Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

Any physical activity happening on the earth through human beings or by nature is due to
the flow of energy in one form or the other. Energy is required to do any kind of work.
Looking at the energy consumption by human being from ancient days to the present
days, it is always rising and will continue to rise. Energy is required for cooking the food,
transportation and for manufacturing the various needy items. The energy consumption
per person per annum is termed as per capita energy consumption. The per capita energy
consumption of a particular country is the direct indication of the progress made by that
country and the comfort created for living.
The energy demand per person per annum is continuously increasing due to improved
living standards. Also, worldwide energy demand is continuously increasing with
significant technological developments and population growth [Sat 2012]. The enhanced
energy demands of a human being living in developed as well as in underdeveloped
countries are met mainly through two classified energy sources.
1. Non-renewable energy sources
2. Renewable energy sources

1.1 Non-renewable energy sources

There are two major non-renewable energy sources as listed below,

i. Fossil fuel energy,
ii. Nuclear energy

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1.1.1 Fossil fuel energy
Non-renewable energy sources include oil and petroleum products, gasoline, diesel fuel,
and propane, natural gas, coal, and uranium used for nuclear energy. Our globe has been
powered by non-renewable energy sources for many years and made the current
technological development possible. Non-renewable (conventional) energy technology is
fully matured. One major benefit of non-renewable energy sources is that right now, they
appear widely available and affordable. These sources are cost effective and much easier
to produce and use. Also, the fossil fuel energy sources assure security for certain period
at present. On the other hand, these sources are depleting rapidly and lead to air pollution
and global warming. The effects of global warming are very much disastrous to the living
beings.
1.1.2 Nuclear energy
Nuclear energy is the energy that comes from the core or the nucleus of an atom. The
bonds which hold the atoms together contain a massive amount of energy. This energy
must be released in order to generate electricity. This energy can be freed in two ways:
nuclear fission and nuclear fusion. Nuclear fission works by splitting the atoms apart to
produce smaller atoms, and as a result energy is released. Nuclear fission is used in
nuclear power plants to generate electricity through the splitting of the nuclei of uranium
atoms. On the other hand, when atoms are joined together to form a larger atom, it is
commonly referred to as nuclear fusion. The sun produces energy through nuclear fusion
where the nuclei of hydrogen atoms are fused into helium atoms.

1.2 Renewable energy sources

After the 1973 energy crisis, people recognized the limited reserves of fossil fuels and
action to investigate and develop renewable energy technologies were initiated [RH
2012] [HR 2011]. The environmental concerns about harmful carbon emissions and
global warming are also increasing from the last few decades. The people are becoming
more aware about sustainable energy sources. In addition, many scientists and
economists working in the field of energy realize and believe that the use of renewable
energy sources would get many more federal incentives if their social benefits were given
full credit. These aspects have created growing demand for new and renewable energy

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sources. Cumulative 97 % growth is observed in global renewable electricity installed
capacity from 2000 to 2012. Renewable energy contributes 23 % of all electricity
generation worldwide [Mike 2012]. The renewable energy sources are [Kha 2006],
i. Solar energy,
ii. Hydro energy,
iii. Wind energy,
iv. Biomass energy,
v. Geothermal energy,
vi. Tidal energy,
vii. Ocean thermal energy and
viii. Ocean wave energy
1.2.1 Solar energy
Solar energy is one of the major renewable energy sources. Solar energy is a gift given to
us by nature. This is utilized mainly through photovoltaic and thermal conversion
systems.
The thermal conversions: Solar energy is used to heat water to generate steam which
subsequently passing through steam turbine will generate power that it can further be
converted into electrical energy for its utilization. However the overall energy conversion
rate to the final use is only about 10%. Therefore this technology has taken a back seat in
its advancement. Other applications of solar thermal systems involve cooking, water
heating, agricultural product drying etc. The information regarding the same is dealt by
many authors in the open literature [SS 1996].
The solar photovoltaic system converts solar energy directly to electrical energy. This is a
clean energy movement. However the net electricity generated per square meter area of a
solar panel is very small and involves huge initial investment. Till then Indians are quite
ahead in harnessing the solar energy through photovoltaic systems.
The solar energy as a source has many disadvantages and limitations to name a few here
are: (1) requires very high investment to the order of 10 times as that of conventional
power plants. (2) requires very large surface area to install the solar collectors (3) Solar
energy is available only in day time.

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1.2.2 Hydro energy
Hydropower is harnessed through the gravitational force of falling or flowing water in
order to obtain the electricity. When the water is passed over large mechanical turbines,
the water pressure causes the turbines to turn and produce the rotational mechanical
energy. Further mechanical energy is converted into electricity. The hydro power is a
clean source of energy and does not use water as all of the water is returned to its source
of origin. The power plants, once installed, do not create any waste byproducts in their
conversion. The hydro electrical power plant is expensive. There are limited reservoirs
of water to start hydro power plant. The environmental consequences are related to
interference in nature due to damming of water, changed water flow and the construction
of roads and power lines. The advantages of hydro-electrical power plant are known to
one and all.

1.2.3 Biomass energy

Biomass energy available abundantly generated from vegetables, animal wastes and trees.
Basically it was developed as an alternative source of fuel to reduce dependency on fossil
fuels. But it is suffered from disadvantages like (i) It is expensive and are not compatible
with the conventional fuel cost, (ii) The biofuels are inefficient compared to fossil fuels,
(iii) Also this form of energy production causes global warming, air pollution and needs
more space.
1.2.4 Geothermal energy
Geothermal power is available in the interior of the earth. Volcanoes, geysers, hot springs
and boiling hot pots are visible evidence of the huge stock of heat energy that exists in
the interior of the earth. Geothermal power is reliable and environment friendly. Though
thermal energy is available in large quantity inside the earth surface, it is limited to
certain sites only. Also, it suffers from disadvantages like (i) Geothermal power plants
are site specific and cannot be built at any location, wherever required, (ii) This energy is
available in low grade form.
1.2.5 Ocean thermal energy
Ocean thermal energy conversion system is a source of renewable energy that uses the
temperature difference between deeper, cold water and warm, shallow water to run a heat

4
engine and produce electricity. Greater the temperature difference, higher will be the
efficiency of the heat engine. Power produced from ocean thermal energy conversion
system is continuous, renewable and environmental friendly. Ocean thermal energy
conversion system suffers from the disadvantages such as (i) High capital investment, (ii)
The efficiency of ocean thermal plant is very low about 3 - 4 %. (iii) High initial
investment with low efficiency makes them uneconomical for small plants.
1.2.6 Ocean wave energy
Wave energy is source of power that comes from the never-ending march of the waves as
they roll into the shore then back out again. This energy is harnessed by human being
along the coastal regions of the few developed countries. Energy that comes from the
waves in the ocean sounds like a boundless, harmless supply. This energy is of renewable
form, environmental friendly and abundantly available. This does not utilize the land.
This energy source has disadvantages like; (i) This form of energy source is suitable for
certain location, (ii) It affects marine ecosystems, (iii) It delivers weak performance in
rough weather, (iv) It is subjected to noise and visual pollution.
Among these, wind energy have achieved notable growth in last few decades [Mike
2012]. These renewable energy sources are pollution free and available abundantly. In
addition to this, they have the capability to generate power near load centers. This
eliminates the need of erecting high voltage transmission lines.
1.2.7 Wind energy
Power has been extracted from the wind over hundreds of years known as windmills, for
the purpose of pumping water or grinding corn. Now a day, wind energy is used to rotate
generator through a rotor to produce electricity, and commonly termed wind turbines [SC
2012]. The wind power available over the earth surface is estimated to be 1.7 × 106 MW,
which is more than the present energy requirement of the world. The large wind turbines
are generally mounted on mountains and electricity is supplied to the grid available
nearby. The small wind turbines can be located at rural, urban as well as remote
locations, where grid connected electricity cannot reach. The small wind turbine power
can be combined with solar electricity effectively to for a hybrid system to provide
assured and reliable supply of electricity.

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Among the various renewable energy sources, wind power is the principal and a
promising source of global electric power in the near future [WW 2012]. The wind
turbine produces power at costs, which are compatible with conventional energy sources
like coal fired power plants and nuclear power plants [Pra 2014]. The wind energy offers
various advantages as follows,
i. The wind energy cost is decreasing over a period against the increasing cost of
conventional energy.
ii. During the production of electricity from the wind energy no carbon dioxide
emissions are produced and therefore do not contribute to the greenhouse effect.
The manufacturing of wind turbines and installation of power plants create many
job opportunities and hence, relatively labour intensive.
iii. The wind turbine can produce electricity in remote areas or areas with weak grids
for charging batteries and can be used for various purposes.
iv. The wind power can be combined with diesel generators to save fuel whenever
wind is available.
v. The wind turbines can form a hybrid system combining with solar systems.
Comparing with many other renewable energy sources wind power offers faster
payback period.
vi. Operation and maintenance costs are low.
Therefore, it is very much necessary at this stage to study wind turbine systems.

1.3 Classification of wind turbines

Basically wind turbine is a device, which converts kinetic energy of the wind into
mechanical energy through a rotor. This mechanical energy is used to drive an electrical
generator to produce electricity. From the initial period of 20th century many
arrangements are proposed to produce electricity from the wind energy. The
arrangements can be classified by various methods as follows:
Depending on axis of rotation wind turbines are classified as horizontal axis wind turbine
and vertical axis wind turbine as shown in Fig. 1.1. Horizontal axis wind turbine is the
most commonly used wind turbine design. In horizontal axis wind turbine the axis of
rotation is parallel to the ground. The modern horizontal axis wind turbine blades have

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airfoil shape and act in the same way as the aeroplane wing. The rotation of the blade is
caused by lift generated by virtue of the pressure difference across the airfoil. Though,
vertical axis wind turbine is probably older than horizontal axis wind turbine, it is still
regarded as an innovation because of fewer installations. The primary advantage of a
vertical axis wind turbine is that the turbine can receive the wind from any direction
without yawing and simple in construction. Still they are not well accepted because of
low efficiency. Primarily the generated drag force causes rotation of the rotor.

Fig. 1.1: Horizontal and vertical axis wind turbine

The horizontal axis wind turbines are further classified as upwind or downwind according
to rotor orientation as shown in Fig. 1.2. Horizontal axis wind turbine can be aligned with
wind direction by two methods as free yawing and active yawing. The modern horizontal
axis wind turbine uses a rotor consisting of two or three blades.
The wind turbines are also classified as small wind turbines and large wind turbines
depending on the power producing capacity. In many countries wind turbines producing
power up to 100 kW are termed as small wind turbine and with greater capacity as large
wind turbine. The power produced by large wind turbines is directly fed to the grid. The
power produced by the small wind turbines is fed to grid of low capacity or used to
charge batteries.
The mechanical power obtained by the rotor can transmit to the generator directly or
through a gearbox. Many large wind turbines use gear box to drive the generator. Now
some modern large wind turbine manufacturers are also using direct drive generators.

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 Fig. 1.2: Downwind and upwind wind turbine
Depending on the location of the wind turbine installation, they are classified as onshore
and offshore wind turbines. Onshore large wind turbines are erected on the land at windy
sites. The offshore wind turbines are erected on the bay of the sea or in the sea. They
capture the advantage of uninterrupted and higher intensity wind flow. But their
installation cost is much higher than onshore wind turbines [HHS 2001] [Joh 2006].
1.3.1 Large wind turbines
Over the past decade, the global wind power capacity has increased eightfold and reached
to 318 GW capacity at the end of year 2013 as shown in the Fig. 1.3 [Ren 14]. By the end
of June 2014, worldwide installed large wind power capacity has reached to 336 GW as
shown in Fig. 1.4. The economic advantage, relatively increasing competitiveness and
norms to use emission free technologies for power generation are the major reasons for
significant development of the wind power market. China, USA, Germany, Spain and
India are the major contributors to global wind capacity and represent a 72 % share [HYR
14]. The large wind turbine industry has achieved notable status and fulfills considerable
amount of energy demand in many developed and developing countries. Many
governments are offering positive policies and attracting investors and manufacturers.
1.3.2 Small wind turbines
Nevertheless, off-grid small wind turbines have huge potential to supply power for many
applications in remote regions of electricity shortage and ability to become key solution,
particularly in developing countries. Southeast Asia, Latin America and South Africa are
the regions with huge potential for small wind applications. The global small wind
turbine market is growing significantly from last few years. As per the record, at the end

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of 2012, total 806000 small wind turbines were installed across the world. China, USA
and UK are the principal players in the small wind power market. At the end of 2012,
cumulative small wind power has reached more than 678 MW. Compared to 576 MW
registered capacity this growth is 18%. The percentage market shares of China, USA and
UK are 39%, 31 % and 9.4 % respectively. Canada, Germany, Japan and Argentina are
medium sized small wind market.

Fig. 1.3: Total wind power capacity 2000-2013

Fig. 1.4: Total installed capacity 2011-2014

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Cumulative small wind power installed capacity in some countries based on available
information in the Small Wind World Report 2014 is shown in Fig. 1.1 [GP 14]. Region
wise quite variations are observed in the average small wind turbine size. The average
size of Chinese, American and European wind turbines
turbines are observed as 500 W, 1400 W
and 3700 W respectively.

Fig. 1.5: Total cumulative small wind power installed capacity in top countries

China, USA, UK, Canada and Germany are the major contributors in manufacturing of
small wind turbines across the world. In tthe
he world, by the end of the year 2011, around
330 manufacturers are offering complete small wind power generation system and more
than 300 firms involved in components supply, technology developments, consulting and
sale service. Manufacturing of the small wind turbine region is concentrated in China,
North America and some European countries. Small wind turbine industry has shown
considerable growth with establishment of 120 manufacturers in last decade. Compare to
global potential small wind turbine industry
try is very small outside the China.
China
The horizontal axis wind turbines are engaged in the market over 30 years. At the end of
2011, 74 % small wind turbine manufactures invested in horizontal axis wind turbines, 18
% manufactures in vertical axis wind turbines and 6 % involved in the manufacturing of
both the types [GP 14]
14].

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The progress of the small wind turbine industry depends on the cost of technology,
awareness and interest of various stakeholders such as governments, research
organizations, investors and end users, standards and certification process. For better
future of small wind power industry like large wind turbine industry, supportive policies
and standards are required. Many governments and international organizations have
realized this opportunity and initiated small wind turbines in their renewable energy
programs.
As per the opinion of economic and energy experts, the increase in consumer demand
may accelerate small wind turbines production rate. A significant increase in new
installed capacity for the past years is observed from 19 to 35 % in the small wind turbine
industry. This growth rate is expected to continue until 2015, with annual installation of
190 MW. In addition, until 2020 a significant market forecast is expected similar to solar
and large wind turbine industry. Small wind turbine industry forecasts that, the market
could observe a steady growth rate of twenty percent from 2015 to 2020 with a
cumulative installed capacity close to 3000 MW [ZG 12] [GP 14].

Fig. 1.6: Small wind turbines installed capacity world market forecast 2009-2020

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The large wind turbine industry is associated with problems like known limited
availability of windy sites, land acquisition, etc. However, satisfactory performance of
wind farms has attracted researchers and manufacturers in order to bring large wind
turbine technology at a mature stage. On the other hand, small wind turbines have the
capacity to generate electricity at comparatively low wind regions. Because of issues as
discussed above, small wind turbine technology is not fully developed. The existing
customers are not getting satisfactory performance according to their investment and they
are experiencing uncertainty in power output. In addition, customers are also
experiencing problems, such as maintenance, unavailability of parts for replacement.
The simple, cost effective and reliable small wind turbine system is the need of the hour
[KS 13a]. In order to turn customers for installing small wind turbines, small wind
turbine industry should take some important steps. Many technological advances are
needed to assure power output certainty. At this stage, the manufacturing industries
should place their setup at least in developing countries, which is an immediate market
for small wind turbines. It will help to reduce generation system cost, quick supply and
installation of system, quick maintenance and service.
1.3.3 Economics of a wind energy
This paragraph briefly discusses economics of wind energy compared to other sources of
energy. In India the cost of solar electricity generation system is INR 3.0 to 3.5 lakh/kW,
while cost of wind-solar hybrid system is INR 2.5 to 2.75 lakh/kW. Further, cost of small
wind turbines is INR 1.70 to 1.80 lakh/kW and cost of conventional power is INR 0.80 to
0.90 lakh/kW. Though, this cost of wind turbine is double that of conventional power
generation cost, but has long life of 15 - 20 years. Therefore, for medium to long term
scale this will be economical. It also offers many advantages such as no fuel cost,
reducing dependency on fossil fuel, pollution free power generation, availability in
remote locations, etc. Small wind cost is half that of the solar system. The estimated cost
of electricity generation produced from hybrid system is estimated as Rs. 7 to 8 per
energy unit, comparable to fossil fuel generated cost under captive power at present. But
this cost is nearly fixed for the next 15 to 20 years whereas the cost of the fossil fuel
produced energy can be estimated as INR 16 - 20 per energy unit up to the next 15 years.

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1.4 Components of a small wind turbine

In general, all horizontal axis wind turbines consist of a rotor, a generator, a yawing
system and tower. The large wind turbine structure is more complex compared to small
wind turbine. Large wind turbines have an active yawing system to align the rotor to face
the wind direction and a gearbox to turn the generator at a faster rotational speed than
wind turbine rotor in order to produce electricity efficiently. On the other hand, small
turbines usually use tails or a downwind configuration to passively align the rotor to wind
direction. Many small wind turbines are directly connected to the generator without a
gearbox. The major components used in a common small wind turbine are shown in
Fig.1.7.

Fig. 1.7: Construction of a typical small wind turbine

Rotor
The rotor is the most important element of a wind turbine, designed to convert kinetic
energy of the wind into rotating mechanical energy. The rotor assembly consists of a
number of blades joined to a common hub, a cone nose and fasteners. The airfoil shaped

13
blades efficiently convert the wind energy into mechanical energy. The airfoil shape
geometry and dimensions of the blades are determined by the performance requirements
of the wind turbine. The hub is the part which transmits all the power and loads from the
blades to the main shaft. There are three types of hubs: rigid, teetering and hinged. A
rigid hub is the simplest and most common; it supports the blades in fixed positions
relative to the main shaft.
Generator
The generator converts the mechanical power from the rotor into electricity. Most small
wind turbines use direct drive generators, which are actually special synchronous
generators with enough poles to enable generator work well at the same speed of wind
turbine rotor.
Nacelle
The turbine nacelle houses the bearings supporting hub, generator, tail assembly and yaw
bearings. A nacelle cover protects these components from sunlight, rain, ice and snow.
Tail assembly
Most small wind turbines align into the wind using a tail assembly. A tail assembly usually
consists of tail fin and tail boom, which are the primary components of the yaw system,
keeping the turbine pointed into the wind.
Controller
The electrical power produced by the generator is in the variable and noisy form. For
efficient storage of electricity in the batteries it is essential to control the generator power
output into a steady direct current at an appropriate voltage. The controllers are use for
this purpose.
Tower
In a typical wind turbine project, the cost of the tower constitutes about 20-30% of the
total cost of the project. Therefore, selection and optimization of the tower structural
system are still very important to develop a structurally and economically reliable wind
turbine. Two types of structural systems: lattice and tubular, are often used for wind
turbines. Tubular systems are formed by rolling steel plates and joining them by flange
bolted connections. Due to their aesthetically pleasing look and predictable dynamic and
fatigue properties, they are more commonly preferred in the industry. However, as the

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height of the tower increases, the thickness of the tubular sections becomes very large
and this results in an increase in the manufacturing
manufacturing cost. In addition, it becomes more
challenging to transport and mount these heavy steel sections in the field. On the other
hand, lattice systems are formed by connecting L-shaped
L shaped steel profiles through bolting.
The truss action and larger base dimensions of this system helps resist the applied loads
more effectively leading to a lighter structural design. In addition, the wind loads are
reduced due to the lattice topology. Considering the use of standard profiles and bolted
connections, the manufacturing
manufacturing cost is less than tubular sections. Since the lattice tower
can be transported to the field in multiple small pieces, they also offer savings in terms of
construction costs [GAT 2012].
2012]

1.5 Wind turbine power output

The amount of power produced by the horizontal axis wind turbine is proportional to
rotor area and third power of wind velocity. Increases in power output with increase in
rotor diameter and wind speed are illustrated in Fig. 1.8 and 1.9 respectively. Hence, the
output power capacity of wind turbine can be increased by increasing size of the rotor or
wind velocity. With significant advances in material science and manufacturing
technologies, it became possible to increase the blade length to obtain more power from
the wind turbine. Traditional
Traditional horizontal axis wind turbines have already proven their
popularity through a number of installations.

