CHAPTER 1

FUNCTIONS, LIMITS
&
CONTINUITY

PREPARED BY: NUR SYAMILAH BT ARIFIN

CONTENTS

1.1 FUNCTIONS 1.2 LIMITS 1.3 CONTINUITY

• Introduction • Introduction • Continuity at a Point
• Properties • One sided & Two sided • Limits & Continuity of
• Operations on Functions limits Trigonometric Functions
• Finite Limits
• Infinite Limits
1.1 FUNCTIONS: OBJECTIVES

1 Understand the concepts

and properties of functions

2 Use the operation on

functions to find the solution
1.1 FUNCTIONS: Introduction & Properties
Input Function: Output

Function
or not -2 -6 2 1
1 3 4 3
7 21 6 5
8 24 8 9
Domain Range Domain Range
• A function can be interpreted Function: one to one Not a Function: one to many
as a rule that operates on an
input and produces an output.
• Only one output will be
produced every time for any
given input. 1
ℎ 1 =
• One-to-one relation and 2
many-to-one relation are the
functions.
CONT..
0 0

1 2 2

5 10

7 ?

Domain Range

Function name
𝑓 0 =0
𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒙) 𝑓 1 =2
𝑓 5 = 10
Input 𝑓 7 =?
Output
 Given 𝑓 𝑥 = 4𝑥 − 6 and 𝑔 𝑥 = 2𝑥 2 . Find

a) 𝑓(2)
b) 𝑓(−1)
c) 𝑔(3)

Solution:

f ( )=4 −6 a) 𝑓 2 = 4 2 − 6 = 2

b) 𝑓 −1 =

c) 𝑔 3 =
 GRAPH

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 + 5

𝑥 −intercept
𝑦 −intercept

𝑓 −1 = (−1)3 −3 −1 + 5
=7
1.1 FUNCTIONS: Operations on Functions

1. Sum : 𝑓 + 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑥 + 𝑔 𝑥

2. Difference : 𝑓 − 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑥 − 𝑔 𝑥

3. Product : 𝑓𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑥 𝑔 𝑥

𝑓 𝑓(𝑥)
4. Quotient : 𝑔
𝑥 = 𝑔(𝑥)
, 𝑔(𝑥) ≠0

CAUTION:
5. Composite: 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑔 𝑥 )
𝑓 ∘ 𝑔 𝑥 ≠ 𝑓(𝑥) × 𝑔(𝑥)
 c) Find 𝑓𝑔 𝑥
𝑓𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑥 ∙ 𝑔 𝑥

Example: Given 𝑓 𝑥 = 4𝑥 − 6 and 𝑔 𝑥 = 2𝑥 2

a) Find 𝑓 + 𝑔 𝑥 𝑓
d) Find 𝑥
𝑔
𝑓+𝑔 𝑥 =𝑓 𝑥 +𝑔 𝑥
𝑓 𝑓(𝑥)
= 2𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 6 𝑥 = 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑔

b) Find 𝑓 − 𝑔 𝑥

𝑓−𝑔 𝑥 =𝑓 𝑥 −𝑔 𝑥 e) Find 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔 𝑥

= 4𝑥 − 6 − 2𝑥 2 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑔 𝑥 )
= −2𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 6
 Piecewise Functions

GRAPHS OF FUNCTIONS
 Piecewise Functions

GRAPHS OF FUNCTIONS
VIDEO:
HTTPS://WWW.YOUTUBE.COM/WATCH?V=H_RF_2OESJU&LIST
=PL7HBXNIJEDJVNXGD6FNEBVKZPAWHNXZAR&INDEX=4
1.2 LIMITS: OBJECTIVES

1 Understand the concepts of limits

2 Solve one-sided and two-sided limits

3 Identify the existence of two-sided limits

4 Determine the solutions of infinite limits and limits at infinity

specifically for polynomial, rational and radical functions
1.2 LIMITS: Introduction(Intuitive Approach)
From table: left hand side right hand side
𝑥 1.9 1.99 1.999 2 2.001 2.01 2.1 2.3
𝑓(𝑥) 5.61 5.9601 5.996001 6 6.004001 6.0401 6.41 7.29
By graph:

The limit of 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 + 2 is 6 as 𝑥
approaches 2 from left and right
𝑓(𝑥) approaches 6
hand sides. We can write this as

lim 𝑥 2 + 2 = 6
𝑥→2

Note

As 𝑥 approaches 2 We are only interested with the values

of 𝑓(𝑥) NEAR (approaches) the point
𝑥 = 2 , NOT VALUE of 𝒇(𝒙) AT 𝒙 = 𝟐
1.2 LIMITS: Introduction

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿
𝑥→ 𝑎

lim 𝑥 2 + 2 = 6
𝑥→𝑎
𝑥→ 2

The limit of 𝑓(𝑥) as 𝑥 approaches 𝑎 is 𝐿

NOTE:
❖ 𝑥 approaches 𝑎, not EQUAL to 𝑎 (𝒙 ≠ 𝒂)
❖ 𝑎 and 𝐿 are real numbers
 LIMITS

