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Lesson 5: Fire Phenomena
Lesson Overview
As you have learned in the previous lessons, today's building construction, materials, and their furnishings have
changed fire behavior, resulting in faster and hotter fires. These factors have also affected the development of
extreme fire conditions, notably flashovers and backdrafts. With proper coordination and control, however, these fire
phenomena may be prevented or mitigated.
Upon completion of this lesson, you will be able to:
Explain the factors that contribute to rollovers, flashovers, and backdrafts.
Recognize the characteristics of a rollover fire.
Recognize the characteristics of a flashover fire.
Recognize the characteristics of a backdraft.
Rollovers
Rollovers, also known as flameovers, are sometimes confused with flashovers; however, they are not interchangeable
terms. There is a distinct difference between these fire phenomena.
Rollovers develop before flashovers during the growth stage of a fire. Unburned fuel gases, produced by the
originating fire, rise upward and ignite when they reach their ignition temperature. The resulting flames appear to roll
across the ceiling—hence, the name rollover.
Only the gases in the ceiling area ignite during a rollover; they do not produce enough heat energy to ignite other
contents in the room.
Rollovers, cont.
The presence of a rollover may or may not indicate that a flashover is forming, depending on how much unburned
gases have formed in the ceiling area.
During the onset of a rollover, orange flames appear sporadically and may be hard to detect in the dense black smoke.
As conditions in the compartment intensify, the flames grow in size and appear as a large orange cover, signaling that
a flashover is forthcoming.
Flashovers
A flashover is the rapid transition in fire behavior from localized burning of fuel to involvement of all combustibles in a
room, caused by a massive buildup of heat energy.
A flashover may develop when the furnishings in the fire area are made of materials that produce high amounts of
unburned gases and smoke. As these gases rise, they begin to cover the ceiling area.
When there is no means of exiting the area (such as a vent or stairwell), the unburned gases and smoke begin to fill
the compartment from the ceiling downward, forming a fuel cell.
This fuel cell will continue to grow as long as the originating fuel continues to burn. If there is enough entrained air
(oxygen) to maintain combustion, the fuel cell in the ceiling area will begin to increase turbulence. Usually when this
occurs, objects and debris from the ceiling area will begin falling to the floor. When that occurs, typically a flashover
is imminent.
The fuel cell of smoke and gases has an ignition temperature of approximately 1,100 degrees Fahrenheit and is
typically ignited by a fuel burning below it. When the fuel cell ignites, it produces a large amount of heat energy or
heat flux—typically around 20kWm2. This level is sufficient to ignite all of the furnishings below it. This is the
phenomena called flashover.
Flashovers (Video Transcript)
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Another sign that a flashover is imminent is seeing a thermal radiation pattern developing. This looks like a fuzzy
semicircle shape that is growing downward or sideward from the fuel cell. This semicircle indicates radiation moving
outward from the energy source. If you see this pattern, you need to get out immediately.
Factors Affecting Rollovers and Flashovers
Several factors determine whether or not a fuel cell will ignite into a rollover as well as a flashover, and how quickly it
will transition to a flashover. These factors are listed below
Fuel Properties
Remember that a fuel's shape, density, moisture content, texture, and heat of combustion can greatly affect fire
behavior. In addition, most furnishings in modern homes are made of synthetic materials. These fuels burn hotter and
faster, produce a higher amount of unburned fire gases, and emit more radiated heat, which results in rapid flashover.
Compartment Size and Geometry
The size of a room affects the velocity of radiated heat. Radiated heat moves faster in a smaller room whereas it loses
energy when it travels in a large volume room. The close space between furniture items in a smaller room also
increases the amount of radiated heat absorbed by the materials in the room. As a result, the smaller room may flash
over more rapidly than a larger compartment.
If, in the geometry of the room, there are variations of the shape that provide a greater distance between the fuel cell
and the fire source, then, there will be no ignition of the fuel cell, and thus, no flashover.
Ventilation
Most compartment fires are ventilation-controlled fires. The amount of air in a room affects the fire growth. As more
air is allowed to enter the room, the fire will continue to develop and could transition to a flashover. If there is any
vent opening at ceiling level that will allow the above fuel cell to leave the room, flashover is unlikely.
Building Construction
Energy-efficiency features found in modern homes, such as insulated walls, ceilings, and insulated windows, retain
more heat in a compartment. The increased heat can result in an earlier flashover.
Concealed spaces can cause the heat level to continue to rise even after you have vented and cooled the area. For
example, suspended ceilings that allow the heat to accumulate until it reaches enough pressure will quickly flashover.
Flashover Simulation
When the conditions of the compartment are prone to flashover, the fire will transition to a flashover at the end of the
growth stage. The following fire test video demonstrates how a flashover develops in a sample living room.
Video Transcript
Flashovers are caused by the massive buildup of heat energy in the compartment. The fire is releasing heat at a rate
much faster than the room can ventilate. When the superheated gases in the upper level of the room can no longer
absorb the heat, it radiates downwards. In doing so, the temperature rises to the point where all combustibles in the
room appear to ignite almost simultaneously. This rapid combustion and heat make flashovers the deadliest stage of a
fire.