Fig. 1.8: Power output vs rotor diameter

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 Fig. 1.9: Power output vs wind speed

1.5.1 Issues associated

associate with increase in rotor diameter
Though,, increase in rotor diameter produces more power, some issues arise with
increasing rotor diameter. These issues are discussed below,
• Bending
ending and tensile stress
stresses induced in the longer blade [MTM 2006],
2006]
• The mass of the wind turbine varies with the cube of the diameter [Ald 2005],
[WETF 2003]
• Rotor shaft speed decreases and the bigger gearbox is required to increase the speed
of the input shaft of the generator, which increases the number of rotating parts and
related maintenance problems in the system, weight of the gearbox varies with the
cube of the radius (Ref Fig.1.10 and Fig.1.11) [MMR 2002] [Kha 2006]
2006].
• Low speed direct drive generators are bigger in size and add cost to the small wind
turbine system [MMR 2002]
Many researchers and manufacturers in the field of wind energy are optimistic and
continuously working on performance improvement [CPL 2011] [FMP 2010]
2010]. To achieve
performance enhancement they are focusing on challenges such as rotor aerodynamics,
generator operation and characteristics, roto
rotor-generator
generator matching, electrical output
control and so on [YT 10] [FHE 12]. The conventional horizontal axis wind turbine
consists of a three blades single rotor and converts kinetic energy in the wind into
mechanical energy. Further, this mechanical energy
energy is converted to electricity through
geared or direct drive generator [KS 13b].

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 Fig. 1.10: Effect of rotor radius on rotor speed [KS 2013b]

Fig. 1.11: Power curve changes with varied gear ratio

The problems associated with increased rotor diameter and blade length indicate to
initiate the research on a multi rotor wind turbine. The working principle of a multi rotor
wind turbine discussed below.

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1.6 Concept of multi rotor wind turbine

Instead of increasing rotor diameter, a plurality of small rotors is used to produce the
same amount of power and provides a better solution. For example, a system with five 1
kW units makes a 5 kW multi-rotor system. Consider a large rotor of diameter (DL), is to
be replaced by n number of small rotors (of diameter, D) have the same swept area. This
concept of multi rotor wind turbine is illustrated in Fig.1.12. For the same power output,
ignoring wind shear, mathematical expression can be written as [Jam 2011],

DL2 = nD 2 … (1.1)

Fig. 1.12: Concept of multi rotor wind turbine

1.6.1 Types multi rotor wind turbine
Based on the concept of equivalent area two models are developed. The first model
consists of a number of small rotors (n), arranged in one plane with connected generators
(n numbers). The rotor shafts are parallel to each other and placed at a suitable distance
from each other. Electrical power produced by all generators is collected and transmitted
to grid or batteries. The first model is named as array wind turbines or co-planer multi-
rotor wind turbine. The second model, unidirectional co-axial series rotor wind turbine
consists of two or more numbers of rotors (of equivalent area) rotating in one direction
simultaneously to drive a common shaft coupled to a generator. These rotors rotate in
different planes.
The second approach behind the development of multi-rotor wind turbine is to absorb
more energy from the wind than a single rotor wind turbine with the objective, an

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enhancement in the power coefficient. As per the Betz limit, without any losses the
maximum power coefficient of a wind turbine having an ideal single rotor is about 59%
and practically this value is about 40 to 50%. Practically, stream behind this rotor is not
very weak and consists of approximately 50 to 60% energy. Another rotor (rotating in
opposite direction) along the same axis is placed to absorb this energy and formulate a
multi rotor system (a counter-rotating) resulting in improvement in power coefficient
[SZSA 2007].
Based on the literature available, it is proposed to classify multi rotor wind turbines as
[KS 2013b],
1. Co-planer Multi Rotor Wind Turbine,
2. Counter rotating horizontal axis Wind Turbine and
3. Unidirectional Co-axial Series rotor wind turbine

1.6.2 Brief evaluation of multi rotor wind turbines

The single rotor and multi-rotor systems are considered to deliver same power output of 1
kW at same rated wind speed. Average weights and costs are considered from the
commercially available wind turbines, blades, generators. Also, the ratio of the set of

small rotors to that of the single large rotor is given as 1/ n [JB 2012]. Number of
rotors, rotor diameters and number of generators for single rotor and multi-rotor wind
turbines are given in Table 1.1.

Table 1.1: Specifications of various wind turbines

counter unidirectional
co-planer
single rotor rotating co-axial series
multi-rotor
Parameter wind turbine wind rotor wind
wind turbine
turbine turbine
Number of rotors (n) 1 3 2 4
Rotor Diameter (m) 2.1 1.2 1.8 1.2
Number of Generators 1 3 1 1

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Tower head weights of single large rotor wind turbine and equivalent capacity multi-rotor
multi
wind turbines are shown in Fig.1.13 shows
shows. Cost of single large rotor wind turbine and
equivalent capacity multi
multi-rotor wind turbines is shown in Fig.1.14.

Fig. 1.13: Tower head weights of single and multi-rotor

rotor wind turbines

Fig. 1.14: Cost comparison of single and multi-rotor

rotor wind turbines

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1.7 Necessity of the research work

After comparing various aspects of these multi-rotor wind turbines, it is concluded that
the unidirectional co-axial series rotors wind turbine is more advantageous. This research
work involves is related to unidirectional co-axial series rotors wind turbine to charge a
stand-alone battery system.
As numbers of separate rotors are mounted to drive a generator mounted on a common
driveshaft, it is important to get fresh air for each rotor. The rotors spacing and
inclination of drive shaft are the important parameters. The increasing rotor spacing with
shaft inclination will assure fresh airflow for each rotor. On the other hand, performance
of wind turbine decreases with rotor inclination. Also, the less rotor spacing causes
adverse wake effect on proceeding rotor and more rotor spacing increases shaft overhang.
Hence, for better performance of this wind turbine, it important to decide appropriate
rotor spacing and shaft inclination. The field-testing of wind energy conversion system is
necessary to confirm predictions of the performance and to prove the system in its
operating environment.

1.8 Structure of the thesis

This thesis is divided into six chapters.
Chapter 1
Short information about wind energy and wind turbine systems is presented in this
chapter. Some issues associated with increasing with turbine blade diameter and solutions
to these issues are described. Concept and brief comparative aspects of co-planer Multi
rotor wind turbine, counter rotating horizontal axis wind turbine and unidirectional co-
axial Series rotor wind turbine are presented at the end of this chapter.
Chapter 2
Theory of aerodynamics of horizontal axis wind turbine is presented here. The concept of
airfoils and aerodynamics are also included. The blade momentum theory, blade element
theory and blade element momentum theory are described in details required for wind
turbine blade design.

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Chapter 3
Exhaustive literature review on various wind turbine concepts to replace a big wind
turbine is presented in this chapter. The gaps in literature review and problem
identification are explained at the end of this chapter.
Chapter 4
The objectives of the research work are defined in this chapter. The procedure of CFD
analysis and experimentation to achieve these objectives is described. Brief description of
blade design, computational fluid dynamics and experimental facility developed is also
presented in this chapter.
Chapter 5
Results of CFD simulation and experimentation are presented in this chapter. The
procedure of blade design is explained in this chapter. The shaft inclination and the
spacing between two successive rotors in order to avoid the wake effect of preceding
rotor are determined based on the results obtained through CFD analysis. The
experimental results obtained during the field testing for various combinations of
unidirectional co-axial two rotors wind turbine are presented in the form of power curves.
Also, the experimental results obtained during file test of unidirectional co-axial series
rotor wind turbine having two, three and four rotors are compared with wind turbine
consists of a single rotor.
Chapter 6
This chapter summarizes the main conclusions drawn from the results of this research
work and also suggests areas for future research.
References
A list of research articles is given which are cited in the text.
Appendices
Appendices includes ordinates at different points for NACA 4415 profile, aerodynamic
parameters of the designed blade and field testing power output results.

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Chapter 2

AERODYNAMICS OF WIND TURBINE

A wind turbine is a device that extracts kinetic energy of the wind and converts into
useful energy. The power produced by a wind turbine depends on the interaction between
the wind turbine rotor and the wind. The wind turbine aerodynamics is important, to
design a blade and to analyze aerodynamic performance of the rotor. A number of
scientists have derived various methods for aerodynamic analysis of wind turbine rotors
[BSJB 2001] [MMR 2002] [Pat 2006] [Wood 2011].

2.1 One dimensional momentum theory

The aerodynamic analysis carried out here is based on momentum theory. For this
analysis following assumptions are made,
• Homogenous flow,
• incompressible flow,
• steady state flow,
• No frictional drag,
• A non-rotating wake,
• Infinite number of blades,
• Uniform thrust over rotor area,
• Ambient static pressure at far upstream and far downstream

23
The control volume to analyze wind turbine aerodynamics is shown in Fig. 2.1. Surface
of stream tube and two cross-sections 1 and 3 of stream tube are the volume boundaries
of control volume. The wind flow is across the ends of the stream tube only. To analyze
energy extraction process a uniform ‘actuator disc’ representing wind turbine is
considered. This disc creates a pressure discontinuity in the air stream tube flowing
through it.

Fig. 2.1: Actuator disc model of a wind turbine without wake [MMR 2002]

The upstream cross-section area is smaller than that of the disc, while the downstream
cross-section area is larger than the disc. The stream-tube is expanding to keep the mass
flow rate same everywhere. The mass flow rate along the stream-tube is given as,

ρ AU
1 1 = ρ AdU d = ρ A2U 2 … (2.1)

where ρ is the air density, A is the cross sectional area, U is the air velocity and subscripts
indicate values at named cross-sections in Fig. 2.1.
The actuator disc induces a velocity variation that of the free stream velocity. The stream
wise component of this induced flow at the disc is given by aU1, where a is called the
axial flow induction factor, or the inflow factor. The stream wise velocity at the disc is,

U d = (1 − a )U1 … (2.2)

When the air passes through the actuator disc, it undergoes an overall change in velocity,
(U1 – U2). The rate of change of momentum is the product of the overall change of
velocity and mass flow rate through the stream-tube,

24
 Rate of change of momentum = (U1 − U 2 ) ρ AdU d … (2.3)

The force causing change of momentum comes completely from the pressure difference
across the actuator disc, because the stream-tube is otherwise surrounded by air at
atmospheric pressure, which gives zero net force. Therefore,

(p +
d − pd− ) Ad = (U1 − U 2 ) ρ Ad (1 − a ) U1 … (2.4)

The pressure difference in the above equation can be determined by applying Bernoulli’s
equation. The total energy in upstream and downstream is different. Hence, Bernoulli’s
equation should be applied separately to the upstream and downstream sections.
Therefore, for upstream section,

1 1
ρ1U12 + p1 + ρ1 gh1 = ρ dU d2 + pd+ + ρ d ghd … (2.5)
2 2

For incompressible horizontal flow, above equation becomes,

1 1
ρU12 + p1 = ρU d2 + pd+ … (2.6)
2 2

Similarly, for downstream section,

1 1
ρU 22 + p2 = ρU d2 + pd− … (2.7)
2 2
Subtracting these equations, we get,

(p +
d − pd− ) =
1
2
ρ (U12 − U 22 ) … (2.8)

Substituting pressure difference from Equation 2.8 in Equation 2.4,

ρ (U12 − U 22 ) Ad = (U1 − U 2 ) ρ Ad (1 − a ) U1
1
2

Simplifying and rearranging,

U 2 = (1 − 2a ) U1 … (2.9)

The quantity, U1a, the induced velocity at the rotor, is a combination of the free stream
velocity and the induced velocity. As the axial induction factor increase from zero, the

25
wind velocity behind the rotor slows more and more. If a = 1/2, the wind has slowed to
zero velocity behind the rotor and the simple theory is no longer applicable.

2.1.1 Power coefficient

The thrust, T can determined by, the net sum of the forces on each side of the actuator
disc,

T = ( pd+ − pd− ) Ad =
1
ρ AdU12 4a (1 − a ) … (2.10)
2

As this thrust is concentrated at the disc, the rate of work done by the thrust is TU1.
Hence, the power extraction from the air is given by,

1
P = TU1 = ρ AdU13 4a (1 − a )
2
… (2.11)
2

Replacing the control volume area at disc Ad with rotor area A and the free stream
velocity U1 by U the above equation can be written as,

1
P= ρ AU 3 4a (1 − a )
2
… (2.12)
2

1
The power available in the wind for rotor area A is ρ AU 3 .
2

The wind turbine performance is usually described by the ratio of rotor power and power
in the wind and known as power coefficient, CP

P
CP = … (2.13)
1
ρ AU 3
2

The fraction of power in the wind that extracted by the rotor is also represented by the
non-dimensional power coefficient. From Equation 2.12, the power coefficient is,

CP = 4a (1 − a )
2
… (2.14)

The maximum value of power coefficient is given by taking the derivative of the power
coefficient with respect to a and equating to zero. Therefore

26
 d
( CP ) = 4 (1 − a )(1 − 3a ) = 0
da

1
a=
3

Hence, the maximum power coefficient,

16
CPmax = = 0.593 … (2.15)
27

This maximum achievable power coefficient is named as the Betz limit (1926, Albert
Betz, the German aerodynamicist). Till date, the wind turbine has not been designed that
exceeded the Betz limit [MMR 2002].
Similar to power, the thrust coefficient, CT, is the ratio of thrust force to dynamic force
and mathematically expressed as,

T
CT = … (2.16)
1
ρ AU 2
2

A non-dimensional thrust coefficient is also represented as,

CT = 4a (1 − a ) … (2.17)

The thrust coefficient is maximum (CT =1.0), when a = 0.5 and the downstream velocity
is zero. At maximum power output (a = 1/3), CT has a value of 8/9. A graph of CP and CT
for an ideal Betz turbine and non-dimensional downstream wind velocity is plotted in
Fig. 2.2.

Fig. 2.2: Variation of CP and CT with axial induction factor a [MMR 2002]
27
This graph shows, if the axial induction factor is greater than 0.5, this idealized model is
not valid. In practice, the thrust coefficient can go as high as two, when the axial
induction factor exceeds 1/2. In this case complicated flow patterns obtained and cannot
be represented by this simple model.
The Betz limit, 0.593 is the maximum value of the theoretical achievable power
coefficient. In practice, this value is further decreased because of wake rotation, finite
blade number and related tip losses and aerodynamic drag.
The overall wind turbine efficiency is also dependent on various efficiencies such as
mechanical efficiency, electrical efficiency of generator, transmission efficiency, and
ineffective area in addition to rotor power coefficient. Hence, overall efficiency of wind
turbine is given by,

Pout
ηoverall = = ηother CP … (2.18)
1
ρ AU 3

2.2 Ideal horizontal axis wind turbine with wake rotation

In practice, wind turbine consists of a rotor with a finite number of blades rotating at an
angular velocity Ω about axis parallel to wind direction. In this case the downstream
rotates in the opposite direction to the rotor as a result of reaction to the torque exerted by
the flow on the wind turbine rotor. Fig. 2.3 illustrates the annular stream tube model with
wake rotation.

Fig. 2.3: Stream tube model with wake rotation [MMR 02]

28
In this case less energy is extracted by the rotor compared to energy extraction without
wake rotation. This is the result of generation of rotational kinetic energy in the wake.
Generally, the extra kinetic energy contained in the wake will be higher if the generated
torque is higher. Hence, the wake losses are more in wind turbines having slow rotational
speeds and higher torque, while less in low torque and high-speed wind turbines.
Fig. 2.4 illustrates actuator disc model for analysis of wind turbine with wake rotation.
The angular velocity imparted to the flow stream, ω is assumed small compare to rotor
angular velocity Ω. Consider an annular stream tube of radial thickness dr at radius r.
Then its cross-sectional area is equal to 2πrdr. The pressure, wake rotation and induction
factors are all assumed to be a function of radius [MMR 02].

Fig. 2.4: Actuator disc model of a wind turbine for rotating wake

As control volume moves with an angular velocity of the blades, the pressure difference
across the blade can be obtained by applying energy equation before and after the blades.
When the air passes the disc, the angular velocity of the air relative to blades increases
from (Ω) to (Ω + ω), while the axial component of the velocity remains constant.

 1 
(p +
d − pd− ) = ρ  Ω − ω  ω r 2
 2 
… (2.19)

29
The elemental thrust on an annular element is,

dT = ( pd+ − pd− ) dA

  1  
dT =  ρ  Ω − ω  ω r 2  2π dr … (2.20)
  2  

Defining angular induction factor as,

ω
a' = … (2.21)
2Ω

In the analysis with wake rotation the induced velocity at the rotor not only consists of
the axial component Ua, but also a component in the rotor plane rΩ a’.

Substituting angular induction factor in the expression of thrust,

dT = 4a ' (1 + a ' ) ρ Ω 2 r 2 2π dr
1
… (2.22)
2

Similar to Equation 2.10, the thrust on an annular cross-section can also be expressed as,

1
dT = 4a (1 − a ) ρU 2 2π rdr … (2.23)
2

From Equations 2.22 and 2.23,

a (1 − a ) Ω r
2

=  … (2.24)
a (1 + a )  U 
' '

In Equation 2.24, the term Ω r is the rotor speed at some intermediate radius. The ratio of
the rotor speed at intermediate radius to the wind speed is termed as the local speed ratio
and denoted as λr.