One-Sided: Two-Sided (existence of limit):

i. Left hand limit
lim− 𝑓(𝑥) The limit EXISTS if and only if the left hand side EQUAL to
𝑥→𝑎
right hand side
ii. Right hand limit
lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 𝑖𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑓 lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

Finite Infinite 1. Polynomial

function
lim lim lim 2. Rational
x→ a x→+ x→− function
3. Radical
Real number
 Left hand limit Right hand limit 𝑦
lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑳 lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑳
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
3
2
1
𝑥
1

𝑎) lim− 𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥→1

b) lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥→1

The limit of function 𝑓(𝑥) as 𝑥 The limit of function 𝑓(𝑥) as 𝑥 c) 𝑓 1 =

approaches 𝑎 from left hand side (LHS) approaches 𝑎 from right hand side
(RHS)
𝑥 → 𝑎 − : values of 𝒙 < 𝒂 𝑥 → 𝑎 + : values of 𝒙 > 𝒂
Direction
 𝑦 lim 𝒇(𝒙)
𝒙→𝟏−
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)
lim 𝒇(𝒙)
− 𝒙→𝟏+
𝑥 → 1 : values of 𝒙 < 𝟏 7
lim 𝒇(𝒙)
𝒙→𝟒−
𝑥 → 1+ : values of 𝒙 > 𝟏 3
lim 𝒇(𝒙)
𝒙→𝟒∓
𝑥 → 4 − : values of 𝒙 < 𝟒
0
𝑥 𝑓(1)
1 4
𝑥 → 4+ : values of 𝒙 > 𝟒

NOTE:
x → 1−  x = −1 ❖ An empty circle : the point is not included in interval (/line/curve)

❖ A dense circle: the point is included in interval (/line/curve)

 Determine whether the following limit exist or not:
lim 𝒇(𝒙)
𝒙→𝟏−
𝑦
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) lim 𝒇(𝒙)
𝒙→𝟏+
7
lim 𝒇(𝒙)
Right side 𝒙→1

3 lim 𝒇(𝒙)
𝒙→𝟒−

𝑥 lim∓ 𝒇(𝒙)
0 1 4 𝒙→𝟒

lim 𝒇(𝒙)
𝒙→4
lim 𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥→1− lim 𝑓(𝑥) lim 𝑓(𝑥) ∴ lim 𝑓(𝑥)
lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥→1− 𝑥→1+ 𝑥→1
𝑥→1

lim 𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥→4 − lim 𝑓(𝑥) lim 𝑓(𝑥) ∴ lim 𝑓 𝑥
lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥→4− 𝑥→4+ 𝑥→4
𝑥→4
 a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)
i)

lim 𝑓(𝑥) ≠
𝑥→2
𝑓 2 =
𝑓 4 =
𝑓 4 ≠
𝑓 4 ≠
𝑎 and 𝑐 are real
numbers; n is
positive integer
1. POLYNOMIAL Find the limit for the following functions:

a) lim ( x 2 − 2 x + 3) 2x2 + x − 3
FUNCTIONS x→2 b) lim
x →3 x2 + 4
Solution: Solution:

By direct substitution: By direct substitution:

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓 𝑎 lim ( 2 x 2 + x − 3)
lim ( x − 2 x + 3) = lim x − lim 2 x + lim 3 2x + x − 3
2 2 2
𝑥→𝑎 lim = x →3

lim ( x 2 + 4 )
x→2 x→2 x→2 x→2
x →3 x2 + 4
= lim x − 2 lim x + lim 3
2
x →3
Direct substitution x→2 x→2 x→2
2 lim x 2 + lim x − lim 3
= ( 2) − 2 ( 2) + 3
2
= x →3 x →3 x →3

lim x 2 + lim 4
=3 x →3 x →3

2 ( 3) + 3 − 3
2

=
( 3) +4
2

18
=
13
2. RATIONAL Find the limit for the following functions:

x2 − 5x + 4 16 − 4 x
FUNCTIONS a) lim
x →1 x −1
b) lim
x→4 x 2 − 4 x

𝑝(𝑥)
Solution: Solution:
Let 𝑓 𝑥 = , 𝑞(𝑥) ≠ 0 16 − 4 x
x 2 − 5 x + 4 (1) − 5 (1) + 4
2
𝑞(𝑥)
lim =
lim = x→4 x 2 − 4 x
• If 𝑞 𝑥 ≠ 0,
x →1 x −1 1 −1
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑎) 0
𝑥→𝑎 = Indeterminate form
0
𝒑(𝒙) 𝟎
• If = 𝟎 → Factorization Therefore, we have to find the limit by
𝒒(𝒙)
Method using factorization method:

• If 𝑞 𝑥 = 0 and 𝑝 𝑥 ≠ 0 x2 − 5x + 4 ( x − 4)( x − 1)
lim = lim
→ limit does not exist x →1 x −1 x →1 ( x − 1)
(DNE)
= lim ( x − 4 )
x →1

