women in Development” (WID), large numbers of
NGOs emerged, geared to helping women access funds earmarked for development, and be
included as programme beneficiaries, which in future would have a “women component”.

The “Women in Development” focus nevertheless did not question the consensus between liberal
political ideologies and neoclassical economics, carved into the paradigm of modernisation that
had characterized development policies during those years.

Another current of thought, “Women and Development” (WAD) emerged in the second half of
the 1970s as a response to the constraints of modernism. This has its roots in Marxist feminism
and the theory of dependence, which see the development of the North as the fruit of the
exploitation of the South

The WAD approach is more analytical than the WID concept, but does not make concrete
proposals for development policies, unlike the WID. The WAD focus hardly analyses gender
relations within social classes and pays little attention to gender subordination (which is true of
Marxism in general), putting greater emphasis on unequal class structures and oppressive
international structures. It stresses productive work at the expense of women’s reproductive
work. Like WID, WAD focused on income generation for women, without considering what this
meant for them in terms of ‘double-day’ work. As a result, this feminist theory about
development, just like the androcentric theories of dependence, modernity and the political
economy, saw caring work as part of the “private” domain, which does not produce value and
hence is beyond the purposes of development
(Rathgeber, 1990).

Even into the 1980s, women in Latin American countries who did have access to the social
benefits consolidated by the continent’s partial industrialization did so through subsidies given to
a man as the “breadwinner”. Women were not considered subjects of direct social security, nor
as economic subjects, nor as full citizens. Families or partners were only seen through the male
breadwinner, while women were for the most part in charge of reproducing the life of the family.
Men were in the domain of production and salaried work while women were in the domain of
reproduction. This gap began to close in the 1980s, with the approach known as “Gender and
Development” (GAD).

27
GAD is a constructivist approach which starts from a comprehensive perspective. It looks at the
whole of the political, economic and social organisation of society. GAD does not place
“women” at the centre of its analysis, but questions the assumption that “women” are a
homogeneous social category. It stresses that both genders are social constructs, beyond
biological sex, and that women are shaped not only by gender, but by other categories of
domination, such as their ethnic and cultural origin, their sexual orientation and age. It posits the
need to research these power relations in all social spheres and to make women’s empowerment
policies cross-cutting.

28
 CHAPTER TEN
COMMUNITY CHANGE FOR SOCIAL CHANGE
Community/Social Change
The Functionalist View
􀃙 Social change occurs when parts of the system break down or are no longer able to contribute
to system maintenance—or when external or environmental changes overwhelm the system
􀃙 Social norms change, providing new rules of conduct to help reform and maintain the system
The Conflict View
􀃙 Those who control parts of the system (economic, political, etc) are seen as the ones who
establish and enforce the norms, and attempts to change norms are thought to be resisted strongly
by these controlling interests
A change in social norms from this perspective will result when an opposing interest group is
able to exert more influence over the system or parts of the system that the existing controlling
interests.

Rothman’s Models of Community Change

􀃙 Social policy planning
􀃙 Locality development
􀃙 Social action
􀃙 Social mobilization

Models of Community Change - Rothman

􀃙 Social Policy Planning
– Experts design programs for communities (resembles empiricalrational change), provide
leadership
􀃙 Community action
– Community members organize themselves to redress imbalances in power, distribution/access
of resources
Community Development
– Self-help through mobilization of local resources (resembles normative re-educative change)
􀃙 Community Mobilization
– Programs are externally designed, but community members are expected to contribute
resources

Forms of Community Change

􀃙 Process
 The community is part of the process of change, part of what changes
 New structures, new norms, new relationships that strengthen the community’s problem
adaptation and/or solving capacity
 For sustainability, this form of community change can build on the strengths of
indigenous community-based organizations (CBOs), recognizing that such organizations
are already engaged in the development and maintenance of the community
 Strategies include community organization and advocacy, based on social learning and
community capacity theories
 Content
 The community is the context for individual change
29
  Using existing organizations, social networks, and communication channels to promote
specific/targeted behavior changes of individual community members

Strategies include
– Community mobilization
– Social marketing
– Based on diffusion theory

30
 CHAPTER ELEVEN
ETHICS IN COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT FOR SOCIAL CHANGE

T he Code of Ethics was created to express the common values of the

community sector, and to serve as a common foundation. When confronted with an
ethical dilemma, the Code of Ethics can be used to assist employees in identifying
the issues at hand and the areas of tension. Expanding on the more commonly
known ethical principles (i.e., autonomy, beneficence, non-maleficence and
justice), additional principles have been incorporated to reflect the unique
considerations of the community sector. Furthermore, the Code is written in
layman’s terms to facilitate its interpretation.
A total of ten principles are addressed in the Code:
1. Advocacy
2. Client and Employee safety
3. Commitment to quality services
4. Confidentiality
5. Conflict of interest
6. Dignity
7. Fair and equitable access
8. Health and well-being
9. Informed choice and empowerment
10. Relationships among community agencies
Overview: Ethical Decision-Making Worksheet
The decision-making worksheet was created to provide a step-by-step tool to guide staff
through the process of resolving an ethical dilemma. Comprised of four key sections
(which can be identified by the acronym “IDEA”), the worksheet takes into account the
facts, ethical principles, various alternatives and their potential consequences, and an
evaluation of the outcomes.