Ωr
λr = … (2.25)
U

At the blade tip rotor radius is R and Equation 2.25 becomes,

ΩR
λ= … (2.26)
U

30
In above equation λ is the tip speed ratio and obtained as the ratio of the tangential speed
at blade tip to the undisturbed wind speed. The relation between the local speed ratio and
tip speed ratio is given as,

r
λr = λ … (2.27)
R

The torque exerted on the rotor, Q, is given as change in angular momentum of the wake.
For the elemental area,

dQ = dmɺ (ω r ) r … (2.28)

dQ = ( ρU d 2π rdr )(ω r ) r … (2.29)

Substituting, Ud=U (1-a) and a’=ω/2Ω and rearranging,

1
dQ = 4a ' (1 − a ) ρU Ωr 2 2π dr … (2.30)
2

The power generated at each element, dP, is

dP = Ω dQ … (2.31)

1 8 
dP = ρ AU 3  2 a ' (1 − a ) λr3d λr  … (2.32)
2 λ 

It can be observed that the power from any annular ring is depends on the axial induction
factor, angular induction factor and tip speed ratio. Air flow direction and magnitude at
the rotor plane can be calculated from induction factors. The local speed ratio is the
function of the tip speed ratio and the radius.
The incremental contribution to the power coefficient, dCP, from each angular ring,

dP
dCP = … (2.33)
1
ρ AU 3
2

The power coefficient is given as,

λ
8
CP = ∫ a (1 − a ) λ d λ
' 3
… (2.34)
λ 2
0
r r

31
Solving Equations 2.24 and 2.25 for a’,

1 1 4
a' = − + 1 + 2 a (1 − a ) … (2.35)
2 2 λr

From Equation 2.34, it is clear that the maximum value of the term a’ (1-a) will deliver
maximum power. Substituting the value of a’ from Equation 2.35 into the term a’ (1-a)
and equating the derivative with respect to a to zero gives,

(1 − a )( 4a − 1)
2

λ =
2
… (2.36)
r
(1 − 3a )
The above equation shows that a is a function of λr in each angular ring. From Equation
2.24 and 2.36,

1 − 3a
a' = … (2.37)
4a − 1

The derivative of Equation 2.36 with respect to a, will give conditions for maximum
power production,

 6 ( 4a − 1)(1 − 2a )2 
2λr d λr =   da … (2.38)
(1 − 3a )
2
 

Substituting λr, a’ and dλr in Equation 3.34 for maximum value of power coefficient,

24 2  (1 − a )(1 − 2a )(1 − 4a ) 
a 2

CP max = 2 ∫  … (2.39)
λ a1  1 − 3a 

In this equation limits of integration a1 and a2 correspond to axial induction factors, λr = 0

and λr = λ, respectively. It gives a lower limit a1 = 0.25 for λr = 0.
From Equation 2.36,

(1 − a2 )(1 − 4a2 )
2

λ2 = … (2.40)
(1 − 3a2 )
The value of a2 can be obtained by solving the above equation for the required tip speed
ratio.

32
By substituting x = (1-3a) in Equation 2.39 and evaluating,
x = 0.25
8  64 5 4
CP max = 2 
x + 72 x 4 + 124 x3 + 38 x 2 − 63 x − 12 ( ln x ) −  … (2.41)
729λ  5 x  x =1−3a

Power coefficients for ideal Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine (HAWT) based on linear
momentum analysis and present analysis are shown in Fig. 2.5.

Fig. 2.5: Theoretical maximum power coefficient as a function of tip speed ratio for an
ideal HAWT, with and without wake rotation [MMR 02]

2.3 Airfoils and aerodynamics concepts

The wind turbine blade has an airfoil cross-section that plays important role in the
development of mechanical power. The selection of airfoil is very important for wind
turbine blade design.
An airfoil is characterized by a number of terms as shown in Fig. 2.6. The line joining
halfway points between upper and lower surfaces of airfoil is called as a mean camber
line. The straight line joining the leading edge and trailing edge is called as chord line.
The distance between the leading edge and trailing edge measured along the chord line is
defined as the chord, c. The distance between the mean camber line and the chord line,
measured perpendicular to chord line, is designated as camber. The distance between
upper and lower surfaces, measured perpendicular to chord line is the thickness of the
airfoil. The angle between the relative wind and the chord line is termed as the angle of
attack, α [MMR 2002].

33
 Fig. 2.6: Airfoil terminology [MMR 2002]

Airflow over an airfoil generates forces over the airfoil surface. The air flow velocity
increases over the convex surface of the airfoil. This result in low average pressure on the
suction side of the airfoil compared to the concave side of the airfoil. In the meantime,
viscous friction between the air and the airfoil surface slows the airflow to some extent
next to the surface. The effect of these pressure and friction forces is presented in the
form of two forces, Lift (FL) and Drag (FD) as shown in Fig. 2.7. The lift force is
produced because of pressure difference on the upper and lower airfoil surfaces. This
force is perpendicular to the direction of the oncoming flow. The second force parallel to
the direction of oncoming flow is termed as the drag force. The drag force is the effect of
viscous friction forces at airfoil surface and the pressure difference on airfoil surfaces
facing toward and away from the oncoming flow [MMR 2002].
The main purpose of using airfoil section in wind turbine blade is to produce a torque
about the axis of rotation. This torque is a result of circumferential force in the direct of
rotation as shown in Fig. 2.7. From the figure it is clear that the lift force acts to increase
the torque and drag force works to reduce the torque. The wind turbine performance is
depending on the ratio of lift to drag, rather than the individual values [Wood 11].
The lift and drag forces are represented by non-dimensional terms lift coefficient (Cl) and
drag coefficient (Cd) respectively.

34
 Lift force / unit length
Cl =
Dynamic force / unit length
l
Cl = … (2.42)
1
ρU 2c
2

Drag force / unit length

Cl =
Dynamic force / unit length

d
Cd = … (2.43)
1
ρU 2c
2

where, l and d are the lift and grad forces per unit length respectively.

Fig. 2.7: Lift and drag forces on stationary airfoil

The lift coefficient and drag coefficient are the most commonly used important
parameters in blade design rather than lift and drag. The terms in these two coefficients
are analogous to the most important non-dimensional parameter Reynolds number, which
is used for defining the characteristics of fluid flow. The Reynolds number is defined as,

Inertial force
Re =
Viscous force

35
 UL ρUL
Re = = … (2.44)
ν µ

2.4 Blade element theory

The forces acting on wind turbine blade can also presented in the form of lift coefficient,
drag coefficient and angle of attack using blade element theory. During this analysis the
blade is divided into a number of elements, N as shown in Fig. 2.8. In this analysis the
following assumptions are made,
• No radial aerodynamic interaction between elements
• The calculations of forces on the blades are completely based on the lift and drag
characteristics of the blade airfoils.

Fig. 2.8: Schematic of blade element [BSJB 2001]

Consider a wind turbine with number of blades as B and tip radius R for each blade. For
element at radius r, the chord length is c. The wind speed is U and blades are rotating at
angular velocity, Ω. The tangential velocity, Ω r of the blade element and the induced
tangential velocity of the wake, Ω a’r are shown in Fig. 2.9. The net tangential velocity
experienced by the blade element is given by combining these two velocities.

ω 
Ωr +   r = Ωr + Ωa ' r = Ωr (1 + a ' ) … (2.45)
2

36
 Fig. 2.9: Overall geometry of horizontal axis for blade element analysis [BSJB 2001]

Fig. 2.10 shows the various velocities at blade element, looking from the blade tip at
radius, r. The resultant relative velocity acting at an angle φ is given as,
1

= U 2 (1 − a ) + Ω 2 r 2 (1 + a ' ) 
2 2 2
U rel … (2.46)
 

In Fig. 2.10 the angle between the chord line and the plane of rotation of the rotor is
known as section pitch angle or setting angle β. The angle between the chord line and the
relative wind is termed as angle of attack, α. The angle between plane of blade rotation
and relative wind velocity is known as angle of relative wind, φ. The angle of relative
wind is also given as sum of angle of attack and section pitch angle.

φ = β +α … (2.47)

The blade twist angle, βT is the difference between section pitch angle, βp and the pitch
angle at the tip, βp, 0.

βT = β P − β P ,0 … (2.48)

37
 Fig. 2.10: Velocities at blade element

The relation between net tangential velocity and wind velocity at blades is expressed as,

U (1 − a ) 1− a
tan φ = = … (2.49)
Ω (1 + a '
) (1 + a ' ) λr
The relative wind velocity is also given as,

U (1 − a )
U rel = … (2.50)
sin φ

Fig. 2.11 shows forces acting on blade element at radius, r. In figure dFL is the elemental
lift force, dFD is the elemental drag force, dFN elemental force normal to the plane of
rotation, and dFT is the elemental force is the tangential to the circle swept by the rotor.
The equations for elemental lift and drag forces can be written from definitions of lift
coefficient and drag coefficient as,

1
dFL = Cl ρU rel
2
cd r … (2.51)
2

38
 1
dFD = Cd ρU rel
2
cd r … (2.52)
2

Fig. 2.11: Forces on blade element

From Fig. 2.11 the dFN and dFT are expressed as,

dFN = dFL cos φ + dFD sin φ … (2.53)

dFT = dFL sin φ − dFD cos φ … (2.54)

Substituting dFL and dFD from Equations 2.51 and 2.52, we get,

1
dFN = B ρU rel
2
( Cl cos φ + Cd sin φ ) cdr … (2.55)
2

1
dFT = B ρU rel
2
( Cl sin φ − Cd cos φ ) cdr … (2.56)
2

It is convenient to introduce normal load coefficient and tangential load coefficient [Han
2008] as follows,

Cn = Cl cos φ + Cd sin φ … (2.57)

Ct = Cl sin φ − Cd cos φ … (2.58)

39
After substituting Cn, Ct and Urel from Equations 2.55, 2.56 and 2.50 respectively, dFN
and dFT can be expressed as,

U 2 (1 − a )
2
1
dFN = B ρ Cn cdr … (2.59)
2 sin 2 φ

U 2 (1 − a )
2
1
dFT = Bρ Ct cdr … (2.60)
2 sin 2 φ

The tangential force acting on the element at radius r causes differential torque and given
as,

dQ = B r dFT … (2.61)

U 2 (1 − a )
2
1
dQ = B ρ Ct crdr … (2.62)
2 sin 2 φ

The Equations 2.60 and 2.62 will be useful to determine the ideal blade shape for
optimum performance.

Defining local solidity σ as,

Bc
σ= … (2.63)
2π r

U 2 (1 − a )
2

dFN = σπρ C n rd r … (2.64)

sin 2 φ

U 2 (1 − a )
2

dQ = σπρ Ct r 2 d r … (2.65)
sin 2 φ

2.5 Blade Element Momentum (BEM) theory

Momentum theory analysis for the forces calculation considers the conservation of the
linear and angular momentum in the controlled volume. In the blade element analysis
forces, generated by lift and drag coefficients are calculated at an element section, as a
function of blade geometry. Blade Element Momentum (BEM) theory combines the
results of these two methods. This theory is also termed as strip theory in literature. This

40
theory can be used to determine the power extracted by wind turbine rotor based on
airfoil shape and generated forces.

2.5.1 Blade element momentum theory without wake rotation [MMR 2002]

This blade momentum element analysis is carried out to determine ideal blade shape
without considering wake rotation, drag force and losses from finite number of blades at
maximum value of axial induction factor (a = 1/3). In this analysis wind turbine of the
radius R consisting of number of blades, B, design tip speed ratio, λ and airfoil with
known lift and drag characteristics as a function of angle of attack need to be selected.

Equation 2.23 gives the force on annular cross- section in momentum theory analysis at
radius, r and Equation 2.55 gives normal elemental force at radius, r as per blade element
theory. Equating these two forces, in the blade element momentum theory and
substituting, a = 1/3 and Cd = 0,

1  U (1 − a ) 
2
1
4a (1 − a ) ρU 2 2π rdr = B ρ   ( Cl cos φ + Cd sin φ ) cdr … (2.66)
2 2  sin φ 

Cl Bc
= tan φ sin φ … (2.67)
4π r

The angle of relative wind can be determined from Equation 2.49 after substituting a’ = 0
and a = 1/3,

2
tan φ = … (2.68)
3λr

The chord of the blade element section can be calculated by combining Equations 3.67
and 2.68,

8π r sin φ
c= … (2.69)
3BCl λr

Also,

 2 
φ = tan −1   … (2.70)
 3λr 

41
2.5.2 Blade element momentum theory with wake rotation

The axial induction factor, a and angular induction factor a’ can be calculated from blade
element momentum theory by equating equations of forces and moments derived in
momentum and blade element theories [Han 2008]. Two equations are obtained as below.

1 1
a= = … (2.71)
4sin φ 2
4sin 2 φ
+1 +1
σ ( Cl cos φ + Cd sin φ )
'
σ 'C n

1 1
a' = = … (2.72)
4sin φ cos φ 4sin φ cos φ
−1 −1
σ ( Cl sin φ − Cd cos φ )
'
σ 'Ct

For simplification in calculation of these factors, Wilson and Lissaman [WL 1974] shows
that substituting Cd = 0 gives results with negligible error for the airfoils with low drag
coefficient. So these factors can be written as,

1
a= … (2.73)
4sin 2 φ
+1
σ 'Cl cos φ

1
a' = … (2.74)
4cos φ
−1
σ 'Cl

2.5.3 Tip loss factor

Because of air tends to flow around the tip from lower surface to the upper surface,
reducing the lift force near the tip and hence the power near the tip. A number of
approaches have been developed to include the effect of tip loss. The most popular
method is developed by Prandtal. The correction factor, F introduced by Prandtal is given
as [Han 2008],

 B  r 
 1− 
−  
2 R
r
2 sin φ
F= cos −1 e R
… (2.75)
π

42
After including Prandtal correction factor, the induction factor Equations 2.71 and 2.72
can be written as,

1
a= … (2.76)
4 F sin 2 φ
+1
σ 'Cn

1
a' = … (2.77)
4 F sin φ cos φ
−1
σ 'Ct

Equations 2.73 and 2.74 can be written as ,

1
a= … (2.78)
4 F sin 2 φ
+1
σ 'Cl cos φ

1
a' = … (2.79)
4 F cos φ
−1
σ 'Cl

2.5.4 Blade Shape for optimum rotor with wake rotation

The angle of the relative wind and the chord are determined by Equations 2.80 and 2.81
by considering the effect of wake rotation [MMR 2002]

2 1
φ = tan −1   … (2.80)
3  λr 

8π r
c= (1 − cos φ ) … (2.81)
BCl

2.6 Aerodynamic performance of tilted rotor

It is important to determine the aerodynamic performance for the purpose of energy

production estimation. As rotor makes inclination with the wind flow direction it is
producing less power compare to normal rotor. Hence, normal theories cannot be applied
to determine aerodynamic performance. The modified theories for tilted rotor should be
used. According to momentum theory applied for the tilted rotor making inclination (γ) in

43
horizontal plane, maximum value of coefficient of performance is given by the Equation
2.82 [BSJB 2001],
 16 
C p ,max =   cos3 γ … (2.82)
 27 
Glauert’s (1926) momentum theory modified [BSJB 2001] for tilted rotor gives
maximum Cp as,
C p = 4a 1 − a(2cos γ − a) ( cos γ − a ) … (2.83)

By considering vortex cylinder model the power coefficient for the tilted wind turbine is
given by the Equation 2.84 [BSJB 2001],
 χ χ
C p = 4a  cos γ + tan sin γ − a sec 2  ( cos γ − a ) … (2.84)
 2 2
A comparison for the maximum Cp values derived from above theories, as a function of
shaft inclination, is shown in following Fig. 2.12

Fig. 2.12: Change in coefficient of performance with shaft inclination [BSJB 2001]

44
Chapter 3

LITERATURE REVIEW

It is important to discuss history of wind turbine. The discussion of wind energy history
expresses the issues related to wind energy systems still face today. It also presents
insight into how the present status of wind turbines is reached.
As per the record, first windmills were built by the Persians in around 900AD. These
windmills had vertical axes and were drag driven systems.
The horizontal axis windmills were appeared in Europe in middle Ages. All they were
basically used to perform mechanical tasks such as grain grinding, water pumping wood
sawing and powering tools. Early wind mills normally had four blades. The number of
blades and size of rotor were presumable based on ease of construction and empirical
relations [MMR 2002].
In 18th century the important development took place and scientific testing and evaluation
method was introduced by the John Smeaton. He discovered three basic rules which are
still acceptable,
1. The speed of the blade tips is ideally proportional to the wind speed
2. The maximum torque is proportional to the square of rotor diameter
3. The maximum power is proportional to the third power of wind sped
At the end of 19th century electrical generators appeared and people had started to turn
electrical generators with the help of windmill rotors. The first half of the 20th century a
lot of developments took place and world saw the construction of the large wind turbines
which considerably influenced the progress of today’s wind turbine technology. Denmark
45
was the most pioneer in the development
development of wind turbines. Between the 1891 and 1918
Poul La Cour built more than 100 wind turbine to generate electricity in the range of 20
20-
35 kW. After the World War II, Johannes Jull built a 200 kW three bladed wind turbine
in Denmark. Ulrich Hutter, one
one of the pioneers in Germany, tried to apply modern
aerodynamics principles to the wind turbine design. Many of his concepts are still in use
in some form.
After the energy crises of mid-1970s
mid 1970s many people have stated to find alternative energy
sources. Soon
on they realize that wind energy may be one of the promising alternative
source of energy and development of wind energy started rapidly.
After this the size of the largest commercial wind turbines has increased from 50 kW to
7,500 kW. Fig. 3.1 shows increasing
increasing size of modern wind turbine. During this
development many design standards and certification procedures have been set. This
increases reliability and performance of large wind turbines and they have achieved a
respectable position in renewable energy
energ market.

Fig. 2.1: Increasing size of Modern Wind Turbines

It is important to note that some researchers have worked on different options instead of
increasing rotor diameter. This chapter presents the detailed review of multi rotor wind
mills and multi rotor wind turbine systems proposed and developed by different inventors
and researchers.

46
1. Literature Review
The literature review is carried out in the perspectives to understand development in
multi rotor wind turbine technology. The Multi Rotor Wind Turbine (MRWT) consists of
two or more rotors placed on a single tower. The concept of MRWT has been raised in
the 18th century in Denmark. Few models are built, tested and used based on this concept.
Based on the literature available, first multi rotor wind mill were installed in Denmark in
1873as shown in Fig. 3.2. A wind turbine consists of two rotors and each rotor in this
wind mill consists of six blades. These rotors are mounted on two separate shafts.

Fig. 2.2: A multi rotor wind mill installed in Denmark in 1873

In the 18th century, Wallace Amos [Wal 1890] has proposed the concept of numbers of
blades rotating in different planes, mounted on a horizontal driveshaft in his patent,
Windmill as shown in Fig. 3.3. He used many curved blades similar in shape in his wind-
wheel (rotor). A tail vane was attached in the downstream region. The purpose of the
windmill was water pumping. As per the theory of wake rotation developed in the 19th
century, the angular velocity of stream in the opposite direction after passing the first
blade resists rotation of next blades. This wake rotation was not considered by Wallace.

Carlson John [Car 1911] has proposed a windmill that consists of two rotors on a
common driveshaft, with the objective of the actuating pumping rod as shown in Fig. 3.4.
He used one upwind and one downwind rotor. The horizontal driveshaft was extended on
both sides of the tower. These rotors consist of a spiral shaped blade connected to the
shaft by means of spokes. The tail vane was placed above rotors.