0 = 1− 4
 0, 0
0 0 = −3 1. Factor
0 2. Remove the
=0
Indeterminate common term
form
2. RATIONAL Find the limit for the following functions:

2 x3 − 1 2 x3 − 1
FUNCTIONS a) lim
x →2 3x − 4
b) lim
x →2 3x − 6

𝑝(𝑥)
Solution: Solution:
Let 𝑓 𝑥 = , 𝑞(𝑥) ≠ 0
𝑞(𝑥)
2x −1
3 2 x3 − 1
lim = lim =
x →2 3x − 6
• If 𝑞 𝑥 ≠ 0, x →2 3x − 4

𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑎)

𝑥→𝑎

𝒑(𝒙) 𝟎
• If = 𝟎 → Factorization
𝒒(𝒙)
Method

• If 𝑞 𝑥 = 0 and 𝑝 𝑥 ≠ 0
→ limit does not exist
(DNE)
3. RADICAL Find the limit for the following functions:

x −2 Therefore, we have to find the limit by

FUNCTIONS a) lim
x→4 x − 4 using conjugate multiplication method:

x −2  x − 2  x + 2 
− = lim  
lim Solution: lim
x→4 x − 4 x→4 x − 4  x + 2 
x→a   
x −2 4 −2 x−4
= = lim
−
( x − 4) ( )
lim
lim x→4 x − 4 4−4 x→4
x +2
x→a
0
= Indeterminate 1
= lim
( )
0 form
− x→4
x +2
lim
x→a
− 1
=
1. Multiply by conjugate 4+2
− 2. Remove the common term 1
lim =
x→a
− 4
When multiplying the SAME TERMS/VARIABLES,
the radicals will disappear  x − 2  x + 2  x + 2 x − 2 x − 4
   =
x x = x 
 x − 4  x + 2  ( x − 4) x + 2 ( )
3. RADICAL Find thet limit
b) lim
+ 1 − for
2t the
− 2 following functions:
t →3 3−t
FUNCTIONS Solution:
t + 1 − 2t − 2
lim =
t →3 3−t
4. PIECEWISE Find lim
x→2
f ( x) , where

3x + 3 if x2
FUNCTIONS 
f ( x) =  3 if x=2
 x 2 + 5 if x2

Solution:
x2 LHS : x → 2−
x2 RHS : x → 2+
lim+ f ( x) = lim+ x 2 + 5
x→2 x→2

lim− f ( x) = lim− 3 x + 3
x→2 x→2

∴ 𝒍𝒊𝒎 𝒇(𝒙) =
𝒙→𝟐
1.2 INFINITE Introduction
LIMITS: lim 𝑓(𝑥) = +∞
𝑥→𝑎
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = −∞
𝑥→𝑎
The limit of 𝑓(𝑥) is positive infinity as 𝑥 The limit of 𝑓(𝑥) is negative infinity as 𝑥
approaches 𝑎 approaches 𝑎
Two Sided Infinite
or or
Limits
𝑓(𝑥) increases without bound as 𝑥 𝑓(𝑥) decreases without bound as 𝑥
approaches 𝑎 approaches 𝑎

Infinite Limit from Left Hand Side Infinite Limit from Right Hand Side

One Sided Infinite lim 𝑓(𝑥) = +∞ lim 𝑓(𝑥) = +∞

Limits 𝑥→𝑎− 𝑥→𝒂+
𝑓(𝑥) increases without bound as 𝑥 𝑓(𝑥) increases without bound as 𝑥
approaches 𝑎 (𝒙 < 𝒂) approaches 𝑎 (𝒙 > 𝒂)

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = −∞ lim 𝑓(𝑥) = −∞

𝑥→𝑎− 𝑥→𝒂+
𝑓(𝑥) decreases without bound as 𝑥 𝑓(𝑥) decreases without bound as 𝑥
approaches 𝑎 (𝒙 < 𝒂) approaches 𝑎 side(𝒙 > 𝒂)
 1
Find lim 1
𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑓 𝑥 = ,𝑥 ≠ 0
𝑥
1 1
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑥 =
𝑥 𝑥

LHS

LHS RHS

1
𝑓 𝑥 =
𝑥

The value of 𝑓(𝑥) decreases without bound as 𝑥 approaches

1 RHS
0 from left hand side; lim− 𝑥 = −∞
𝑥→0

The value of 𝑓(𝑥) increases without bound as 𝑥 approaches 0

1
from right hand side; lim+ 𝑥 = +∞
𝑥→0

1 1 1
Since lim− 𝑥 ≠ lim+ 𝑥 , ∴ lim 𝑥 does not exist
𝑥→0 𝑥→0 𝑥→0
 1
Find lim
𝑥→0 𝑥 2
1
𝑓 𝑥 = ,𝑥 ≠ 0
𝑥2
1
𝑓 𝑥 =
𝑥2