[Video of a Christmas tree in the corner of a living room. The tree ignites at the bottom; after 10 seconds, the fire
ignites gases at the ceiling, and the room begins to fill with smoke. By 20 seconds, a nearby armchair is engulfed in
flames. Flashover occurs at 35 seconds.]
Flashover Characteristics: Warning Signs
It's critical that you recognize the signs of an imminent flashover. Your life and the lives of your fellow firefighters and
the building occupants depend on it.
Exterior Signs
Exterior building conditions can indicate whether the fire is ventilated or unventilated. Smoke appearing outside the
building with little or no flames indicates the fire is rich in fuel but is deprived of oxygen—in other words, a
ventilation-controlled fire. Introducing oxygen into this environment, such as by forcing entry, could feed the fire and
quickly result in a flashover.
Interior Signs
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Upon entering the building, signs of a potential flashover include:
Ignition of the fuel-rich smoke as it mixes with air outdoors, signifying the volatile conditions inside the
building.
An increase in the speed of intensely dark smoke as it exits the opening, indicating a rise in temperature.
Changes in color, speed, or density of the smoke.
A rapidly falling smoke layer as the room approached flashover conditions.
Tightly curled, intensely dense, black smoke appearing to push out through a door or other opening. Full of
energy, the smoke may fill voids and hidden spaces as it exits the fire area, increasing the chances of extending
the fire.
Rollover: As noted in the beginning of the lesson, a rollover is the rolling fire within the black smoke. Rollovers
may be an early sign of a developing flashover. As the rollover intensifies, orange flames appear overhead,
signifying a flashover is imminent. Keep in mind that flashovers can occur without rollovers.
Development of a thermal radiation pattern that looks like a fuzzy semicircle shape growing downward or
sideward from the fuel cell. This may be accompanied by objects and debris falling from the ceiling.
Backdrafts
A backdraft is an explosion resulting from the sudden introduction of air/oxygen into a confined space containing
oxygen-deficient superheated products of incomplete combustion. Backdrafts usually occur during the decay stage of
a fire, before the vaporized fuel has cooled below its auto-ignition temperature.
The heat and unburned gases emitted by the fire rise in the fire area and evolve into a huge fire cell. If the smoke and
fire gases continue to build with no opening for an exit, the fire will use up nearly all the oxygen available. The fire
can smolder as long as it has around 5 percent oxygen.
As the fire smolders, the temperature rises very slowly and more toxic gases and combustible fuel are produced. If
oxygen enters the area, the gases will reach their flammable range and explode into a fireball.
Toxic Gases
One of these products of combustion is carbon monoxide which can explode in an atmosphere with as little as 12
percent oxygen.
Backdrafts, cont.
Both flashovers and backdrafts are activated by an influx of air, but they differ in speed and heat release rate.
Whereas flashovers are driven by temperature, backdrafts are air-driven phenomena.
Unlike flashovers which always transition to a fully developed fire, the explosion from a backdraft may or may not
develop into a fire.
Factors Affecting Backdrafts
Several conditions affect whether or not the giant fuel cell will trigger a backdraft explosion. Most of these conditions
are the same as those conditions which determine whether or not a flashover will occur.
Fuel properties
Compartment size and geometry
Ventilation
Building construction
The higher amount of unburned fire gases produced by synthetic materials can lead to a flashover or a backdraft.
If, in the room geometry, there are no areas where the fire can obtain the needed oxygen, it might develop into a
backdraft mode if the integrity of the building failed.
Insulation can create a seal, preventing air from entering the room. Once the air enters the room, either due to
building failure, forced entry, or venting near or at the smoldering fire, a deadly backdraft could occur.
Backdraft Simulation
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The following recording shows what happens to a fire in a test chamber simulating backdraft conditions.
Video Transcript
As the fire burns in the confined area of the test chamber, it consumes all of the available oxygen. The flames
eventually disappear as flammable gases expand and fill the area.
During this time, the temperature continues to rise slowly while the pressure increases. If this were a house, smoke
would appear to be pulsating through the openings in the house such as the doors and windows.
When the entrance to the chamber is opened, the oxygen-starved fuel reacts with the incoming air, and explodes as it
moves towards the opening.
Signs of a Potential Backdraft
One of the most distinctive or recognizable signs of a backdraft condition is a thick smoke pulsing out of
compartment, appearing as if the house is breathing in and out.
Some other signs or indicators of a backdraft include:
Dense black, brown, or mustard yellow-colored smoke, signifying large presence of carbon monoxide
Change in the direction of the smoke, from outwards to inwards, as it returns to the opening
Few or no flames
Sound or feeling of air as it speeds towards the fire
Be aware that although these conditions usually exist when a backdraft occurs, their presence does not necessarily
indicate that a backdraft is inevitable but that a backdraft is possible.
Lesson Summary
In this lesson, you learned the characteristics and warning signs of rollovers, flashovers, and backdrafts.
Knowing the factors that can affect the development of a flashover or backdraft such as the building construction and
compartment size can help you anticipate whether or not a fire phenomenon will occur and help prepare you to
prevent or mitigate the destructive force.
However, this information may not be available; therefore, you need to be able to recognize the signs of a potential
flashover or backdraft both outside and inside the building. You can't depend on your turnout gear to alert you to
imminent danger. By the time you feel the heat, it may be too late. You must be aware of the situation at all times in
order to take preventive or evasive action.
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