47
 Fig. 2.3: A wind mill proposed by Wallace with plurality of curved blades rotating in
different planes [Wal 1890]

Fig. 2.4: A dual rotor wind mill proposed by Carlson [Car 1911]

Miller [Mill 1924] has proposed a wind power generator to convert wind energy into
electricity as shown in Fig. 3.5. Similar to Carlson, he used two rotors of conical shapes
on opposite sides of the tower. He proposed the gradually increasing rotor diameter from
one end of the shaft to the opposite end. The rotors were mounted on a horizontal shaft.

48
Power was transmitted to another horizontal shaft to drive a generator through a vertical
shaft. He claimed shaft not aiming parallel to the wind direction but inclined to the wind
direction. The structural stability was also anticipated by inventor in this patent.

Fig. 2.5: Conical shaped dual rotor wind turbine proposed by Miller [Mill 1924]

Hermann Honnef in 1931 [Hon 1934] [KS 13c] tried to build a multi-rotor wind turbine
system of a large-capacity as shown in Fig. 3.6. His most famous design comprises of a
250 m high lattice type tower fitted with three double-rotors arranged with a 120 m
diameter front rotor and two 160 m diameter rotor at the rear. A striking design feature
was that the complete rotor assembly could pivot into a safe horizontal position during
stormy weather. Also unique at the time was the application of ring generators. Honnef
never succeeded in building a complete multi-rotor turbine due to the outbreak of the
Second World War, but he manufactured parts of the 150 m high tower.

Roberts and Edmonds [RE 1939] have proposed a dual rotor (propeller) wind turbine to
generate electricity as shown in Fig. 3.7. They used two upwind rotors rotating in the
opposite direction. One rotor was used to drive the armature of generator and the second
rotor was used to rotate the field of generator in the opposite direction. They used rotors
of different sizes. The first small rotor was used to drive the generator housing in a
clockwise direction, while the second big rotor was used to drive the armature in a
counterclockwise direction. The second rotor was made slightly longer with intention to
avoid shielding effect and turbulence caused because of first rotor. Also, it was
anticipated to access unimpeded air to the second rotor because of longer blades.

49
 Fig. 2.6: A multi rotor wind turbine partly built by Hermann Honnef [Hon 1934]

Tail vane
Rotors

Fig. 2.7: Contra rotating wind turbine proposed by Roberts and Edmonds [RE 1939]

50
Hachmann H. [Hac 1962] has put the concept of a wind power plant containing a
plurality of rotors (wind-wheels) mounted on a main drive shaft as shown in Fig. 3.8.
These rotors are mounted and spaced apart on the main drive shaft. He proposed each
rotor consisting of a series of elongated rectangular blades extending outward from the
main drive shaft. The inventor claimed this invention as a solution to the large scale wind
turbines available during that period. Instead of using conventional blades, he used three
sets of rectangular blades in a rotor and each set comprised three blades. In this way each
rotor contained nine blades.

Fig. 2.8: A multi rotor wind turbine proposed by Hachmann H. [Hac 1962]

Allison William [All 1977] has claimed a multi-vane windmill having many pairs of
diametrically opposite vanes mounted on horizontal axis shafts on both, upwind and
downwind sides as shown in Fig. 3.9. It was proposed with two rotors i.e. primary and
secondary of the same diameter. In a rotor, seven pairs of vanes are uniformly spaced
apart axially, relatively close to prior pair and successively indexed circumferentially in
the direction of rotation relative to the preceding pair. A proposed rotor consists of a
number of pairs rotating in different planes. The primary and secondary rotors were
placed on the two separate coaxial shafts. These shafts were connected to both the ends of

51
the generator through gearboxes in order to multiply the rotational speed. The inventor
was anticipating the maximum utility of available wind. The inventor suggested the
length of the vane as six times the vane width and the axial distance between the vanes as
at least one half of vane width. Also, the inventor claimed self yawing of wind turbine
because of secondary rotor assembly.

vanes vanes

generator

Fig. 2.9: Contra rotating wind turbine proposed by Allison William [All 1977]

Fry and Hise [FH 1978] have invented the coaxial wind turbine with many wind rotors
mounted on a flexible shaft. The lowermost end of the shaft was connected to the
electrical generator supported at the ground, whereas the second end of the driveshaft was
supported at a great height by means of a swivel. Because of long unguided flexible shaft
relatively low power is transmitted to the generator.

Are Endel [Are 1980] has proposed a wind energy conversion device with two rotors
rotating in opposite direction, mounted on two different coaxial shafts. The rotors
comprised a number of blades and rotating in the opposite directions as shown in Fig.
3.10. The inventor claimed good stability of this wind energy conversion device. Also the
faster response is claimed with respect to changes in wind direction, when compared to
the single rotor wind turbine with tail vane.

52
 Fig. 2.10: Contra rotating wind turbine proposed by Are Endel [Are 1980]

Three-Rotor Wind Turbine by Lagerwey, a Netherlands based company [KS 13c].

During the mid-1980s Multiwind and the former Lagerwey erected the 300 kW Quadro,
comprising four 75 kW two-blade Lagerwey 15/75 turbines as shown in Fig. 3.11. After
some teething problems the installation performed well for about 15 years at the
Maasvlakte industrial area near the port of Rotterdam. In the same decade a wind turbine
erected with three rotors along with individual generator together on a tower as shown in
Fig. 3.12 and Fig 3.13.

Fig. 2.11: Four rotor array wind turbine [KS 2013c]

53
 Fig. 2.12: Three rotor array wind turbine [KS 2013c]

Fig. 2.13: Three rotor array wind turbine [KS 2013c]

The Windship systems were developed by William Heronemus, at the University of

Massachusetts at Amherst as shown in Fig. 3.14. Combined with onboard hydrogen
production through electrolysis, it was planned that one million of the Windships could
completely power and fuel the U.S. Heronemus is a main originator of the Multi-Rotor
Turbine concept, the Offshore Turbine concept, and the Floating Offshore Turbine
concept.

54
 Fig. 2.14: Windship multi-rotor wind turbine

Krolick et al. [KSL 1987] has invented a collapsible structure comprising a non-rigid
helicoidal wind turbine as shown in Fig. 3.15. It also suffered from relatively low power
transmission.

Fig. 2.15: Helicoidal wind turbine proposed by Krolick et al. [KSL 1987]

Harburg Rudy [Har 1991] has invented coaxial multi-turbine generator to convert wind
energy into electricity as shown in Fig. 3.16. In this system light weight rotors were used
instead of conventional rotors to convert wind energy into rotational mechanical energy.
These coaxial rotors were arranged in a series by lines attached to their extremities. A
central line was used at centers of each rotor to assist alignment and suspension. Power

55
was transmitted to solid driveshaft through the moment arm of the rigid frame. It
employed a durable suspension support system.

light weight
rotors

Fig. 2.16: Coaxial multi-turbine generator proposed by Harburg Rudy [Har 1991]

McCauley Richard [MaC 1994] has invented wind line power system as shown in Fig.
3.17. The invention claimed a series of rigid rods along with a rotor, connected end-to-
end to allow relative transmission of axial torque from one rod to the next and finally to
the driveshaft of electrical generator. Thus it formed a unidirectional coaxial multi rotor
wind turbine to drive an electric generator. It included two main spaced supports above
the ground. One support was stationary and the other movable one to face the change in
wind direction. Also, these rods were intermediately supported from the ground with the
help of guy lines. It also claimed flexibilities such as folding, easy assembly and
disassembly, easy mobility.

Fig. 2.17: A wind line power system proposed by McCauley Richard [MaC 1994]

56
Shin Chan [Shi 2002] has proposed a contra-rotating wind turbine system comprised
combined bevel-planet gear assembly to combine the power of two shafts rotating in
opposite directions as shown in Fig. 3.18. This combined power was used to drive an
electrical generator in order to produce electricity. In addition to this he proposed a multi
rotor wind turbine system comprised of a number of small rotors mounted on a tower.

Fig. 2.18: Contra rotating and multi rotor wind turbine system [Shi 2002]

Kari [Kari 2003] and Kanemoto & Galal [KG 2006]developed twin rotor in series turbine
for use with synchronous generators. The power developed by the upstream rotor would
drive the internal armature while the downstream rotor would provide power for the
external armature. It produces more power than single rotor wind turbine.
Kari (2003) developed counter rotating wind turbine having two separate generators
associated with two rotors.
In 2004 Jung S N, et. al. [JNR 2005] have developed a 30kW counter-rotating wind
turbine system as shown in Fig. 3.19. They found that a turbine with two rotors produced
higher power than a single rotor turbine, depending on the distance between the rotors. It
was found that there is a 21% increase in power coefficient (up to 0.50) when the
distance between the rotors is half of the main rotor.

57
 Fig. 2.19: A 30 kW counter rotating wind turbines [JNR 2005]

Selsam Douglas [Sel 2006a]

2006 has proposed a side-furling co-axial
axial multi-rotor
multi wind turbine
consists of a horizontal drive shaft with plurality conventional rotors coaxially mounted
at spaced intervals as shown in Fig. 3.20.
3. The generator is mounted near to the tower.
Rotors are mounted on both, upwind and downwind sides. This wind turbine is not
directly aimed into the wind, but at a slightly offset angle, allowing each rotor to access
fresh wind, considerably undisturbed by the wake of upwind rotors. The offset angle in
said invention is mentioned by passive yawing arrangement in the form of tail vane. In
high wind turbine is allowed to turn across the wind or furl sideways to protect it from
over speed.

Fig. 2.20: A side-furling

side co-axial multi-rotor
rotor wind turbine [Sel 2006a]

58
Selsam Douglas [Sel 2006b] has proposed a multi-rotor wind turbine with generator as
counterweight as shown in Fig. 3.21. In this invention he claimed many of conventional
rotors mounted on along a long driveshaft at spaced interval. This driveshaft makes
inclination with horizontal axis in the vertical plane. This shaft inclination and space
between rotors help to get fresh wind flow for all rotors, without affecting from the wake
of previous rotors. To protect the wind turbine from over speed, the shaft is allowed to
make zero inclination or is parallel to the wind. It also comprised of rotors on both
upwind and downwind sides.

Fig. 2.21: A multi-rotor wind turbine with generator as counterweight proposed by

Selsam Douglas [Sel 2006b]
In the year 2010 a multi-rotor wind turbine consists of seven rotors as shown in Fig. 3.22,
is tested in NASA laboratory, delivered encouraging results for future work [JB 2012],
[KS 13c].

Fig. 2.22: Seven rotor array wind turbine [JB 2012]

59
2. Summary of literature review

The above study shows that inventors and researchers have tried to find alternative
solution to conventional Danish wind turbines by using number of rotors on a tower with
following two objectives,
1. To replace a big rotor with number of small rotors
2. To use the energy available in the wake of first rotor in order to enhance practical
coefficient of performance
Two different models are proposed and developed with first objective are,
1. Co-planer Multi Rotor Wind Turbine and,
2. Unidirectional Co-axial Series rotor wind turbine
The contra rotating wind turbine is developed to meet the second objective.
Some arrangement proposed from the end of 18th century to first few decades of 19th
century are practicable because of complicated construction. Also they have not
considered aerodynamics of wind turbine and wake rotation. After the development of
aerodynamic theory some modifications are proposed in multi rotor wind turbine systems
after the mid of 19th century.
This section discusses the various aspects of Co-planer Multi Rotor Wind Turbine,
Unidirectional Co-axial Series rotor wind turbine and contra rotating wind turbine. The
multi rotor wind turbines are presented with the help of simplified figures.
2.3.1 Co-planer multi rotor wind turbine
Co-planer multi rotor wind turbine consists of number of rotors mounted on tower as
shown in Fig. 3.22. It consists of a number of small rotors of equivalent area to replace a
big rotor. Each rotor is supported by a separate support and transmits power to a separate
generator to produce electricity. The generated electricity is used for further purpose.
This forms a cluster of conventional small wind turbines mounted on a structure. In the
last quarter of 19th century some wind turbines of this type were built. But they have not
attracted the market because of the problems associated with the yawing of the system.
Now a days, for large power output systems electronic yaw control can be used, but for
small capacity it is not economical.

60
 (a) Three rotors array wind turbine (b) Four rotors array wind turbine

(c) Three rotor array wind turbine (d) Seven rotor array wind turbine
Fig. 2.23: Co-planer multi rotor wind turbines [KS 2013b]

Jamieson [Jam 2011] has explained that, when a system of n rotors is compared with a
single large rotor of equivalent capacity, the ratio of total mass and cost of rotors and

drive trains of multi rotor system to that of single rotor system is given by 1/ n . Wind

61
turbine size is growing day by day and manufacturers are always involved in
development of larger size blades along with associated parts. The product life cycle is
very short. So standardization concept is not adopted at desired level. In case of multi-
rotor wind turbines the great advantage of preferred size is possible and further work
could be carried for reliability related aspects. For installing large size rotors cranes
working at more height are required. For multi-rotor wind turbines comparatively small
height cranes can be used. Transportation of small rotors and associated parts is simple
compare to large rotors.

Working principle of multi-rotor wind turbine systems is similar to conventional

horizontal axis wind turbine. In case of co-planer multi-rotor wind turbine system small
rotors can be placed appropriately to avoid the effect of wake among themselves after
CFD or wind tunnel analysis. CFD investigations carried out in NASA have shown
positive results for multi-rotor array wind turbine.
The scaling relationship between conventional single rotor and multi rotor wind turbine
shows that economical advantage increases with rotor numbers. The large modern wind
turbines depend on strength of composite material for their rotor systems, which also
increases cost. The cost of additional support structure of multi-rotor wind turbines can
be well compensated by cost reduction of blades, drive-trains. Total cost of small
generator used in co-planer system is quite same that of used in large turbine. Further by
taking advantage of standardization cost of the preferred size parts could be reduced.
The synchronization and conditioning of electrical power produced by different generator
will be important in case of co-planer multi rotor wind turbine.
After considering various aspects of co-planer multi rotor wind turbine it can be
concluded that this system can be effectively used to replace mid to high range small
wind turbine and large wind turbine with small rotors with electronic yaw control,
conditioning of power output from different generators. Transportation of small rotors
and associated parts is simple compare to large rotors. But it does not seems effective to
replace micro or mini wind turbines because of cost of electronics involved in yawing
arrangement and power conditioning.

62
2.3.2 Counter rotating horizontal axis wind turbine
Counter rotating horizontal axis wind turbine are developed to use the wake energy of
first rotor by placing the second rotor behind it in order to enhance the practical
coefficient of performance as shown in Fig. 3.24. The power of rotors rotating in opposite
direction is used by three different methods as follows,
1. The power developed by the upstream rotor is used to drive the internal armature
while the downstream rotor is used to drive the external armature. Hence, increase
the relative speed between armatures more power is obtained than single rotor
wind turbine.
2. The mechanical power output of both rotors is combined by gears and used to
drive a generator.
3. Using two separate generators associated with two rotors.

Fig. 2.24: Counter rotating wind turbines [KS 2013b]

Though counter weight of the rotors at both sides of the tower improves the stability of
the wind turbine system, the counter rotating wind turbine may not feasible at MW scale
because of overhang shaft in order to maintain appropriate distance between rotors.
Scaling economy is not too much useful for counter rotating wind turbine because it uses
only two rotors comparing to other two multi rotor wind turbines.

63
Counter rotating wind turbines as per first method needs complex gearing arrangement
and subsequent synchronization. Twin rotor generator has complex construction.

2.3.3 Unidirectional co-axial series rotor wind turbine

The unidirectional co-axial series rotor wind turbine consists of a number of upwind and
downwind rotors mounted in different planes on a common driveshaft to drive a
generator as shown in Fig. 3.25. They offers following advantages compare to single
rotor wind turbine, co-planer multi rotor wind turbine and Counter rotating horizontal
axis wind turbine ,
a. For unidirectional co-axial series rotor wind turbine needs small size direct drive
generator because of higher rpm.
b. The cost of high rpm generator is less compare to low rpm generator.
c. It has good structural stability as it contains both, upwind and downwind rotors. It
also improves yawing performance.
d. Compare to single rotor wind turbine low bending and tensile stresses are
induced.
The unidirectional co-axial series rotor wind turbine may not feasible at MW scale
because of overhang shaft in order to maintain appropriate distance between rotors.

Fig. 2.25: Unidirectional co-axial series rotor wind turbine [KS 2013b]

64
In the first decade of 21st century, Selsam Douglas [Sel 2006a] has proposed a side-
furling co-axial multi-rotor wind turbine consists of a horizontal drive shaft with plurality
conventional Danish rotors coaxially mounted at spaced intervals at both, upwind and
downwind sides and aiming slightly offset in order to get fresh air for each rotor, without
affecting from the wake of previous rotor. The offset angle in said invention is mentioned
by passive yawing arrangement in the form of tail vane. This angle plays important role
for better system performance. In high wind turbine is allowed to turn across the wind or
furl sideways to protect it from over speed.

In addition to above, Selsam Douglas [Sel 2006b] has also proposed and built a multi-
rotor wind turbine with plurality of conventional Danish rotors mounted along a long
inclined driveshaft at spaced interval. This shaft inclination and space between rotors
help to get fresh wind flow for all rotors, without affecting from the wake of previous
rotors. To protect the wind turbine from over speed, the shaft is allowed to make zero
inclination or parallel to the wind. It also comprised rotors on both upwind and
downwind sides.

3. Problem definition

Following are the major limitations of the system proposed by Selsam Douglas,

1. The rotor spacing and shaft inclination play important role in the performance of
unidirectional co-axial series rotor wind turbine. The shaft inclination and spacing
between two successive rotors should be arranged to avoid the wake effect of
previous rotor in order to ensure fresh air access to each rotor. Increase in the
rotor spacing increases the cantilever portion. The distance between the rotors can
be reduced by increasing the rotor inclination. The performance of rotor reduces
with increasing shaft inclination with wind direction. He has not used any
computational technique or experimentation to determine the shaft inclination and
rotor spacing. Hence, it is required to determine the rotor spacing and inclination
in order to get better performance.

2. When wind speed increases, its force pushes the shaft in downward direction and
brought it in to horizontal position. He claimed that system stops its working in

65
 this position because of opposite directional wake effect. In actual practice the
system rotates at considerably high speed and burnt out the generator.

3. The complete tower top system is again pivoted on the yawing mechanism
reduces rigidity and stability of the system. This also increases moving parts in
the system. He used springs and shock absorber in this pivoting mechanism. The
wind force applied on spring and shock absorber causes pivoting action of system.
This increases a possibility of instability of the system. Also, it is difficult to
design spring and shock absorber for all operating conditions. Hence, there is a
need of simple and stable system to hold number of rotors easily and steadily.

66
Chapter 4

OBJECTIVES AND METHODOLOGY

Exhaustive literature review on the development of co-axial series rotor wind turbine is
carried out. Based on the gaps in the open literature, following objectives of the research
work to be carried out are listed.

3. 1 Objectives

4. To design and develop a cost effective, simple and reliable co-axial series-rotor
micro wind turbine to charge stand-alone battery system,
5. To simulate the air flow through co-axial series-rotor wind turbines using
Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD software),
6. To test the multi-rotor wind turbine system in the field as per International
Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) standards, for different rotor combinations,
7. To plot power curves for different rotor combinations.

3. 2 Methodology

The procedure for the development of unidirectional co-axial series rotor micro wind
turbine is explained here.