1 LHS
𝑓 𝑥 =
𝑥2

1
lim− = +∞
𝑥→0 𝑥2

1
lim+ = +∞
𝑓 𝑥 =
1 𝑥→0 𝑥2
𝑥2
1 1
Since lim− 𝑥 2 = lim+ 𝑥 2
𝑥→0 𝑥→0
LHS RHS
1
RHS ∴ lim = +∞
𝑥→0 𝑥 2
 5 5
Find lim 𝑓 𝑥 = ,𝑥 ≠ 2
𝑥→2 𝑥−2 𝑥−2
5
𝑓 𝑥 =
𝑥−2

LHS

5
𝑓 𝑥 =
𝑥−2
5
𝑓 𝑥 =
𝑥−2

RHS

5
LHS
lim− = −∞
RHS 𝑥→2 𝑥−2

5
lim+ = +∞
𝑥→2 𝑥−2
5 5
Since lim− 𝑥−2 ≠ lim+ 𝑥−2
𝑥→2 𝑥→2

5
∴ lim 𝑥−2 does not exist
𝑥→2
1.2 LIMITS AT Introduction (End behavior of function)
INFINITY: ❖ We are concerned to evaluate the behaviour of 𝑓(𝑥) when 𝑥 increases
or decreases without bounds.

1. Polynomial
function lim 𝑓(𝑥) lim 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→+∞ 𝑥→−∞
2. Rational
function
3. Radical
❖ If the 𝑓(𝑥) approaches a real number 𝑳 in either case we can write these
limits as

lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝐿 lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝐿
𝑥→+∞ 𝑥→−∞
 LIMITS AT INFINITY:
1
𝑓 𝑥 =
𝑥

1 LHS: 𝑥 → −∞ The values of 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑓 𝑥 = As 𝑥 decreases without
𝑥 are negative and
bounds (gets smaller and gets closer to zero
smaller)

RHS: 𝑥 → +∞
𝑥 → −∞ 𝑥 → +∞ As 𝑥 increase without The values of 𝑓(𝑥)
bounds (gets larger and are positive and
larger) gets closer to zero

Note 1
lim = 0
𝑥→−∞ 𝑥
For limit at infinity, if ℎ > 0, 1
1 1 lim = 0
𝑥→+∞ 𝑥
lim ℎ = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 lim ℎ = 0
𝑥→+∞ 𝑥 𝑥→−∞ 𝑥
 Properties Example
LAWS OF INFINITE lim 𝑘 = 𝑘 lim 3 = 3
𝑥→±∞ 𝑥→±∞
LIMIT lim 𝑥 = −∞, lim 𝑥 = +∞
𝑥→−∞ 𝑥→+∞
lim 𝑥 𝑛 = +∞, 𝑛 = 1,2,3, ⋯ lim 𝑥 4 = +∞
𝑥→+∞ 𝑥→+∞

−∞, 𝑛 = 1,3,5, ⋯ (𝑜𝑑𝑑 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟) lim 𝑥 6 = +∞

lim 𝑥𝑛 =ቊ 𝑥→−∞
𝑥→−∞ +∞, 𝑛 = 2,4,6, ⋯ (𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 lim 𝑥 5 = −∞
𝑥→−∞

𝑛 2
1 1 1 1
lim = lim =0 lim 2 = lim =0
𝑥→±∞ 𝑥 𝑛 𝑥→±∞ 𝑥 𝑥→−∞ 𝑥 𝑥→∞ 𝑥

𝑛
lim 𝑘𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑘 lim 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑛
= 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→±∞ 𝑥→±∞ 𝑥→±∞ 𝑥→±∞
lim ሾ𝑓(𝑥) ∙
𝑥→±∞
lim 𝑓(𝑥) ± 𝑔(𝑥) = lim 𝑓(𝑥) ± lim 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑥→±∞ 𝑥→±∞ 𝑥→±∞ 𝑔(𝑥)ሿ = lim 𝑓(𝑥) ∙ lim 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑥→±∞ 𝑥→±∞

𝑓(𝑥) lim 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑛

𝑥→±∞
lim = , lim 𝑔(𝑥) ≠ 0 lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑛 lim 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→±∞ 𝑔(𝑥) lim 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑥→±∞ 𝑥→±∞ 𝑥→±∞
𝑥→±∞
Find the following limits

a) lim 2𝑥 6 b) lim (−3𝑥 8 )

𝑥→+∞ 𝑥→+∞

Solution: Solution:
lim 2 x = 2 lim x
6 6
lim ( −3 x8 ) = −3 lim x8
x →+ x →+ x →+ x →+

= 2(+) = −3(+)
= =

c) lim 5𝑥 5 4𝑥 4
𝑥→−∞ d) lim
𝑥→−∞ 5

Solution: Solution:
lim 5 x5 = 5 lim x5 lim
4x4 4
= lim x 4
x →− x →−
x →− 5 5 x →−
=
=
1. POLYNOMIAL
Find the limit for the following functions:
FUNCTIONS
The end behavior of a polynomial
b) lim ( x + 2 x 2 − 7 x 3 )
matches the end behavior of its highest
degree term: a) lim ( 7 x 5 − 4 x 3 + 2 x − 9 ) x →+
x →−