The decision-making worksheet can be utilized in several ways, including:

• When a staff member is out in the field and is faced with an ethical dilemma
• During a formal or informal case review (i.e., as a framework to facilitate the discussion)
• For information-sharing purposes (i.e., to communicate the lessons learned)
Through its application, the decision-making worksheet will assist staff to address complex and
challenging issues in a comprehensive and logical manner. As required (e.g., during a case
review or audit), the decision-making worksheet can also be used to justify challenging decisions
that were made.

Remember:
• Document the actual plan in the chart
• Seek help if necessary and consult with the person you report to

31
Guidelines for Using the Ethical Decision-Making Worksheet
1. Identify the facts
2. Determine the ethical principles in conflict
3. Explore the options
4. Act on the decision and evaluate

32
 CHAPTER TWELVE
EVALUATION OF COMMUNITY PROCESS
Evaluation: this is the use of social research methods to systematically investigate a
programme’s effectiveness over a period of time.

Evaluation usually tracks outcomes and impacts of a programme or project at the larger
population level, as opposed to the programme or project level, in-terms of:
1. What outcomes are observed?
2. What do outcomes means?
3. Does the programme make a difference?
Forms of evaluation
1. Mid – term evaluation
2. Partial evaluation
3. Formative evaluation - ongoing evaluation
4. Terminal Evaluation
Ways of conducting and evaluation
1. Use monitoring data from the project to analyze the project implementation process
2. Repeat the baseline in order to determine changes, as measured by the selected indicators
3. Conduct focus group discussions with project participants and project staff to gauge
different perspectives about their experience
4. Have FGD with non- participants – it is useful sometimes

Key Questions in evaluation

1. Who wants the information?
2. What do they want to know?
3. What will the information be used for?
4. When will it be needed?
5. How accurate must it be?
Attributes of good evaluation questions
1. They should be articulate
2. Limit the number
3. Should be management priorities
4. Frame questions so that they are answerable based on empirical evidence not subjective
opinions
Importance and need for evaluation
1. Performance improvement
2. Enhance accountability
3. Promoting communication
4. Promoting learning and empowerment
Focus of evaluation
1. Relevance
2. Effectiveness
3. Efficiency
4. Impact
5. Sustainability
Evaluation Approaches
33
  Scientific approach: emphasizes the importance of objectives facts/evidence
 Interpretive approach: emphasizes on the views and perspective of people affected
by/involved with the project
Uniqueness of evaluation
1. It requires study design
2. Sometimes it requires a control or comparison group
3. It involves measurement over time
4. It involves special study
Roles of M and E complementary roles
Monitoring Evaluation
Asks what happened? Asks questions: Why? Why not?
Track planned results Measures planned and unplanned results
Measure pre-determined indicators Uses wide variety of measures
Both M and E are management tools to improve the design and implementation of programmes,
fund-raising and fulfill reporting requirements for services delivered

Evaluation can tell us beyond our monitoring information, by asking:

1. What is impeding activity success?
2. Are the planned results only results the activity is producing?
3. Did the activity actually “cause” the results we see, or were other factors responsible?
4. Is there any evidence to suggest that the results achieved by the activity sill be sustained?

Ways in which programme staff and community level workers commonly monitor and
evaluate their own work include?
1. Keeping records
2. Participation in regular programme meetings
3. Programme discussion groups
4. Workshop to assess progress of activities
5. Writing of reports - weekly, monthly, quarterly, yearly, etc
Levels of M and E

Levels of M and E Indicator type

1. Impact level 5. Goal
2. Outcome level 6. Objectives
3. Output level 7. Outputs
4. Activity/Input level 8. Process

Kinds of indicators
1. Indicators of availability
2. Indicators of accessibility
3. Indicators of coverage
4. Indicators of utilization
5. Indicators of quality
6. Indicators of efficiency
7. Indicators of effectiveness
8. Indicators of relevance
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 9. Indicators of impact

Steps in developing performance indicators

1. Develop a list of potential indicators
2. Assess quality of potential indicators
3. Choose whether to use quantitative versus qualitative indicators
4. Develop indicators to quantify complex results
5. Select the best indicator and document in the M and E plan
Evaluation Report
Importance of having an evaluation report
1. It documents the important process which needs to be disseminated to a wide audience
2. Provides a comprehensive analysis of the outcomes of the projects, conclusion and
recommendations for decision making
3. Provides important record for future references by different stakeholders

35