• To decide system specifications such power output, rotor diameter, number of rotors
and layout
• Design and development of blades of micro wind turbine.

67
 • To carry out the analysis of wind turbine blade through a Blade Element Momentum
simulation software QBlade
• To carry out the Computational Fluid Dynamics analysis of co-axial series rotor
wind turbine system through ANSYS Fluent software.
• Development of experimental set-up and its installation in the field
• Field Testing as per International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) norms 61400-
12 in order to analyze the performance of unidirectional co-axial series rotor micro
wind turbine

5. 1 Specifications of wind turbine system

Following are the important specifications for unidirectional co-axial series rotor micro
wind turbine,
a. Power output capacity
b. Rated wind speed
c. Functional design
d. System layout
a. Power output capacity
The first step in the wind turbine design is to decide the power generation capacity. The
power generating capacity of the wind turbine is based on the purpose of wind turbine.
For domestic wind turbines power output may vary from a few watts to few kilowatts.
For grid connections, a wind turbine is to be built from kW to MW range. The wind
turbine having a power output capacity of 1 kW is taken up for the research work.

b. Rated wind speed

As power is proportional to the square of the rotor diameter and the cube of the wind
velocity, it is important to decide the wind velocity at which the said wind turbine will
generate the rated power. This wind speed is termed at rated wind speed. Hence the next
stage in the wind turbine design is the selection of the rated wind speed, which is of the
order of 12 m/s.

68
c. Functional design
For a rated wind speed and rated wind power output capacity the wind turbine the rotor
diameter is calculated for a single rotor wind turbine. As this research work is related to
unidirectional co-axial series rotor wind first task is to select a number of rotors.
The power produced by the wind turbine is the total of power produced by a number of
rotors. Hence, each rotor should be designed to produce 1/n times the rated power. The
said wind turbine consists of an inclined shaft. The power produced by the normal rotor
(having horizontal axis) is greater than the inclined rotor wind turbine. Hence, this effect
is included in the calculation of rotor diameter. Four numbers of rotors are considered
here to generate the rated power at the rated wind speed.
d. System layout
System layout consists of selection of few things as described following,
• Position of generator: at one end or between the rotors.
• Locations of the rotors: upwind and downwind rotors
• Gearless or geared drive

5. 2 Design and development of blade

Following steps are followed to design and develop blade for micro wind turbine,

a. Blade design
b. CAD modeling of blade
c. Manufacturing wooden pattern
d. Development of mould
e. Manufacturing of blades
a. Blade design
Blade is a key element of wind turbine which converts kinetic energy of the wind into
useful mechanical energy. In order to obtain satisfactory performance from the wind
turbine, it is important to develop wind turbine rotor models having high power
coefficients. Following are the important steps involved in blade design,

i. Selection of airfoil shape

ii. Selection of tip speed ratio

69
 iii. Selection of number of blades
iv. Selection of aerodynamic theory for blade design
v. To find blade parameters such as setting angle, chord length, and chord thickness.
vi. Simulation using open source QBlade software
The QBlade software is based on the blade element momentum theory. The time required
for simulation through this software is less compare to CFD analysis. The following steps
are to be followed in QBlade analysis,
• Defining airfoil shape
• Determining Cl/Cd performance
• Define number of blades, setting angle and chord width
• Run the simulations
• Determine performance of the rotor

b. CAD Modeling of the blade

The CAD modeling of the blade is prepared by means of modeling software CATIA. The
blade shape is depending on the airfoil used and twisting of the blade. The blade consists
of different setting angles at different elements. The airfoil shape is locus of a number of
points above and below the mean camber line. The rectangular section is considered at
the root. The airfoil shapes at all locations along the blade length are prepared and joined
to form the blade geometry.

c. Manufacturing wooden pattern

Wooden pattern is to be manufactured for mould development. During the pattern
making process it is important to develop a blade with correct airfoil shapes. The airfoils
at different sections are cut in the thin metal sheet for inspection and confirmation.

d. Development of mould
A mould is prepared in two halves to manufacture wind turbine blades of a required
shape from glass fiber reinforced polymer. Foam is used inside the blade to reduce the
wight of the blade. Another mould is preapared to make uniform foam shapes for all
blades.

70
e. Manufacturing of blade
Wood, metals, Glass Fiber Reinforced Polymer (GFRP), Carbon Fiber Reinforced
Polymer (CFRP), Natural Fiber Reinforced Polymer (NFRP) and nanocomposites are the
major materials used in the manufacturing of small wind turbine blades. The advantage of
composite materials is that they offer highest values of strength to weight ratio and
stiffness to weight ratio, which meet specific requirement of wind turbine blades. The
fatigue strength of the fiberglass is much more than conventional metals. GFRP has
fatigue strength of 140 MPa, many times greater than that of weld-able aluminum as 17
MPa at 107 cycles. Its use in the area with high snowfall and rainfall is highly beneficial.
High stiffness to weight ratio and dimensional stability of the glass fiber reinforced
composite makes it a suitable material for wind turbine blades. [ASM 2001]
Hence, for the blade manufacturing glass fiber reinforced polymer is selected. Glass fiber
reinforced polymer offers following advantages:
• Specific strength and stiffness is greater than wood and metals
• High permeability than any other fibers
• Cheaper among all composites
• Chemically inert
• Can be formed into intricate shape
• Good dimensional stability
Few methods such as hand lap process, vacuum method, etc. are available to manufacture
composite material blades. The hand lay-up process is the simplest and oldest of the
fabrication processes for glass fiber reinforced polymer used for low-volume production.
A pigmented gel coat is first sprayed onto the mold for a high-quality surface. When the
gel coat gets cured, glass reinforcing mat and/or woven roving is placed on the mould,
and the catalyzed resin is poured, brushed or sprayed on. Manual rolling then removes
entrapped air, densifies the glass fiber reinforced polymer and thoroughly wets the
reinforcement with the resin. Additional layers of mat or woven roving and resin are
added for thickness. The blades are then heated in oven for curing. Hand lay-up offers
low-cost tooling, simple processing and a wide range of part size potential. Design
changes are made easily. Parts have one finished surface and require secondary trimming.

71
5. 3 Computational model for CFD analysis

The shaft inclination and rotors spacing are the important parameters in order to get fresh
air for each rotor of a unidirectional co-axial series rotor micro wind turbine. These
parameters are determined by performing numerical and experimental investigations.
Wind tunnel testing, full scale experiment in the field and smoke test are the various
experimental techniques. Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) analysis is also being
performed for this purpose. This research work includes CFD analysis to study the flow
pattern for various combinations of shaft inclination and rotor spacing. After studying the
results obtained from the CFD analysis the field investigation is carried out for nine
combinations of unidirectional co-axial two series rotor micro wind turbine. Then for a
selected combination field tests are carried out for three and four rotors. The flow pattern
past over a wind turbine is simulated using CFD software.
Pre-processing and post-processing are the important stages in computational fluid
dynamics. Pre-processing involves mesh generation and converting the mesh into a
format that is to be understood by CFD solver. It is the most time consuming but
important task in order to get accurate results in the analysis. Second stage in
computational analysis is processing. The final stage in CFD analysis is the post-
processing. The following section describes the various steps involved in this analysis.
The CFD analysis carried out for unidirectional co-axial series rotors wind turbine
consists of the following steps,

a. Mesh creation
b. Define boundary conditions
c. Run simulations at different rotor spacing and shaft inclinations
d. Interpret the results

Mesh creation
The mesh creation is the most important step in CFD analysis. Accurate meshing and
quality of meshing play an important role for solver to obtain accurate results. In this
analysis tetrahedral elements are used for the meshing because of their ability to maintain
the geometry of the parts of the wind turbine. Good accuracy level tetrahedral meshes are
used for the Moving Referecne Frames (MRF) zone.

72
The computational time increases with the increased number of nodes resident in the
mesh. There are three numerical methods used to discretize equations which are finite
volume method, finite element method and finite difference method. Finite volume
method is commonly used in computational software such as Fluent, CFX, STAR-CD,
etc. Finite volume and finite element method are easily formulated to allow for
unstructured meshes and also more flexible.
Moving reference frame
Generally the fluid flow equations are solved by solver in a stationary reference frame.
However, there are many problems which require the equations to be solved in a moving
reference frame. A problem of a rotating wind turbine rotor is solved with moving
reference frame. The moving reference plane modeling permits to model such problems
by activating moving reference frames in selected cell zones. When moving reference
frame activated, the equations of motion are modified to include the added acceleration
terms which occur due to transformation from the stationary to moving reference frame
[ANSYS 2009b].
Turbulent models
In CFD software, wind turbines are simulated using the turbulent flows. In general, the
turbulent numerical simulation technique consists of two major parts, as direct numerical
simulation and indirect numerical simulation. Direct numerical simulation is not suitable
for CFD as the entire range of spatial and temporal scales of the turbulence must be
resolved that requires a very small time step size. Among the standard, RNG and
Realizable k-ε models, realizable k-ε is selcted for this research work. These all models
have similar forms, with transport equations for k and ε . The important differences in
these three models are as follows,
• For the turbulent viscosity, the realizable k-ε model contains an alternative
formulation.
• A modified transport equation for the dissipation rate, ε, has been derived from
an exact equation for the transport of the mean-square vorticity fluctuation.

73
The term ‘realizable’ means that the model satisfies certain mathematical constraints on
the Reynolds stresses, consistent with the physics of turbulent flows. Neither the standard
k-ε model nor the RNG k-ε model is realizable.
Both the realizable k-ε and RNG k-ε models have shown substantial improvements over
the standard k-ε model where the flow features include strong streamline curvature,
vortices, and rotation. The realizable k-ε model provides the best performance of all the
model versions for several validations of separated flows and flow with complex
secondary flow features.
The realizable k-ε model has been extensively validated for a wide range of flows,
including rotating homogeneous shear flows, free flows including jets and mixing layers,
channel and boundary layer flows, and separated flows. For all these cases, the
performance of the model has been found to be substantially better than that of the
standard k-ε model [ANSYS 2009a].

Boundary conditions
Bounday conditions used for simulation are listed below,
Simulation type : Transient simulation
Fluid material : Air
Flow type : Incompressible flow
Temperature : 300 K
Pressure : 101325 Pa
Wind speed : 8.4 m/s
CFD algorithm : Simple
Turbulent model : Realizable k-ε
Interpolating scheme : Gradient (Green-Gauss node based)
Momentum (first order upwind)
Turbulent kinetic energy (first order upwind)
Boundary condition : Velocity inlet and pressure outlet
Moving wall with no slip shear condition
Rotational motion relative to adjacent cell zone

74
5. 4 Experimentation set-up

The power generated by wind turbine is depending on the wind velocity. Hence, field
testing of developed unidirectional co-axial series rotor wind turbine is necessary to study
the power output performance of wind turbine at various wind speeds. The field test is
also necessary to observe the satisfactory operation in the field for developed wind
turbine.
The experimental set-up used in this research work consists of,
• Wind turbine systems,
• Battery storage,
• Measuring instruments,
• A data acquisition system,
• Testing site.
This section presents development of wind turbine system for experimentation,
specifications of measuring instrument and site selection for experimention.
a. Development of wind turbine system
Lattice tower and tubular tower, are often used for structures for installation of wind
turbines. For this work a lattice tower is preffered and used. Lattice towers are created by
connecting L-shaped steel angles through bolting. The manufacturing cost of lattice tower
is less than tubular sections. Also, the lattice tower can be transported to the field in
multiple small pieces. A lattice-structured tower of 18 m height is manufactured and
installed at the site. A platform of 1 × 1 m is created at the top for working comfortably.
The four people can work comfortably on top of tower. It is equipped with lifting
arrangement of 500 kg capacity for wind turbine installation. Some photos taken during
manufacturing and erection of tower are shown in Fig. 4.1.

b. Models of unidirectional co-axial series rotor wind turbine system

Four various models considered for experimentation are listed below,
1. Wind turbine with a single rotor
2. Unidirectional co-axial two series rotors wind turbine with one upwind and one
downwind rotor with centrally mounted electrical generator.

75
 3. Unidirectional co-axial three series rotors wind turbine with one upwind and two
downwind rotors. Electrical generator is mounted between upwind and downwind
rotors.
4. Unidirectional co-axial four series rotors wind turbine with two upwind and two
downwind rotors with centrally mounted electrical generator.

(a) Making foundation for tower erection (b) Erection of tower in process

(c) Turbine lifting arrangement (d) 18 m high lattice tower

Fig . 4.1 Erection of tower for field experiment

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c. Yawing mechanism with supporting structure
A yawing mechanism used in wind turbine is responsible for the orientation of wind
turbine rotor according to the wind direction. Two types of yawing systems available are;
active yaw and passive yaw. Active yaw system involves electronic control system and
used in medium and large size wind turbines. In small wind turbine system passive yaw
system is used. A yawing mechanism allows relative motion of the wind turbine with
respect to tower.

A yawing mechanism developed which can be easily mounted on the tower. It consists of
two arms as shown in Fig. 4.2. In order to perform experiments for three shaft
inclinations (200, 220 and 250) three wind turbine supporting structures are manufactured.
The required supporting structure is assembled on the two arms of yawing mechanisms
with the help of bolting arrangement. Each supporting structure consists of two bearings
at the end. The generator is mounted on the support structure. The rotor hub can be
mounted on shaft at specified locations to get required rotor spacing.

Fig . 4.2 Yawing mechanism with supporting structure

77
d. Generator with charge controller

Permanent magnet generators are used in unidirectional coaxial series rotor wind turbine
to convert mechanical energy into electricity. The permanent magnet generator, generates
three phase power of varying voltage and rectified to DC. Four different generators are
used for four models. The generator shafts are specially extended on both ends in order to
connect upwind and downwind side’s shafts. The power generated is stored in batteries
through a charge controller as shown in Fig. 4.3. A charge controller is essential for a
wind turbine to control the voltage and current supply to the battery. The charge
controller stop charging a battery when a voltage exceeds a set limit and restart charging
when voltage drops below a set limit.

Fig . 4.3 Charge controller

e. Development of experimental facility
The wind turbine performance test is carried out as per the International Electrotechnical
Commission standards. IEC 61400 defines the standards for wind turbine generator
system to ensure consistency and accuracy in the measurement and analysis of power
performance by wind turbine generator systems. IEC 61400-12 is a part of IEC 61400
specifies a procedure for measuring the power performance characteristics of a wind
turbine generator system and applies to the testing of wind turbine generator system of all
types and sizes connected to the electrical power network. It describes the details such as
test conditions, test equipments, measurement procedure, etc. As per IEC standards
following parameters should be measured during the field testing of a wind turbine.

78
 • Wind speed
• Wind direction
• Air density
• air pressure,
• air temperature and
• air humidity
• Power
• current and
• voltage
The schematic of experimental set up is prepared as per IEC Standards IEC 61400-12 for
small wind turbines as shown in Fig. 4.4.

Fig . 4.4 Schematic of experimental setup

The instruments used for the experimentation with their specifications are listed below,
Combined wind direction and wind speed sensor
This sensor consists of an anemometer for wind speed measurement and a tail vane
sensor for wind direction measurement. The specifications of combined wind direction
and wind speed sensor are as given in the Tables 4.1. The combined wind direction and
wind speed sensor used in experiment is shown in Fig. 4.5.

79
 Table 4.1: Specifications of combined wind direction and wind speed sensor

Make and Model : Accel Systems, WIND-COMBO-1

Speed Sensor : Cup type anemometer
Range : 0 – 60 m/s
Accuracy : 2%
Output : 4 – 20 mA
Starting threshold : < 0.3 m/s
Direction Sensor Wind vane
Range : 00 - 3600
Accuracy : ± 10
Output : 4 – 20 mA

Fig . 4.5 Combined wind speed and wind direction sensor

Pressure sensor
A pressure sensor is used for atmospheric pressure measurement. The specifications of
pressure sensor used are as given in the Tables 4.2.

Table 4.2: Specifications of pressure sensor

Make and Model : Scan Electronics

Range : 600 – 1100 mbar
Accuracy : 0.5 %
Output : 4 – 20 mA

80
Temperature – Humidity sensor
A combined temperature-humidity sensor is used for air temperature and air humidity
measurement. The specifications of combined temperature-humidity sensor are as given
in the Tables 4.3.
Table 4.3: Specifications of temperature-humidity sensor
Make and Model : ROTRONIC HygroFlex3
Temperature Sensor Pt100
Range : - 40 – 60 0C
Accuracy : ± 0.2 0C
Resolution : 0.1 0C
Output : 4 – 20 mA
Humidity Sensor ROTRONIC Hygromer IN-1
Range : 0 – 100 % rh
Accuracy : ± 0.2 % rh
Resolution : 1%
Output : 4 – 20 mA

Power transducer
In order to get wind turbine power output, two parameters: voltage and current are
measured. The specifications of voltage and current measuring transducers are as given in
the Tables 4.4.
Table 4.4: Specifications of power transducer
Make and Model : Kristech Automation
Current measurement instrument
Range : 0 – 30 A
Accuracy : 1%
Output : 4 – 20 mA
Voltage measurement instrument
Range : 0 – 60 V
Accuracy : 1%
Output : 4 – 20 mA

81
Data acquisition system

A digital data acquisition system is used to collect measurement. The specifications of the
data acquisition system used for the experimentation are as given in Table 4.5. The data
acquisition system used for experimentation is shown in Fig. 4.4.

Table 4.5: Specifications of data acquisition system

Scan Electronics Systems
Make and Model :
Falcon 1600 DL
Scan rate : 125 millisecond per channel
Channels : 08
Types of Input : 4 – 20 mA DC linear
Accuracy : ±0.5 %
Range : DC mA linear 4.00 to 20.00
Supply Voltage : 230 VAC, 50Hz

Fig . 4.6 Data acquisition system

f. Selection of site for experimentation

A site with mean annual wind speed of 6.26 m/s is selected for the experimentation. This
site is located at Jamgaon, Dist-Ahmednagar, Maharashtra, India. The latitude and
longitude of the experimentation site are 190 4.27’62” N, 740 31.40’ 54”E respectively.

82
g. Specifications of developed wind turbine systems

The unidirectional co-axial series rotors wind turbine having two, three and four rotors
are developed. The specifications of the wind turbine models developed for field-testing
are given in Table 4.6.

Table 4.6: Specifications of unidirectional co-axial series rotors wind turbine

Wind turbine type : Unidirectional co-axial series rotors
wind turbine
Horizontal / vertical / inclined axis turbine : Inclined axis
Number of blades per rotor : 3
Blade material : GFRP
Rotor diameter : 1.25 m
Rated wind Speed : 12 m/s
Rated electrical power (four rotors) : 1 kW
Number of rotors : 2 / 3 /4
Blade airfoil type : NACA 4415
Fixed or variable pitch : Fixed
Tower type : Lattice
Tower height : 18 m

A unidirectional co-axial series rotor wind turbine having two rotors installed for the field
experiment is shown in Fig. 4.7.

Fig . 4.7 Unidirectional co-axial two series rotor wind turbine system

83
A unidirectional co-axial series rotor wind turbine having three rotors installed for the field
experiment is shown in Fig. 4.8.

Fig . 4.8 Unidirectional co-axial series rotor wind turbine having three rotors

A unidirectional co-axial series rotor wind turbine having four rotors installed for the field
experiment is shown in Fig. 4.9.