Solution: Solution:
𝒑 𝒙 = 𝒂𝟏 + 𝒂𝟐 𝒙 + ⋯ + 𝒂𝒏 𝒙𝒏
lim ( 7 x5 − 4 x 3 + 2 x − 9 ) = lim ( x + 2 x 2 − 7 x 3 ) =
x →− x →+

𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑎1 + 𝑎2 𝑥 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛
𝑥→−∞ 𝑥→−∞

𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑎1 + 𝑎2 𝑥 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛
𝑥→+∞ 𝑥→+∞
2. RATIONAL Find the limit for the following functions: the power of 𝑥 in 𝐷 < 𝑁

4 x5 − x + 1 Divide by the highest power of 𝑥 in the

FUNCTIONS a) lim
x →+ 3 x 4 − 2 x 2
denominator, which is x 4

❑ A rational function : 4 x5 x 1
− +
Solution: 4x − x + 1
5
x 4
x 4
x 4
𝑝(𝑥) lim = lim
𝑓 𝑥 = 4 x5 − x + 1  x →+ 3 x 4 − 2 x 2 x →+ 3x 4 2 x 2
𝑞(𝑥) lim = − 4
x →+ 3 x 4 − 2 x 2  x 4
x
where 𝑝(𝑥) and 𝑞(𝑥) are the
1 1
polynomial functions.
Indeterminate form 4x − 3 + 4
= lim x x
❑ To determine its limits as x →+ 2
3− 2
𝒙 → ±∞ : 𝟏 x
𝒙
𝒙𝟑 1 1
Divide both numerator and 10 0.001 4(+) − +
denominator by the highest = + +
100 0.000001 2
power of 𝒙 in the 3−
denominator 1000 0.000000001 +
⋮ ⋮ + − 0 + 0
=
Since lim
1
= 0, therefore lim
2
=0 3−0
𝑥→+∞ 𝑥 3 𝑥→+∞ 𝑥 2
= +
2. RATIONAL Find the limit for the following functions:

4 x5 − x + 1
FUNCTIONS a) lim
x →+ 3 x 4 − 2 x 2

ALTERNATIVE Solution:
Term with highest power

METHOD of 𝑥 in Numerator

4 x5 − x + 1
- Divide the term with the highest lim
power of 𝒙 that occur in x →+ 3 x 4 − 2 x 2

Numerator by the term with 4 x5 Term with

highest power of 𝒙 that occur in = lim 4 highest
x →+ 3 x
Denominator. power of 𝑥 in
4x Denominator
- Applicable for Rational functions = lim
x →+ 3
only.
= +

Short cut Long way

2. RATIONAL Find the limit for the following functions: the power of 𝑥 in 𝐷 = 𝑁

x2 Divide by the highest power of 𝑥 in the

FUNCTIONS b) lim
x →+ 7 − x 2
denominator, which is

❑ A rational function :
Solution:
𝑝(𝑥)
𝑓 𝑥 =
𝑞(𝑥)
where 𝑝(𝑥) and 𝑞(𝑥) are the
polynomial functions.

❑ To determine its limits as

𝒙 → ±∞ :

Divide both numerator and

denominator by the highest
power of 𝒙 in the
denominator
2. RATIONAL Find the limit for the following functions: the power of 𝑥 in 𝐷 > 𝑁

4x2 − 5
FUNCTIONS c) lim 3
x →− 3 x + x − 7

❑ A rational function :
Solution:
𝑝(𝑥)
𝑓 𝑥 = Divide by the highest power of 𝑥 in the
𝑞(𝑥)
where 𝑝(𝑥) and 𝑞(𝑥) are the denominator, which is
polynomial functions.

❑ To determine its limits as

𝒙 → ±∞ :

Divide both numerator and

denominator by the highest
power of 𝒙 in the
denominator
3. RADICAL Find the limit for the following functions:
2x + 1
FUNCTIONS a) lim
x →
x2 + 3

Solution:
lim
x→ Divide by the highest power of 𝑥 in the

denominator, which is
lim 2x + 1
x→
lim =
x →
x +3
2

lim
x→

NOTE:
x = x2
x2 = x4
x3 = x 6
3. RADICAL Find the limit for the following functions:

4 3x 2 − 2
FUNCTIONS b) lim
x →−
3 (1 − 8 x )

Solution:
lim
x→ Divide by the highest power of 𝑥 in the

denominator, which is
lim
4 3x 2 − 2 3x 2 − 2
x→
4
lim = lim
x →− (1 − 8 x )
x →−
3 (1 − 8 x ) 3
lim
x→

NOTE:
x = x2
x2 = x4
x3 = x 6
3. RADICAL Find the limit for the following functions:

3x + 5
FUNCTIONS c) lim 3
x → 6x − 8

Solution:

3x + 5 3 3x + 5
lim 3 = lim
x → 6x − 8 x → 6 x − 8

lim
x→
Divide by the highest power of 𝑥 in the

denominator, which is

3x + 5 3 3x + 5
lim 3 = lim
x → 6x − 8 x → 6 x − 8

NOTE:
x = x2
x2 = x4
x3 = x 6
3. RADICAL Find the limit for the following functions:

3x + 5
FUNCTIONS c) lim 3
x → 6x − 8

ALTERNATIVE Solution:

METHOD 3x + 5 3 3x + 5
lim 3 = lim
x → 6x − 8 x → 6 x − 8

- Divide the term with the

highest power of 𝒙 that occur
in Numerator by the term
with highest power of 𝒙 that
occur in Denominator.

- Applicable for Rational

functions only.

The short cut method can be

applied to this question as
Rational function is inside
radical. Short cut
3. RADICAL Find the limit for the following functions:

d ) lim x 6 + 2 − x 3
FUNCTIONS x →
Divide by the highest power of 𝑥 in the

denominator, which is x 6 = x3
Solution: 2 2
lim 3
x →
Multiply with the conjugate x 6 + 2 + x3 = lim x
x →
2
2 1+ 6 +1
lim lim x 6 + 2 − x3 = lim x 3 x
x→
x → x →
x 6 + 2 + x3 2
 x 6 + 2 + x3  ()
( )
3
x3 =
= lim x + 2 − x 
6 3

x →  x 6 + 2 + x3  2 2
  1+ +1
()
3

( + 2 ) − x6
6
6 = lim x
x x →
= lim x 6 + 2 x3
x →
x 6 + 2 + x3 + 3 =
0
x 6 x
NOTE:
2 1+ 0 +1
x = x2 = lim 2 0
x →
x +2+x
6 3
x3 =
x = x
2 4 = lim 1 +1
x →
x 6 2 x3 =0
x3 = x 6 6
+ 6 + 3
x x x
1.2 LIMITS OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
Important properties:

sin 𝑥 1 − cos 𝑥
lim =1 lim =0
𝑥→𝟎 𝑥 𝑥→𝟎 𝑥
sin
lim =1
x→0

NOTE:
1 − cos Must be the SAME
lim =0 VARIABLE lim sin 𝑥 = sin 𝑎
𝑥→𝑎
x→ 0

lim cos 𝑥 = cos 𝑎

𝑥→𝑎
 sin 2 x
lim =1
x →0 2x sin x
lim 2  1
x →0 x
1 − cos x
lim =0
x →0 x
1 − cos 4 x
lim =0
x →0 4x
1 − cos t
lim =0
t →0 t

1 − cos 3
lim =0
 →0 3
WRONG CONCEPT:

sin 2 x = 2sin x
TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES
 Find the limit for the following functions:

cos x sin 4 x
a) lim b) lim
x → 0 sin x − 3 x →0 x

Solution: Solution:
By direct substitution: By direct substitution:
cos x sin 4 x
lim = lim =
x → 0 sin x − 3 x →0 x

WRONG CONCEPT:
sin 4 x sin x
lim = 4lim
x →0 x x →0 x
 Find the limit for the following functions:

By using the identity: sin  sin 3

tan  tan  = d ) lim
c) lim cos   → 0 sin 4
 →0 
sin  Solution:
Solution: tan 
= lim cos 
By direct substitution:
lim
By direct substitution:  →0   →0  sin 3 0
lim =
tan  0  → 0 sin 4 0
lim =
 →0  0
Indeterminate form

Multiply both N & D by :

Indeterminate form

WRONG CONCEPT:
sin  1 sin 
 =
cos   cos  2
 Find the limit for the following functions:

sin ( x − 2 )
x3 + 4sin x f ) lim
e) lim
x →0
x→2 x2 − x − 2
x
Solution: Factorise the denominator:
Solution: By direct substitution:
sin ( x − 2 )
By direct substitution: sin ( x − 2 )
0 lim =
lim 2 = x→2 x2 − x − 2
x3 + 4sin x 0 x→2 x − x − 2 0
lim =
x →0 x 0
Indeterminate form
Indeterminate form

x3 + 4sin x
lim =
x →0 x
 Find the limit for the following functions: WRONG CONCEPT:
sin 2 x = sin x 2

x2 x2 x 2  1 + cos x 
g ) lim lim = lim  
x → 0 1 − cos x x → 0 1 − cos x x → 0 1 − cos x 1 + cos x
  lim (1 + cos x )
x 2 (1 + cos x ) = x →0