Fig . 4.9 Unidirectional co-axial series rotor wind turbine having four rotors

84
Chapter 5

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

In the first part of the chapter, details of the blade design and simulation results obtained
through QBlade are discussed. The CFD simulation results are presented and analyzed in
the second part of the chapter. In the third part of the chapter, experimental results are
presented and analyzed.

5.1 System layout

A unidirectional co-axial multi rotors wind turbine consisting of four rotors to produce a
rated power of 1 kW at rated wind 12 m/s is built to charge stand-alone battery system.
This system consists of two upwind and two downwind rotors mounted on a single shaft.
The direct drive generator is mounted between rotors as shown in Fig. 5.1.

Fig. 5.1: System layout of a unidirectional co-axial series four rotors wind turbine

85
5.2 Determination of rotor diameter
In a unidirectional co-axial series rotor wind turbine a big rotor is replaced by four
numbers of rotors to generate the rated power P = 1 kW at rated wind speed U = 12 m/s.
The rated speed is not an obvious choice. Following the trend of various manufacturers,
the rated speed is taken as 12 m/s. Most of the power is produced at a wind speed above
the average value for the selected site. For a small wind turbine the site with annual
average speed 5 m/s is considered as good. The annual average wind speed at selected
site is 6.26 m/s. It is assumed that the power curve continues flat from the rated power
above the rated speed.
The power produced by each rotor (Pu) is given by,
1
Pu = ρ AU 3C pη genηtranη areaηincl … (5.1)
2
where,
ηgen = generator efficiency = 0.8
ηtran = transmission efficiency = 0.85
ηarea = efficiency reduced because of ineffective area = 0.90
ηincl = efficiency reduced because of rotor inclination = 0.85
From the above equation, for unidirectional co-axial series rotor wind turbine having four
rotors, rotor diameter (D) is calculated as 1.25m to replace a big rotor of 2.25 m diameter.

5.3 Blade design

Detail procedure of blade design is explained in the following section.

5.3.1 Blade Profile

To convert the kinetic energy of wind into useful power an efficient airfoil is preferred
for blades. There are various airfoil shapes used in different wind turbines are listed
below,
• Traditional Danish-made blades
• SERI: Solar Energy Research Institute
• NACA: National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics
• S Series ; SD: Selig-Donovan, SG: Selig-Giguere, SH Selig-Hanley profiles

86
All these profiles are associated with their own merits and demerits. The profile details
and performance characteristics of various NACA airfoils are available in open literature.
Many wind turbine designers used and obtained satisfactory performance for blades
composed of NACA profiles. Based on the literature available NACA 4415 profile is
selected for blades.

NACA 4415 profile

The National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) developed the NACA airfoil
shapes for aircraft wings. The shape of the NACA airfoils is described using a series of
digits following the letters NACA.
Following coding system is used to define the NACA four-digit series,
a. First digit describes the maximum camber as percentage of the chord, c
b. Second digit represents the distance of maximum camber from the airfoil leading
edge in tens of percents of the chord,
c. Last two digits represent the maximum thickness of the airfoil as percentage of
the chord length
The NACA 4415 has a maximum camber of 2% located at 40% (0.4c) from the leading
edge. The maximum thickness of the chord is 15%.
The leading edge radius (rb) is calculated by an empirical equation in terms of blade
thickness by considering a cylinder of a radius,

rb = 1.1019t 2 … (5.2)

Fig. 5.2: NACA 4415 airfoil

The ordinates of NACA 4415 airfoil at different locations are tabulated in Appendix –A.

87
5.3.2 Selection of tip Speed Ratio

The tip speed ratio λ, is selected for the wind turbine in the range of 4 < λ < 10. For
higher tip speed ratio higher efficiency is anticipated but it causes higher noise levels. For
the blades with aerodynamic shape the value of the tip speed ratio is selected greater than
three. Here the tip speed ratio is assumed to be 6.

5.3.3 Selection of number of blades

Fig. 5.3 shows the maximum achievable power coefficient for a turbine with one, two
and three blades. From the figure it is clearly observed that at the same value of the tip
speed ratio the possible coefficient of performance decreases with a decreasing number of
blades.

Fig. 5.3: Maximum possible power coefficient as a function of a number of blades

[MMR 2002]

Numbers of blades are also selected for a fixed value of the tip speed ratio. Manwell
[MMR 2002] suggested 1 to 3 blades for the tip speed ratio greater than three.
Most of the modern wind turbines use three blades in the rotor. Following are some
reasons for selecting three blades in a wind turbine,

88
 a. It is preferred to use an odd number of blades for better stability and reliability.
b. The three bladed wind turbines are visually more pleasing than two bladed wind
turbines.
c. The gyroscopic effect during the yawing of the wind turbine system is less in case
of three bladed wind turbines than that of two bladed wind turbines.
d. Using more than three blades does not increase the power coefficient
considerably. The cost of wind turbine increases with increase in the number of
blades.

5.3.4 Calculation of blade parameters

Blade element momentum theory is adopted for blade design. In BEM theory, the blade is
divided into a number of elements and it considers the lift coefficient and drag
coefficients of each airfoil element with the local geometry and design flow conditions in
order to predict the aerodynamic performance. The blade parameters such as angle of the
relative wind (φ), setting angle (β) and chord (c) are determined for two cases, (i) without
considering the wake rotation and (ii) with wake rotation. The blade parameters are
calculated for the blade length of 600 mm and rotor radius (R) of 625 mm. The blade
length is divided into 20 elements as shown in Fig. 5.4. For fixed pitch blade rectangular
cross-section is selected at the root section for mounting on the hub. The hub radius is
taken as 25 mm.

Fig. 5.4: Blade length divided into 20 elements

The blade parameters are calculated at various stations (r) without considering wake
rotation and with consideration of wake rotation. The equations are used for optimum
blade design in the both cases.

89
The following calculated parameters as listed below are tabulated in Appendix – B, for
these two cases.

• Non-dimensional radius (r/R)

• Chord length (c)
• Angle of the relative wind (φ)
• Setting angle (β)
• Chord thickness (t)
• Non-dimensional chord (c/R)

The distribution of non-dimensional chord (c/R) at various non-dimensional radii (r/R) is

shown in Fig. 5.5. The chord lengths of the blade without considering the wake rotation
are greater than the blade designed with wake consideration. The differences in chord
dimensions are greater near the root section and reducing towards the tip section.

Without wake With wake

0.30
Non-dimensional Chord, c/R

0.25

0.20

0.15

0.10

0.05

0.00
0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Non-dimensional radius, r/ R

Fig. 5.5: Non-dimensional chord vs non-dimensional radius

The setting angles (β) at various stations are shown in Fig. 5.6. The blade thicknesses at
various stations are shown in Fig. 5.7.

90
 Without wake With wake

Setting angle, Β (degrees) 25

20

15

10

0
0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Non-dimensional radius, r/ R

Fig. 5.6: Setting angle vs non-dimensional radius

With wake Without wake

25
Non-dimensional Thickness, t (mm)

20

15

10

0
0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Non-dimensional radius, r/ R

Fig. 5.7: Blade twist vs non-dimensional radius

The dimensions of the blade without wake rotation are greater than that of the blade
design with wake rotation. It is required to select a better design between these two.
Hence, the performances of these two blades are determined by QBlade software. It uses

91
BEM theory for performance evaluation. The snapshot of QBlade is shown in Fig. 5.8.
The QBlade software has following features,

• The QBlade horizontal axis wind turbine model has the facility to design and
optimize the blade parameters and to carry out the simulations of rotor and
turbine.
• It is capable to compute the rotor performance over wide range of tip speed ratio,
λ and wind turbine performance over wind speed range.
• The data is exported for all created simulations.
• It has capability to store projects, turbines and simulations in a runtime database.

Fig. 5.8: A snapshot of QBlade software

The wind turbine blade parameters, chords and section pitch angles at all stations are
entered in QBlade software and various simulations are carried out. The results obtained
for the blade design with wake rotation are better than the blade design without wake

92
consideration. Hence, the blade design with wake consideration is finalized for the
research work. The various results for selected blades obtained in the simulation and are
plotted in this section. The graph, ratio of coefficient of lift (Cl) to coefficient of drag (Cd)
vs angle of attack is shown in Fig. 5.9. It gives the highest lift to drag ratio of 41.62 at the
angle of attack 4.

45

40
C l/Cd

35

30

25

20

15

10

0
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Angle of attack, α

Fig. 5.9: Cl/Cd vs angle of attack

The graph of power coefficient (Cp) vs tip - speed range 4 to 9, is shown in Fig. 5.10. It
gives considerably constant power coefficient for the tip speed ratio range 4.5 to 7. The
maximum power coefficient of 0.43 is obtained at a tip-speed ratio 6.
The graph of thrust coefficient vs tip-speed range 3 to 10, is shown in Fig. 5.11. It gives
considerably constant thrust coefficient from the tip speed ratio ranging from 4.5 to 10.

93
 0.5

Power coefficient, Cp 0.4

0.3

0.2
4 5 6 7 8 9
Tip speed ratio, λ

Fig. 5.10: Power coefficient vs tip speed ratio

0.8

0.6
Thrust coefficient, Ct

0.4

0.2

0
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Tip speed ratio, λ

Fig. 5.11: Power coefficient vs tip speed ratio

The graph of maximum vs various Reynolds numbers is shown in Fig. 5.12. The
maximum value of lift/drag is obtained at Reynolds number 1×105 to 1.25×105.
Computed pressure distribution around a NACA 4415 aerofoil is shown in Fig. 5.13.

94
 45

Maximum lift / drag

40

35

30
90000 100000 125000 165000 200000
Reynolds number

Fig. 5.12: Maximum lift/drag vs Reynolds number

Fig. 5.13: Computed pressure distribution around a NACA 4415 airfoil

5.3.5 Modeling of the blade in CATIA

The CAD modeling of the blade is prepared by means of modeling software CATIA. The
airfoil shapes at all locations along the blade length are prepared and joined to form the
blade geometry. Two different views of blades are shown in Fig. 5.14 and Fig. 5.15.

95
 Fig. 5.14: View of the wind turbine blade showing twist

Fig. 5.15: View of the wind turbine blade showing chord distribution

5.3.6 Manufacturing of wind turbine blades

The blades are manufactured using hand-lap process from glass fiber reinforced polymer.
The foam core of 40 kg/m3 density is inserted in the blades to reduce the weight. The
final finished blades are shown in Fig. 5.16.

Fig. 5.16: Final developed blades

96
5.4 Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) analysis

In this research work, co-axial series rotors wind turbine with two, three and four rotors
are considered. To reduce the computational time a wind turbine with three rotors is
taken up for analysis. Wind turbine with two rotors system will provide the effect of first
rotor wake on the second rotor. In addition to this the study of wake effect of second rotor
on third rotor is also essential. Hence a wind turbine model with minimum three rotors is
capable to analyze the wake effect of a system even though it consists of more than three
rotors. Three rotors wind turbine model used in CFD analysis is shown in Fig. 5.17.

5.4.1 Pre-processing

Generally, cylindrical and rectangular domain shapes are assumed for the domain during
CFD simulation of a wind turbine. Here, cylindrical shaped domain is assumed for
simulation purpose.
The diameter of the domain is assumed as eight times the rotor diameter (D). The total
length of the domain is assumed as eleven times the rotor diameter. The first rotor is
placed at a distance of three times the rotor diameter from the domain inlet.

Rotor 3

Rotor spacing (S)

Rotor 2

Shaft inclination (I)

Rotor 1

Fig. 5.17: Co-axial series rotors wind turbine for CFD analysis having three rotors

97
Domain inlet, outlet and wind turbine rotors used in CFD analysis are shown in Fig. 5.18.
Structured meshing on cylindrical domain used for the wind turbine analysis is shown in
Fig. 5.19.

Domain outlet

Rotors

Domain inlet

Fig. 5.18: Inlet, outlet and rotors positions in domain

Fig. 5.19: Meshing on cylindrical domain used for the wind turbine analysis

98
Tetrahedral elements used on blade are shown in Fig. 5.20. Moving reference frames with
domain inlet and outlet are shown in Fig. 5.21.

Fig. 5.20: Wind turbine rotor blade meshing

Fig. 5.21: Moving reference frames used in analysis with inlet and outlet

99
Meshing on blade and moving reference plane is shown in Fig. 5.22.

Fig. 5.22: Structured tetrahedral meshing on blade and moving reference frames
The various combinations of shaft inclinations (I ) and rotor spacing (S) in terms of shaft
diameter (D) assumed for computational purpose in this research work are shown in
Table. 5.1.

Table 5.1: Combinations of shaft inclination and rotors spacing used for CFD analysis

Rotors spacing (S)

1.5 D 1.6 D 1.65 D 1.7 D 1.75 D
Shaft inclination (I )
00 ×
100 ×
200
220
250 × ×

5.4.2 Simulations

The transient simulations are carried out for the boundary conditions as velocity inlet and
pressure outlet, moving wall with no slip shear condition, rotational motion relative to the
adjacent cell zone using realizable k-ε at wind speed of 8.4 m/s.

5.4.3 Post-processing

The simulation results obtained are presented in this section in the form of path lines,
velocity contours and pressure contours.
100
Path lines of airflow in the y-z plane, behind the first rotor of a unidirectional co-axial
three series rotors wind turbine model having horizontal shaft and rotor spacing 1.5 times
the rotor diameter at a wind speed of 8.4 m/s are shown in Fig. 5.23. From this simulation
result, it is clearly observed that second and third rotors are completely under the wake
effect of first and second rotors respectively.

Fig. 5.23: Path lines for horizontal shaft and rotor spacing 1.5D (U = 8.4m/s)

Contours of velocity in the vertical plane y-z through the wind turbine center axis, for a
unidirectional co-axial three series rotors wind turbine model having horizontal shaft and
rotor spacing 1.5 times the rotor diameter at a wind speed 8.4 m/s are shown in Fig. 5.24.

Fig. 5.24: Velocity contour for horizontal shaft and rotor spacing 1.5D (U = 8.4m/s)

101
Contours of pressure in the vertical plane y-z through the wind turbine center axis, for a
unidirectional co-axial three series rotors wind turbine model having horizontal shaft and
rotor spacing 1.5 times the rotor diameter at a wind speed 8.4 m/s are shown in Fig. 5.25.

Fig. 5.25: Pressure contours for horizontal shaft and rotor spacing 1.5D (U = 8.4m/s)

Path lines of airflow in the y-z plane, behind the first rotor of a unidirectional co-axial
three series rotors wind turbine model having horizontal shaft and rotor spacing 1.6 times
the rotor diameter at a wind speed of 8.4 m/s are shown in Fig. 5.26. From this simulation
result, it is observed that second and third rotors are completely under the wake effect of
first and second rotors respectively.

Fig. 5.26: Path lines for horizontal shaft and rotor spacing 1.6D (U = 8.4m/s)

102
Contours of velocity in the vertical plane y-z through the wind turbine center axis, for a
unidirectional co-axial three series rotors wind turbine model having horizontal shaft and
rotor spacing 1.6 times the rotor diameter at a wind speed 8.4 m/s are shown in Fig. 5.27.

Fig. 5.27: Velocity contours for horizontal shaft and rotor spacing 1.6D (U = 8.4m/s)

Contours of pressure in the vertical plane y-z through the wind turbine center axis, for a
unidirectional co-axial three series rotors wind turbine model having horizontal shaft and
rotor spacing 1.6 times the rotor diameter at a wind speed 8.4 m/s are shown in Fig. 5.28.

Fig. 5.28: Pressure contours for horizontal shaft and rotor spacing 1.6D (U = 8.4m/s)

103
Path lines of airflow in the y-z plane, behind the first rotor of a unidirectional co-axial
three series rotors wind turbine model having horizontal shaft and rotor spacing 1.65
times the rotor diameter at a wind speed of 8.4 m/s are shown in Fig. 5.29. From this
simulation result, it is observed that second and third rotors are completely under the
wake effect of first and second rotors respectively.

Fig. 5.29: Path lines for horizontal shaft and rotor spacing 1.65D (U = 8.4m/s)

Contours of velocity in the vertical plane y-z through the wind turbine center axis, for a
unidirectional co-axial three series rotors wind turbine model having horizontal shaft and
rotor spacing 1.65 times the rotor diameter at a wind speed 8.4 m/s are shown in Fig.
5.30.

Fig. 5.30: Velocity contours for horizontal shaft and rotor spacing 1.65D (U = 8.4m/s)

104
Contours of pressure in the vertical plane y-z through the wind turbine center axis, for a
unidirectional co-axial three series rotors wind turbine model having horizontal shaft and
rotor spacing 1.65 times the rotor diameter at a wind speed 8.4 m/s are shown in Fig.
5.31.

Fig. 5.31: Pressure contours for horizontal shaft and rotor spacing 1.65D (U = 8.4m/s)

Path lines of airflow in the y-z plane, behind the first rotor of a unidirectional co-axial
three series rotors wind turbine model having horizontal shaft and rotor spacing 1.7 times
the rotor diameter at a wind speed of 8.4 m/s are shown in Fig. 5.32. From this simulation
result, it is observed that second and third rotors are completely under the wake effect of
first and second rotors respectively.

Fig. 5.32: Path lines for horizontal shaft and rotor spacing 1.7D (U = 8.4m/s)

105
Contours of velocity in the vertical plane y-z through the wind turbine center axis, for a
unidirectional co-axial three series rotors wind turbine model having horizontal shaft and
rotor spacing 1.7 times the rotor diameter at a wind speed 8.4 m/s are shown in Fig. 5.33.

Fig. 5.33: Velocity contours for horizontal shaft and rotor spacing 1.7D (U = 8.4m/s)

Contours of pressure in the vertical plane y-z through the wind turbine center axis, for a
unidirectional co-axial three series rotors wind turbine model having horizontal shaft and
rotor spacing 1.7 times the rotor diameter at a wind speed 8.4 m/s are shown in Fig. 5.34.

Fig. 5.34: Pressure contours for horizontal shaft and rotor spacing 1.7D (U = 8.4m/s)

106
Path lines of airflow in the y-z plane, behind the first rotor of a unidirectional co-axial
three series rotors wind turbine model having a shaft inclination of 100 and rotor spacing
1.5 times the rotor diameter at a wind speed of 8.4 m/s are shown in Fig. 5.35. From this
simulation result, it is observed that second and third rotors are partially under the wake
effect of first and second rotors respectively. The path lines are not moving along the axis
of wind turbine because of mixing of fresh wind stream with wake moving along the
axial direction.

Fig. 5.35: Path lines for inclination 100 and rotor spacing 1.5D (U = 8.4m/s)
Contours of velocity in the vertical plane y-z through the wind turbine center axis, for a
unidirectional co-axial three series rotors wind turbine model having a shaft inclination of
100 and rotor spacing 1.5 times the rotor diameter at a wind speed 8.4 m/s are shown in
Fig. 5.36.

Fig. 5.36: Velocity contours for inclination 100 and rotor spacing 1.5D (U = 8.4m/s)

107
Contours of pressure in the vertical plane y-z through the wind turbine center axis, for a
unidirectional co-axial three series rotors wind turbine model having a shaft inclination of
100 and rotor spacing 1.5 times the rotor diameter at a wind speed 8.4 m/s are shown in
Fig. 5.37.