Solution: = lim sin 2 x

x →0 (1 − cos x )(1 + cos x ) lim 2
x →0 x
By direct substitution:
x 2 (1 + cos x ) lim (1 + cos x )
= lim = x →0
x2 0 x →0 1 − cos x + cos x − cos x 2
lim =  sin x  sin x 
x → 0 1 − cos x 1 −1 x 2 (1 + cos x ) lim 
x →0

 x  x 

0 = lim
= x →0 1 − cos 2 x lim (1 + cos x )
x 2 (1 + cos x ) =
0 x →0

= lim  sin x   sin x 

x →0 2
sin x lim  
 x →0 
lim 
x 2 (1 + cos x )
x →0
 x   x 
(1 + cos x ) x2
Indeterminate form
= (1 + cos x )  2
= lim sin 2 x sin x 1 + cos 0
x →0 sin 2 x =
IDENTITY: sin 2 x
= (1 + cos x )  2 (1)  (1)
sin 2 x + cos 2 x = 1 x2 x
1+1
(1 + cos x ) =
 sin 2 x = 1 − cos 2 x = 1
sin 2 x
x2 =2
Summary
𝒙→𝒂 𝒙 → ±∞
Polynomial Polynomial Direct Substitution/ highest
Direct Substitution
Functions Functions degree term

Long way
Rational
Functions Rational
Functions
shortcut

Multiply with its

Radicals
conjugate
Radicals
p( x)
n shortcut
q( x)
 Piecewise Functions

GRAPHS OF FUNCTIONS
SUBTOPIC

1.1 FUNCTIONS 1.2 LIMITS 1.3 CONTINUITY

• Introduction • Introduction • Continuity at a Point
• Properties • One sided & Two sided • Limits & Continuity of
• Operations on Functions limits Trigonometric Functions
• Infinite Limits and Limits at
Infinity
• Computing Limits

57
OBJECTIVES

1 Understand the properties of

continuity

Use the theorem to identify whether

2 the given function is continuous and
or not (discontinuous)
58
1 Continuity at a Point

2 Limits and Continuity at Trigonometric Functions

59
1.3 CONTINUITY Definition
AT A POINT
A function 𝑓 is said to be continuous at point 𝒙 = 𝒂 if the
following conditions are satisfies:
1. 𝑓(𝑎) is defined; that is 𝑓 𝑎 = 𝐿

2. lim 𝑓(𝑥) exist; lim+ 𝑓 𝑥 = lim− 𝑓 𝑥

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

3. 𝑓 𝑎 = lim 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑎

NOTE:
If one or more the conditions is not satisfied, then 𝑓 is not continuous
60 (or
discontinuous) at 𝑥 = 𝑎
Continuous Function Discontinuous Function

❖ Curve with NO breaks/holes/gaps

❖ Curve with breaks/holes/gaps
❖ Graph of continuous function can be
drawn without lifting your pencil
61
 a a

Removable Jump

❑Function is not defined at 𝑥 = 𝑎 ❑𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) does not exist at 𝑥 = 𝑎

𝒙→𝒂
❑Condition 1 is not satisfied ❑Condition 2 is not satisfied
62
 Infinite
discontinuity
a
Removable a
discontinuity

❑Function is defined at 𝑥 = 𝑎
❑ 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) exist at 𝑥 = 𝑎 ❑Function is not defined at 𝑥 = 𝑎
𝒙→𝒂
❑ 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇 𝒙 undefined
❑ 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) ≠ 𝒇(𝒂) 𝒙→𝒂 63
𝒙→𝒂
 Explain why the function is discontinuous at 𝑥 = −4, 𝑥 = 2 and 𝑥 = 4

𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥 = −1

Test for Continuity

1. 𝑓 −4 = 3
2. lim − 𝑓 𝑥 = 3 and lim + 𝑓 𝑥 = −2 lim 𝑓 𝑥 ≠ lim + 𝑓 𝑥
𝑥 = −4 𝑥→−4 𝑥→−4 𝑥→−4− 𝑥→−4
∴ lim 𝑓 𝑥 does not exist. So, 𝑓 is discontinuous at 𝑥 = −4
𝑥→−4

1. 𝑓 2 =
𝑥=2 2. lim− 𝑓 𝑥 = and lim+ 𝑓 𝑥 = lim 𝑓 𝑥 lim 𝑓 𝑥
𝑥→2 𝑥→2 𝑥→2− 𝑥→2+
∴ lim 𝑓 𝑥
𝑥→2

64
𝑥=4
 Test for Continuity
Solution: 2𝑥 + 1
Given 𝑓(𝑥) = 2
−𝑥 + 1 6
−𝑥 2 + 1, 𝑥≤0
ቐ2𝑥 + 1, 0 < 𝑥 ≤ 3 𝑥≤0 0<𝑥≤3 𝑥>3
0 3
6, 𝑥>3
𝑥=0 𝑥=3
Determine whether 𝑓(𝑥) is 2
1. 𝑓 0 = − 0 +1 =1
continuous at 𝑥 = 0 and 𝑥 = 3.
2.
LHS: lim− 𝑓 𝑥 = lim− −𝑥 2 + 1 = − 0 2
+1=1
𝑥→0 𝑥→0

RHS: lim+ 𝑓 𝑥 = lim+ 2𝑥 + 1 = 2 0 + 1 = 1

𝑥→0 𝑥→0

lim 𝑓 𝑥 = lim+ 𝑓 𝑥 ∴ lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 1

𝑥→0− 𝑥→0 𝑥→0

3. 𝑓 0 = lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 1
𝑥→0

So, 𝑓 is continuous at 𝑥 = 0
65
 Test for Continuity
Solution: 20 − 2𝑥
Given that 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑘𝑥 𝑥+3
𝑘𝑥, 𝑥<5
ቐ 20 − 2𝑥, 5 ≤ 𝑥 < 6 𝑥<5 5≤𝑥<6 𝑥≥6
5 6
𝑥 + 3, 𝑥≥6
a) 𝑥 = 5 b) 𝑥 = 6
a) Find the value of 𝑘 if 𝑓(𝑥) is
1. 𝑓 6 = 6 + 3 = 9
continuous at 𝑥 = 5. lim 𝑓 𝑥 = lim+ 𝑓 𝑥
𝑥→5− 𝑥→5
2. LHS: lim− 𝑓 𝑥 = lim− 20 − 2𝑥 = 20 − 2 6 = 8
𝑥→𝟔 𝑥→𝟔
b) Determine whether 𝑓(𝑥) is lim 𝑘𝑥 = lim+ 20 − 2𝑥
𝑥→5− 𝑥→5
continuous at 𝑥 = 6 5𝑘 = 20 − 2(5) RHS: lim+ 𝑓 𝑥 = lim+ 𝑥 + 3 = 6 + 3 = 9
𝑥→6 𝑥→6
5𝑘 = 10
𝑘=2 lim 𝑓 𝑥 ≠ lim+ 𝑓 𝑥
𝑥→𝟔− 𝑥→𝟔

∴ lim 𝑓 𝑥 does not exist

𝑥→𝟔

So, 𝑓 is discontinuous at 𝑥 = 6

66
 Test for Continuity
Solution: 𝑞𝑥 2 − 1
Given that 𝑓(𝑥) = 8𝑥 + 𝑝 𝑥+𝑞
8𝑥 + 𝑝, 𝑥<1
𝑥<1 1≤𝑥<2 𝑥≥2
൞ 𝑞𝑥 2 − 1, 1 ≤ 𝑥 < 2 1 2
𝑥 + 𝑞, 𝑥≥2
a) At 𝑥 = 1

a) Find the values of 𝑝 and q if

𝑓(𝑥) is continuous at −∞, ∞
and lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 0 .
𝑥→1

b) Hence, sketch the graph of

𝑓(𝑥).

67
 Test for Continuity
Solution: 𝑞𝑥 2 − 1
Given that 𝑓(𝑥) = 8𝑥 + 𝑝 𝑥+𝑞
8𝑥 + 𝑝, 𝑥<1
𝑥<1 1≤𝑥<2 𝑥≥2
൞ 𝑞𝑥 2 − 1, 1 ≤ 𝑥 < 2 5 6
𝑥 + 𝑞, 𝑥≥2
𝑦
a) Find the values of 𝑝 and q if
𝑓(𝑥) is continuous at −∞, ∞
and lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 0 . 3
𝑥→1

b) Hence, sketch the graph of 𝑥

𝑓(𝑥). 0 1 2

-8

68
 LIMITS OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
Important properties:

sin 𝑥 1 − cos 𝑥
lim =1 lim =0
𝑥→𝟎 𝑥 𝑥→𝟎 𝑥
sin
lim =1
x→0

NOTE:
1 − cos Must be the SAME
lim =0 VARIABLE lim sin 𝑥 = sin 𝑎
𝑥→𝑎
x→ 0

lim cos69 𝑥 = cos 𝑎

𝑥→𝑎
1.3 LIMITS & Test for Continuity
CONTINUITY AT Solution: 𝑛
sin 𝑚𝑥
TRIGONOMETRIC 𝑥
𝑥+5

FUNCTIONS 𝑥<0 𝑥>0

0
sin 𝑚𝑥
, 𝑥<0
𝑥
Given 𝑔(𝑥) = ൞ 𝑛, a) At 𝑥 = 0
𝑥=0
𝑥 + 5, 𝑥>0

Determine the values of

𝑚 and 𝑛 if 𝑔(𝑥) is continuous
at 𝑥 = 0 .

70
1.3 LIMITS & Test for Continuity
CONTINUITY AT Solution: −1
TRIGONOMETRIC 𝑎 cos 𝑥 sin 𝑥 + 𝑏

FUNCTIONS 𝑥<𝜋 𝑥>𝜋

𝜋
𝑎 cos 𝑥 , 𝑥<𝜋
a) At 𝑥 = 𝜋
Given 𝑔(𝑥) = ቐ −1, 𝑥=𝜋
sin 𝑥 + 𝑏, 𝑥>𝜋

Determine the values of

𝑎 and 𝑏 if 𝑔(𝑥) is continuous at
𝑥=𝜋.

71
72
THANK YOU!