Fig. 5.37: Pressure contours for inclination 100 and rotor spacing 1.5D (U = 8.4m/s)

Path lines of airflow in the y-z plane, behind the first rotor of a unidirectional co-axial
three series rotors wind turbine model having a shaft inclination of 100 and rotor spacing
1.6 times the rotor diameter at a wind speed of 8.4 m/s are shown in Fig. 5.38. From this
simulation result, it is observed that second and third rotors are partially under the wake
effect of first and second rotors respectively.

Fig. 5.38: Path lines for inclination 100 and rotor spacing 1.6D (U = 8.4m/s)

108
Contours of velocity in the vertical plane y-z through the wind turbine center axis, for a
unidirectional co-axial three series rotors wind turbine model having a shaft inclination of
100 and rotor spacing 1.6 times the rotor diameter at a wind speed 8.4 m/s are shown in
Fig. 5.39.

Fig. 5.39: Velocity contours for inclination 100 and rotor spacing 1.6D (U = 8.4m/s)

Contours of pressure in the vertical plane y-z through the wind turbine center axis, for a
unidirectional co-axial three series rotors wind turbine model having a shaft inclination of
100 and rotor spacing 1.6 times the rotor diameter at a wind speed 8.4 m/s are shown in
Fig. 5.40.

Fig. 5.40: Pressure contours for inclination 100 and rotor spacing 1.6D (U = 8.4m/s)

109
Path lines of airflow in the y-z plane, behind the first rotor of a unidirectional co-axial
three series rotors wind turbine model having a shaft inclination of 100 and rotor spacing
1.65 times the rotor diameter at a wind speed of 8.4 m/s are shown in Fig. 5.41. From this
simulation result, it is observed that second and third rotors are partially under the wake
effect of first and second rotors respectively.

Fig. 5.41: Path lines for inclination 100 and rotor spacing 1.65D (U = 8.4m/s)

Contours of velocity in the vertical plane y-z through the wind turbine center axis, for a
unidirectional co-axial three series rotors wind turbine model having a shaft inclination of
100 and rotor spacing 1.65 times the rotor diameter at a wind speed 8.4 m/s are shown in
Fig. 5.42.

Fig. 5.42: Velocity contours for inclination 100 and rotor spacing 1.65D (U = 8.4m/s)

110
Contours of pressure in the vertical plane y-z through the wind turbine center axis, for a
unidirectional co-axial three series rotors wind turbine model having a shaft inclination of
100 and rotor spacing 1.65 times the rotor diameter at a wind speed 8.4 m/s are shown in
Fig. 5.43.

Fig. 5.43: Pressure contours for inclination 100 and rotor spacing 1.65D (U = 8.4m/s)
Path lines of airflow in the y-z plane, behind the first rotor of a unidirectional co-axial
three series rotors wind turbine model having a shaft inclination of 100 and rotor spacing
1.7 times the rotor diameter at a wind speed of 8.4 m/s are shown in Fig. 5.44. From this
simulation result, it is observed that second and third rotors are partially under the wake
effect of first and second rotors respectively. The wake affected rotor portion is observed
as small compared to that observed in case of rotor spacing 1.5 to 1.65 times the rotor
diameter at a shaft inclination of 100.

Fig. 5.44: Path lines for inclination 100 and rotor spacing 1.7D (U = 8.4m/s)

111
Contours of velocity in the vertical plane y-z through the wind turbine center axis, for a
unidirectional co-axial three series rotors wind turbine model having a shaft inclination of
100 and rotor spacing 1.7 times the rotor diameter at a wind speed 8.4 m/s are shown in
Fig. 5.45.

Fig. 5.45: Velocity contours for inclination 100 and rotor spacing 1.7D (U = 8.4m/s)

Contours of pressure in the vertical plane y-z through the wind turbine center axis, for a
unidirectional co-axial three series rotors wind turbine model having a shaft inclination of
100 and rotor spacing 1.7 times the rotor diameter at a wind speed 8.4 m/s are shown in
Fig. 5.46.

Fig. 5.46: Pressure contours for inclination 100 and rotor spacing 1.7D (U = 8.4m/s)

112
Path lines of airflow in the y-z plane, behind the first rotor of a unidirectional co-axial
three series rotors wind turbine model having a shaft inclination of 200 and rotor spacing
1.5 times the rotor diameter at a wind speed of 8.4 m/s are shown in Fig. 5.47. From this
simulation result, it is observed that second and third rotors are partially under the wake
effect of first and second rotors respectively. It is found that the inclination of path lines
is increased with respect to rotor axis because of increased shaft inclination compared to
that observed in case of a shaft inclination of 100 for same rotor spacing. The less wake-
affected rotor portion is observed as compared to that observed in case of a shaft
inclination of 100 for the same rotor spacing.

Fig. 5.47: Path lines for inclination 200 and rotor spacing 1.5D (U = 8.4m/s)
Contours of velocity in the vertical plane y-z, for a unidirectional co-axial three series
rotors wind turbine model having a shaft inclination of 200 and rotor spacing 1.5 times
the rotor diameter at a wind speed 8.4 m/s are shown in Fig. 5.48.

Fig. 5.48: Velocity contours for inclination 200 and rotor spacing 1.5D (U = 8.4m/s)

113
Contours of pressure in the vertical plane y-z through the wind turbine center axis, for a
unidirectional co-axial three series rotors wind turbine model having a shaft inclination of
200 and rotor spacing 1.5 times the rotor diameter at a wind speed 8.4 m/s are shown in
Fig. 5.49.

Fig. 5.49: Pressure contours for inclination 200 and rotor spacing 1.5D (U = 8.4m/s)

Path lines of airflow in the y-z plane, behind the first rotor of a unidirectional co-axial
three series rotors wind turbine model having a shaft inclination of 200 and rotor spacing
1.6 times the rotor diameter at a wind speed of 8.4 m/s are shown in Fig. 5.50. From this
simulation result, it is observed that second and third rotors are partially under the wake
effect of first and second rotors respectively. The less wake-affected rotor portion is
observed as compared to that observed in case of a shaft inclination of 100 for the same
rotor spacing.

Fig. 5.50: Path lines for inclination 200 and rotor spacing 1.6D (U = 8.4m/s)

114
Contours of velocity in the vertical plane y-z through the wind turbine center axis, for a
unidirectional co-axial three series rotors wind turbine model having a shaft inclination of
200 and rotor spacing 1.6 times the rotor diameter at a wind speed 8.4 m/s are shown in
Fig. 5.51.

Fig. 5.51: Velocity contours for inclination 200 and rotor spacing 1.6D (U = 8.4m/s)

Contours of pressure in the vertical plane y-z through the wind turbine center axis, for a
unidirectional co-axial three series rotors wind turbine model having a shaft inclination of
200 and rotor spacing 1.6 times the rotor diameter at a wind speed 8.4 m/s are shown in
Fig. 5.52.

Fig. 5.52: Pressure contours for inclination 200 and rotor spacing 1.6D (U = 8.4m/s)

115
Path lines of airflow in the y-z plane, behind the first rotor of a unidirectional co-axial
three series rotors wind turbine model having a shaft inclination of 200 and rotor spacing
1.65 times the rotor diameter at a wind speed of 8.4 m/s are shown in Fig. 5.53. From this
simulation result, it is observed that second and third rotors are partially under the wake
effect of first and second rotors respectively. The less wake-affected rotor portion is
observed as compared to that observed in case of a shaft inclination of 100 for same rotor
spacing.

Fig. 5.53: Path lines for inclination 200 and rotor spacing 1.65D (U = 8.4m/s)
Contours of velocity in the vertical plane y-z through the wind turbine center axis, for a
unidirectional co-axial three series rotors wind turbine model having a shaft inclination of
200 and rotor spacing 1.65 times the rotor diameter at a wind speed 8.4 m/s are shown in
Fig. 5.54.

Fig. 5.54: Velocity contours for inclination 200 and rotor spacing 1.65D (U = 8.4m/s)

116
Contours of pressure in the vertical plane y-z through the wind turbine center axis, for a
unidirectional co-axial three series rotors wind turbine model having a shaft inclination of
200 and rotor spacing 1.65 times the rotor diameter at a wind speed 8.4 m/s are shown in
Fig. 5.55.

Fig. 5.55: Pressure contours for inclination 200 and rotor spacing 1.65D (U = 8.4m/s)
Path lines of airflow in the y-z plane, behind the first rotor of a unidirectional co-axial
three series rotors wind turbine model having a shaft inclination of 200 and rotor spacing
1.7 times the rotor diameter at a wind speed of 8.4 m/s are shown in Fig. 5.56. From this
simulation result, it is observed that second and third rotors are partially under the wake
effect of first and second rotors respectively. The less wake-affected rotor portion is
observed as compared to that observed for rotor spacing 1.5D to 1.65D in case of a shaft
inclination of 200.

Fig. 5.56: Path lines for inclination 200 and rotor spacing 1.7D (U = 8.4m/s)

117
Contours of velocity in the vertical plane y-z through the wind turbine center axis, for a
unidirectional co-axial three series rotors wind turbine model having a shaft inclination of
200 and rotor spacing 1.7 times the rotor diameter at a wind speed 8.4 m/s are shown in
Fig. 5.57.

Fig. 5.57: Velocity contours for inclination 200 and rotor spacing 1.7D (U = 8.4m/s)

Contours of pressure in the vertical plane y-z through the wind turbine center axis, for a
unidirectional co-axial three series rotors wind turbine model having a shaft inclination of
200 and rotor spacing 1.7 times the rotor diameter at a wind speed 8.4 m/s are shown in
Fig. 5.58.

Fig. 5.58: Pressure contours for inclination 200 and rotor spacing 1.7D (U = 8.4m/s)

118
Path lines of airflow in the y-z plane, behind the first rotor of a unidirectional co-axial
three series rotors wind turbine model having a shaft inclination of 200 and rotor spacing
1.75 times the rotor diameter at a wind speed of 8.4 m/s are shown in Fig. 5.59. From this
simulation result, it is observed that second and third rotors are partially under the wake
effect of first and second rotors respectively. The less wake-affected rotor portion is
observed as compared to that observed for rotor spacing 1.5D to 1.7D in case of a shaft
inclination of 200.

Fig. 5.59: Path lines for inclination 200 and rotor spacing 1.75D (U = 8.4m/s)
Contours of velocity in the vertical plane y-z through the wind turbine center axis, for a
unidirectional co-axial three series rotors wind turbine model having a shaft inclination of
200 and rotor spacing 1.75 times the rotor diameter at a wind speed 8.4 m/s are shown in
Fig. 5.60.

Fig. 5.60: Velocity contours for inclination 200 and rotor spacing 1.75D (U = 8.4m/s)

119
Contours of pressure in the vertical plane y-z through the wind turbine center axis, for a
unidirectional co-axial three series rotors wind turbine model having a shaft inclination of
200 and rotor spacing 1.75 times the rotor diameter at a wind speed 8.4 m/s are shown in
Fig. 5.61.

Fig. 5.61: Pressure contours for inclination 200 and rotor spacing 1.75D (U = 8.4m/s)

Path lines of airflow in the y-z plane, behind the first rotor of a unidirectional co-axial
three series rotors wind turbine model having a shaft inclination of 220 and rotor spacing
1.5 times the rotor diameter at a wind speed of 8.4 m/s are shown in Fig. 5.62. From this
simulation result, it is observed that second and third rotors are partially under the wake
effect of first and second rotors respectively. The less wake-affected rotor portion is
observed as compared to that observed for all cases of a shaft inclination of 200.

Fig. 5.62: Path lines for inclination 220 and rotor spacing 1.5D (U = 8.4m/s)

120
Contours of velocity in the vertical plane y-z through the wind turbine center axis, for a
unidirectional co-axial three series rotors wind turbine model having a shaft inclination of
220 and rotor spacing 1. 5 times the rotor diameter at a wind speed 8.4 m/s are shown in
Fig. 5.63.

Fig. 5.63: Velocity contours for inclination 220 and rotor spacing 1.5D (U = 8.4m/s)

Contours of pressure in the vertical plane y-z through the wind turbine center axis, for a
unidirectional co-axial three series rotors wind turbine model having a shaft inclination of
220 and rotor spacing 1. 5 times the rotor diameter at a wind speed 8.4 m/s are shown in
Fig. 5.64.

Fig. 5.64: Pressure contours for inclination 220 and rotor spacing 1.5D (U = 8.4m/s)

121
Path lines of airflow in the y-z plane, behind the first rotor of a unidirectional co-axial
three series rotors wind turbine model having a shaft inclination of 220 and rotor spacing
1.6 times the rotor diameter at a wind speed of 8.4 m/s are shown in Fig. 5.65. From this
simulation result, it is observed that very small portions of second and third rotors are
under the wake effect of first and second rotors respectively compared to all previous
cases discussed.

Fig. 5.65: Path lines for inclination 220 and rotor spacing 1.6D (U = 8.4m/s)

Contours of velocity in the vertical plane y-z through the wind turbine center axis, for a
unidirectional co-axial three series rotors wind turbine model having a shaft inclination of
220 and rotor spacing 1.6 times the rotor diameter at a wind speed 8.4 m/s are shown in
Fig. 5.66.

Fig. 5.66: Velocity contours for inclination 220 and rotor spacing 1.6D (U = 8.4m/s)

122
Contours of pressure in the vertical plane y-z through the wind turbine center axis, for a
unidirectional co-axial three series rotors wind turbine model having a shaft inclination of
220 and rotor spacing 1. 6 times the rotor diameter at a wind speed 8.4 m/s are shown in
Fig. 5.67.

Fig. 5.67: Pressure contours for inclination 220 and rotor spacing 1.6D (U = 8.4m/s)

Path lines of airflow in the y-z plane, behind the first rotor of a unidirectional co-axial
three series rotors wind turbine model having a shaft inclination of 220 and rotor spacing
1.65 times the rotor diameter at a wind speed of 8.4 m/s are shown in Fig. 5.68. From this
simulation result, it is clearly observed that second and third rotors are not operating
under the wake effect of first and second rotors and all rotors receive the fresh wind flow.

Fig. 5.68: Path lines for inclination 220 and rotor spacing 1.65D (U = 8.4m/s)

123
Contours of velocity in the vertical plane y-z through the wind turbine center axis, for a
unidirectional co-axial three series rotors wind turbine model having a shaft inclination of
220 and rotor spacing 1.65 times the rotor diameter at a wind speed 8.4 m/s are shown in
Fig. 5.69.

Fig. 5.69: Velocity contours for inclination 220 and rotor spacing 1.65D (U = 8.4m/s)

Contours of pressure in the vertical plane y-z through the wind turbine center axis, for a
unidirectional co-axial three series rotors wind turbine model having a shaft inclination of
220 and rotor spacing 1.65 times the rotor diameter at a wind speed 8.4 m/s are shown in
Fig. 5.70.

Fig. 5.70: Pressure contours for inclination 220 and rotor spacing 1.65D (U = 8.4m/s)

124
Path lines of airflow in the y-z plane, behind the first rotor of a unidirectional co-axial
three series rotors wind turbine model having a shaft inclination of 220 and rotor spacing
1.7 times the rotor diameter at a wind speed of 8.4 m/s are shown in Fig. 5.71. From this
simulation result, it is clearly observed that second and third rotors are not operating
under the wake effect of first and second rotors and all rotors receive the fresh wind flow.

Fig. 5.71: Path lines for inclination 220 and rotor spacing 1.7D (U = 8.4m/s)

Contours of velocity in the vertical plane y-z through the wind turbine center axis, for a
unidirectional co-axial three series rotors wind turbine model having a shaft inclination of
220 and rotor spacing 1.7 times the rotor diameter at a wind speed 8.4 m/s are shown in
Fig. 5.72.

Fig. 5.72: Velocity contours for inclination 220 and rotor spacing 1.7D (U = 8.4m/s)

125
Contours of pressure in the vertical plane y-z through the wind turbine center axis, for a
unidirectional co-axial three series rotors wind turbine model having a shaft inclination of
220 and rotor spacing 1.7 times the rotor diameter at a wind speed 8.4 m/s are shown in
Fig. 5.73.

Fig. 5.73: Pressure contours for inclination 220 and rotor spacing 1.7D (U = 8.4m/s)

Path lines of airflow in the y-z plane, behind the first rotor of a unidirectional co-axial
three series rotors wind turbine model having a shaft inclination of 220 and rotor spacing
1.75 times the rotor diameter at a wind speed of 8.4 m/s are shown in Fig. 5.74. From this
simulation result, it is clearly observed that second and third rotors are not operating
under the wake effect of first and second rotors and all rotors receive the fresh wind flow.

Fig. 5.74: Path lines for inclination 220 and rotor spacing 1.75D (U = 8.4m/s)

126
Contours of velocity in the vertical plane y-z through the wind turbine center axis, for a
unidirectional co-axial three series rotors wind turbine model having a shaft inclination of
220 and rotor spacing 1.75 times the rotor diameter at a wind speed 8.4 m/s are shown in
Fig. 5.75.

Fig. 5.75: Velocity contours for inclination 220 and rotor spacing 1.75D (U = 8.4m/s)

Contours of pressure in the vertical plane y-z through the wind turbine center axis, for a
unidirectional co-axial three series rotors wind turbine model having a shaft inclination of
220 and rotor spacing 1.75 times the rotor diameter at a wind speed 8.4 m/s are shown in
Fig. 5.76.

Fig. 5.76: Pressure contours for inclination 220 and rotor spacing 1.75D (U = 8.4m/s)

127
Path lines of airflow in the y-z plane, behind the first rotor of a unidirectional co-axial
three series rotors wind turbine model having a shaft inclination of 250 and rotor spacing
1.5 times the rotor diameter at a wind speed of 8.4 m/s are shown in Fig. 5.77. From this
simulation result, it is clearly observed that second and third rotors are not operating
under the wake effect of first and second rotors and all rotors receive the fresh wind flow.

Fig. 5.77: Path lines for inclination 250 and rotor spacing 1. 5D (U = 8.4m/s)

Contours of velocity in the vertical plane y-z through the wind turbine center axis, for a
unidirectional co-axial three series rotors wind turbine model having a shaft inclination of
250 and rotor spacing 1. 5 times the rotor diameter at a wind speed 8.4 m/s are shown in
Fig. 5.78.

Fig. 5.78: Velocity contours for inclination 250 and rotor spacing 1.5D (U = 8.4m/s)

128
Contours of pressure in the vertical plane y-z through the wind turbine center axis, for a
unidirectional co-axial three series rotors wind turbine model having a shaft inclination of
250 and rotor spacing 1.5 times the rotor diameter at a wind speed 8.4 m/s are shown in
Fig. 5.79.

Fig. 5.79: Pressure contours for inclination 250 and rotor spacing 1. 5D (U = 8.4m/s)

Path lines of airflow in the y-z plane, behind the first rotor of a unidirectional co-axial
three series rotors wind turbine model having a shaft inclination of 250 and rotor spacing
1.6 times the rotor diameter at a wind speed of 8.4 m/s are shown in Fig. 5.80. From this
simulation result, it is clearly observed that second and third rotors are not operating
under the wake effect of first and second rotors and all rotors receive the fresh wind flow.

Fig. 5.80: Path lines for inclination 250 and rotor spacing 1.6D (U = 8.4m/s)

129
Contours of velocity in the vertical plane y-z through the wind turbine center axis, for a
unidirectional co-axial three series rotors wind turbine model having a shaft inclination of
250 and rotor spacing 1.6 times the rotor diameter at a wind speed 8.4 m/s are shown in
Fig. 5.81.

Fig. 5.81: Velocity contours for inclination 250 and rotor spacing 1.6D (U = 8.4m/s)

Contours of pressure in the vertical plane y-z through the wind turbine center axis, for a
unidirectional co-axial three series rotors wind turbine model having a shaft inclination of
250 and rotor spacing 1.6 times the rotor diameter at a wind speed 8.4 m/s are shown in
Fig. 5.82.

Fig. 5.82: Pressure contours for inclination 250 and rotor spacing 1.6D (U = 8.4m/s)

130
Path lines of airflow in the y-z plane, behind the first rotor of a unidirectional co-axial
three series rotors wind turbine model having a shaft inclination of 250 and rotor spacing
1.65 times the rotor diameter at a wind speed of 8.4 m/s are shown in Fig. 5.83. From this
simulation result, it is clearly observed that second and third rotors are not operating
under the wake effect of first and second rotors and all rotors receive the fresh wind flow.

Fig. 5.83: Path lines for inclination 250 and rotor spacing 1.65D (U = 8.4m/s)

Contours of velocity in the vertical plane y-z through the wind turbine center axis, for a
unidirectional co-axial three series rotors wind turbine model having a shaft inclination of
250 and rotor spacing 1.65 times the rotor diameter at a wind speed 8.4 m/s are shown in
Fig. 5.84.

Fig. 5.84: Velocity contours for inclination 250 and rotor spacing 1.65D (U = 8.4m/s)

131
Contours of pressure in the vertical plane y-z through the wind turbine center axis, for a
unidirectional co-axial three series rotors wind turbine model having a shaft inclination of
250 and rotor spacing 1.65 times the rotor diameter at a wind speed 8.4 m/s are shown in
Fig. 5.85.

Fig. 5.85: Pressure contours for inclination 250 and rotor spacing 1.65D (U = 8.4m/s)

From above simulation results carried out at a wind speed of 8.4 m/s it is observed that,
second and third rotors receive the fresh wind flow when a shaft inclination is 220 and
more and rotor spacing 1.65 times the rotor diameter and more.
Contours of velocity in the plane x-y perpendicular to axis of rotation of the wind turbine
at inlet of all rotors are shown in Fig. 5.86 for a shaft inclination of 220 and rotor spacing
1.65 times the rotor diameter. Contours of velocity in the plane x-y perpendicular to axis
of rotation of the wind turbine at outlet of all rotors are shown in Fig. 5.87 for a shaft
inclination of 220 and rotor spacing 1.65 times the rotor diameter.
Contours of pressure in the plane x-y perpendicular to axis of rotation of the wind turbine
at inlet of all rotors are shown in Fig. 5.88 for a shaft inclination of 220 and rotor spacing
1.65 times the rotor diameter. Contours of pressure in the plane x-y perpendicular to axis
of rotation of the wind turbine at outlet of all rotors are shown in Fig. 5.89 for a shaft
inclination of 220 and rotor spacing 1.65 times the rotor diameter.

132
 Velocity contours at rotor 1 inlet

Velocity contours at rotor 2 inlet

Velocity contours at rotor 3 inlet

Fig. 5.86: Velocity contours at rotors inlet for inclination 220 and rotor spacing 1.65D
(U = 8.4 m/s)

133
 Velocity contours at rotor 1 outlet

Velocity contours at rotor 2 outlet

Velocity contours at rotor 3 outlet

Fig. 5.87: Velocity contours at rotors outlet for inclination 220 and rotor spacing 1.65D
(U = 8.4 m/s)

134
 Pressure contours at rotor 1 inlet

Pressure contours at rotor 2 inlet

Pressure contours at rotor 3 inlet

Fig. 5.88: Pressure contours at rotors inlet for inclination 220 and rotor spacing 1.65D
(U = 8.4 m/s)

135
 Pressure contours at rotor 1 outlet

Pressure contours at rotor 2 outlet

Pressure contours at rotor 3 outlet

Fig. 5.89: Pressure contours at rotors outlet for inclination 220 and rotor spacing 1.65D
(U = 8.4 m/s)

136
From the above simulation results carried out at a wind speed of 8.4 m/s it is observed
that, second and third rotors receive the fresh wind flow when a shaft inclination is 220
and more and rotor spacing 1.65 times the rotor diameter and more. Hence, other
simulations are carried out at different velocities at which wind turbine operates during
its working. These simulations are performed at a shaft inclination of 220 and rotor
spacing 1.65 times the rotor diameter.
Path lines of airflow in the y-z plane, behind the first rotor of a unidirectional co-axial
three series rotors wind turbine model having a shaft inclination of 220 and rotor spacing
1.65 times the rotor diameter at a wind speed of 5.0 m/s are shown in Fig. 5.90. From this
simulation result, it is observed that second and third rotors are not operating under the
wake effect of first and second rotors and all rotors receive the fresh wind flow.

Fig. 5.90: Path lines for a shaft inclination 220 and rotor spacing 1.65D (U = 5.0 m/s)

Path lines of airflow in the y-z plane, behind the first rotor of a unidirectional co-axial
three series rotors wind turbine model having a shaft inclination of 220 and rotor spacing
1.65 times the rotor diameter at a wind speed of 6.5 m/s are shown in Fig. 5.91. From this
simulation result, it is observed that second and third rotors are not operating under the
wake effect of first and second rotors and all rotors receive the fresh wind flow.

Path lines of airflow in the y-z plane, behind the first rotor of a unidirectional co-axial
three series rotors wind turbine model having a shaft inclination of 220 and rotor spacing

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1.65 times the rotor diameter at a wind speed of 7.5 m/s are shown in Fig. 5.92. From this
simulation result, it is observed that second and third rotors are not operating under the
wake effect of first and second rotors and all rotors receive the fresh wind flow.

Fig. 5.91: Path lines for a shaft inclination 220 and rotor spacing 1.65D (U = 6.5 m/s)

Fig. 5.92: Path lines for a shaft inclination 220 and rotor spacing 1.65D (U = 7.5m/s)

Path lines of airflow in the y-z plane, behind the first rotor of a unidirectional co-axial
three series rotors wind turbine model having a shaft inclination of 220 and rotor spacing
1.65 times the rotor diameter at a wind speed of 10.5 m/s are shown in Fig. 5.93. From
this simulation result, it is observed that second and third rotors are not operating under
the wake effect of first and second rotors and all rotors receive the fresh wind flow.

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 Fig. 5.93: Path lines for a shaft inclination 220 and rotor spacing 1.65D (U = 10.5m/s)

Path lines of airflow in the y-z plane, behind the first rotor of a unidirectional co-axial
three series rotors wind turbine model having a shaft inclination of 220 and rotor spacing
1.65 times the rotor diameter at a wind speed of 12.5 m/s are shown in Fig. 5.94. From
this simulation result, it is observed that second and third rotors are not operating under
the wake effect of first and second rotors and all rotors receive the fresh wind flow.

Fig. 5.94: Path lines for a shaft inclination 220 and rotor spacing 1.65D (U = 12.5 m/s)

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CFD simulations of a unidirectional co-axial three series rotor wind turbine is simulated
to understand the wake effect for various combinations of shaft inclinations and spacing
between the two successive rotors. The shaft inclination is varied between 00 to 250 in
steps and the rotor spacing between two successive rotors is varied from 1.5 to 1.75 times
the rotor diameter.
• The wake effect is zero for the combination of shaft inclination of 220 to
horizontal and rotor spacing 1.65 times rotor diameter.
• Through CFD simulation, it is also observed that the velocity contours and
pressure contours around the rotors in all combinations of shaft inclinations and
rotor spacing (S < 1.65D and I < 220) at the inlet and outlet of all rotors go on
changing.
• However , velocity contours and pressure contours remain unchanged at the inlet
and outlet of all three rotors for shaft inclination of 220 to horizontal and 1.65
times the rotor diameter and greater (S > 1.65D and I > 220).
• It is also observed that these counters remain unchanged for various wind
velocities for the shaft inclination of 220 to horizontal and 1.65 times the rotor
diameter.

5.5 Experimentation
For validating these results through the field testing of it is decided to test unidirectional
co-axial two series rotor wind turbine system for various combinations of shaft
inclinations and rotor spacing. The inclination of the shaft is changed by changing the
supporting structure. The spacing between the rotors is changed by changing the position
of the hub.
The various combinations of shaft inclinations and rotor spacing considered for a wind
turbine with two rotors for field testing in this research work are shown in Table. 5.1.
Three different rotors spacing and three different inclinations are assumed here. The rotor
spacing is denoted by S and shaft inclination is denoted by I. The names given to the
combinations are also mentioned in the Table 5.2.

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 Table 5.2: Combinations of shaft inclination and rotors spacing for field testing for
dual rotor wind turbine
Rotors spacing
1.6 D 1.65 D 1.7 D
Shaft inclination
200 S1 - I1 S2 - I 1 S3 - I1
0
22 S1 – I2 S2 – I2 S3 – I2
0
25 S1 – I3 S2 – I3 S3 – I3

The specifications of the wind turbine models developed for field-testing are given in
Table 5.3.

Table 5.3: Specifications of unidirectional co-axial series rotors wind turbine

Wind turbine type : Unidirectional co-axial series rotors WT
Horizontal / vertical / inclined axis turbine : Inclined axis
Number of blades per rotor : 3
Blade material : GFRP
Rotor diameter : 1.25 m
Rated wind Speed : 12 m/s
Rated electrical power (four rotors) : 1 kW
Power supply - Grid / Non-grid : Non-grid
Blade airfoil type : NACA 4415
Fixed or variable pitch : Fixed
Tower type : Lattice
Tower height : 18 m

The power curves obtained for these various combinations are shown in the Fig. 5.95 for
the range of wind speed, 3 m/s to 12 m/s. The readings of average power produced
through experimentation are included in the Appendix – C, through Table C.1 to Table
C.9. It is clear that as wind turbine speed increases power output increases non-linearly.
This is in line with the theory, i.e. power output is directly proportional to the cube of
wind velocity.

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 S1-I1 S2-I1 S3-I3 S2-I1 S2-I2
S2-I3 S3-I1 S3-I2 S3-I3
600

500
Power output (W)

400

300

200

100

0
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Wind speed (m/s)

Fig. 5.95: Power curves for various combinations of unidirectional co-axial two series
rotors wind turbine
• The power produced by the wind turbine at a shaft inclination 200, is considerably
low compared to the power produced at a shaft inclination 220. Three percent to
ten percent less power is produced at a shaft inclination 200. Hence, it is clear that
at a shaft inclination 200, the wake affects the performance of wind turbine for
considered rotors spacing.
• Further, at a shaft inclination 250, a slight increase in power output is observed at
1.7 times the rotor diameter. On the other hand, a slight decrease in power output
is observed at 1.6 times rotor diameter and 1.65 times the rotor diameter. This
decrease in power output for may be because of increased rotor inclination as it is
observed in CFD analysis that there is no effect of wake on proceeding rotors for
considered spacing.
• At 220 inclination power produced increases with increasing rotor spacing. From
the experimental results alone it is quite difficult to decide the spacing between
two rotors at this inclination as no significant difference is observed in power
produced.

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 • Hence, considering CFD results it concluded to take a rotor spacing 1.65 times the
rotor diameter and a shaft inclination of 220 for developed unidirectional co-axial
series rotor wind turbine models.
The power curve of a single rotor wind turbine obtained through experimentation is
shown in Fig. 5.96. The readings of average power produced through experimentation are
included in the Table D.1 of Appendix – D.

WT with 1 rotor
350

300
Output Power (W)

250

200

150

100

50

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Wind Speed (m/s)

Fig. 5.96: Power curve for a single rotor wind turbine

The power curve obtained through experimentation for a unidirectional co-axial two
rotors wind turbine at a shaft inclination of 220 and rotor spacing 1.65 times the rotor
diameter is shown in Fig. 5.97. The readings of average power produced through
experimentation are included in the Table D.2 of Appendix – D.
The field experiments are also carried out for unidirectional co-axial series rotors wind
turbine at a shaft inclination of 220 and rotor spacing 1.65 times the rotor diameter having
three and four rotors respectively.
The power curve obtained through experimentation for a unidirectional co-axial three
rotors wind turbine with shaft inclination of 220 and rotor spacing 1.65 times the rotor
diameter is shown in Fig. 5.98. The readings of average power produced through
experimentation are included in the Table D.3 of Appendix – D.

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 WT with 2 rotors
600

500
Output Power (W)

400

300

200

100

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Wind Speed (m/s)

Fig. 5.97: Power curve for a unidirectional co-axial two series rotor wind turbine

WT with 3 rotors
900
800
700
Output Power (W)

600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Wind Speed (m/s)

Fig. 5.98: Power curve for a unidirectional co-axial three series rotor wind turbine

The power curve obtained through experimentation for a unidirectional co-axial three
rotors wind turbine with shaft inclination of 220 and rotor spacing 1.65 times the rotor
diameter is shown in Fig. 5.99. The readings of average power produced through
experimentation are included in the Table D.4 of Appendix – D.

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 WT with 4 rotors
1200

Output Power (W) 1000

800

600

400

200

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Wind Speed (m/s)

Fig. 5.99: Power curve for a unidirectional co-axial four series rotor wind turbine

The power performance curves for unidirectional co-axial series rotor wind turbine
consists of two, three and four rotors are plotted in Fig. 5.100. The power curve for single
rotor wind turbine is also added in this plot. From this it is observed that each added rotor
contributes to generate more power.

WT with 1 rotor WT with 2 rotors

WT with 3 rotors WT with 4 rotors

1200

1000
Output Power (W)

800

600

400

200

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Wind speed (m/s)

Fig. 5.100:Power curves for wind turbines having various rotors

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Fig. 5.101 indicate that a wind turbine output will get multiplied by a certain factor
depending on the number of rotors placed on wind turbine shaft. The power produced by
single rotor is considered as reference power for wind speed range between 5 m/s to 12
m/s.
• Unidirectional co-axial series rotors wind turbine having two rotors produces
about 1.6 to 1.9 times more power compared to single rotor wind turbine for the
said range of velocity.
• Unidirectional co-axial series rotors wind turbine having three rotors produces
about 2.4 to 2.8 times more power compared to single rotor wind turbine for the
said range of velocity.
• Unidirectional co-axial series rotors wind turbine having four rotors produces
about 3.20 to 3.75 times more power compared to single rotor wind turbine for
the said range of velocity.

WT with 1 rotor WT with 2 rotors

WT with 3 rotors WT with 4 rotors
4
Multiple increase in power output

0
5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Wind Speed (m/s)

Fig. 5.101:Multiple increase in power output vs wind speed for various rotors
combinations

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Chapter 6

CONCLUSIONS

In this research work a unidirectional co-axial four rotors wind turbine is developed and
tested in the field satisfactorily to generate 1 kW rated power at rated wind speed o the
order of 12 m/s. Also unidirectional co-axial series rotors wind turbines with two and
three rotors are developed and tested in the field satisfactorily. This chapter presents the
main conclusions obtained through present research work are included. The area of future
research work is presented.

5. 5 Conclusions

1. CFD simulations of a unidirectional co-axial three series rotors wind turbine are
carried out to understand the wake effect for various combinations of shaft
inclinations and spacing between the two successive rotors. The shaft
inclination is varied between 00 to 250 in steps and the rotor spacing between
two successive rotors is varied from 1.5 to 1.75 times the rotor diameter. Based
on the CFD simulation work, following conclusions are drawn.

• The wake effect is zero for the combination of shaft inclination of 220 to
horizontal and rotor spacing 1.65 times the rotor diameter.

147
 • Through CFD simulation, it is also observed that the velocity contours
and pressure contours around the rotors in all combinations of shaft
inclinations and rotor spacing at the inlet and outlet of all rotors go on
changing.

• However, velocity contours and pressure contours remain unchanged at

the inlet and outlet of all three rotors for shaft inclination of 220 to
horizontal and rotor spacing 1.65 times the rotor diameter for all inlet
wind speeds up to 12.5 m/s.

2. Field testing for unidirectional co-axial two series rotor wind turbine are carried
out for various combinations of shaft inclinations and spacing between the two
successive rotors. The shaft inclination is varied between 200 to 250 in steps and
the rotor spacing between two successive rotors is varied from 1.6 times the
rotor diameter to 1.7 times the rotor diameter. Based on the results obtained
through field testing of co-axial two series rotor wind turbine for various
combinations of shaft inclination and spacing between two successive rotors,
following conclusions are drawn.

• The power produced by the wind turbine for shaft inclination 200 to
horizontal is considerably low as compared to the power produced at
shaft inclination 220 to horizontal. Three percent to ten percent less
power is produced at shaft inclination 200 to horizontal. Hence, it is clear
that at a shaft inclination 200, the wake affects the performance of wind
turbine for considered rotors spacing 1.5 times rotor diameter to 1.75
times rotor diameter.

• Further, at 250 shaft inclinations a slight increase in power output is

observed at 1.7 times the rotor diameter. On the other hand, a slight
decrease in power output is observed at 1.6 times rotor diameter and
1.65 times the rotor diameter.

148
3. Based on the results of the CFD simulation and field testing of co-axial two
series rotor wind turbine for various combinations of shaft inclinations and
spacing between the two successive rotors for wind speed up to 12.5 m/s, it is
concluded to have a shaft inclination of 220 to horizontal and spacing between
the two successive rotors as 1.65 times the rotor diameter for the models having
three and four rotors.

4. From experimental results obtained for wind turbine models having one, two,
three and four rotors, it is observed that, each additional rotor produces more
power (refer Fig. 5.100).

5. Wind turbine output gets multiplied by a certain factor depending on the

number of rotors placed on wind turbine shaft. The power produced by a single
rotor is considered as the reference power for wind speed ranging between 5 m/s
to 12 m/s (refer Fig. 5.101)

• Unidirectional co-axial series rotors wind turbine having two rotors

produces about 1.6 to 1.9 times higher power compared to a single rotor
wind turbine for the said range of velocity.

• Unidirectional co-axial series rotors wind turbine having three rotors

produces about 2.4 to 2.8 times higher power compared to a single rotor
wind turbine for the said range of velocity.

• Similar trend is observed for unidirectional co-axial series rotors wind

turbine having four rotors and it produces about 3.2 to 3.7 times more
power compared to single rotor wind turbine for the said range of
velocity.

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5. 6 Future Scope

To make a unidirectional co-axial multi rotor wind turbine more compact following
research can be carried out,

• In order to reduce the shaft inclination and rotor spacing further, deflectors can be
placed between rotors. The appropriate position of the deflector could be
determined through CFD [KS 2013d].

• The deflectors may be of flat, concave or convex shape. The effect of different
deflector shapes could be studied [KS 2013d].

• A unidirectional co-axial multi rotor wind turbine with deflector could be tested in
the field.

150