CEP333 | FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING

CHAPTER 3
MEASUREMENT OF VERTICAL
DISTANCES AND LEVELING METHODS

MODULE 7
LEVELING ERRORS AND ADJUSTMENTS
This module provides a detailed discussion on the various sources of errors and
mistakes incurred while undertaking leveling procedures and how to carefully
avoid those through proper adjustment procedures.

Objectives
• To provide basic knowledge on the different sources of errors and mistakes
in leveling.
• To understand various adjustment in leveling procedures to primarily avoid
or lessen probable errors and mistakes.

7.1 Sources of Errors in Leveling

Accuracy in leveling operations is primarily influenced by the type of

instrument used. A great deal will also depend on the skills of the members
of a level party and the degree of refinement with which the whole
operation is performed. If correct leveling procedures and care are
adapted in leveling work, systematic errors could be significantly reduced
or eliminated. These are the principal sources of error in leveling work:

1. Instrumental Errors

These errors are attributed to imperfections in the instruments either from

faults in their manufacture or from improper adjustment.

a) Instrument Out of Adjustment

The most common instrumental error is caused by the level being out of
adjustment. Particularly significant is when the line of sight of the telescope
is not parallel to the axis of the level vial. The line of sight will be inclined
either upward or downward when the bubble is not brought to the center

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of the tube. When a reading is taken on the rod, the results is an error
consistently either plus or minus, and with a magnitude which is proportional
to the distance between the instrument and the rod. This source of error
can be eliminated or kept at a minimum by frequently testing the
instrument and keeping it always in good adjustment. The error will also be
greatly minimized or eliminated if the backsight and foresight distances are
kept nearly equal. Since it would be difficult to predict when an instrument
goes out of adjustment, the latter method is the more certain and should
always be used for careful leveling.

b) Rod Not Standard Length

It is possible to have inaccurate graduations or divisions on a rod. This is

usually due to imperfections in their manufacture. Inaccurate rod
graduations can cause errors in measured vertical distances similar to those
resulting from incorrect markings on a tape. In any case, a rod of incorrect
length will introduce a systematic error in leveling work.

It is important that rod lengths are compared periodically with a

standardized steel tape. Any error in length should be determined and
necessary corrections applied to all measurements made with the rod.
Also, the rod must always be handled carefully. A Philadelphia rod is easily
damaged when the upper part of the rod is allowed to slide down so
rapidly that the blocks on the two sections are crushed. Its bottom should
be kept clean when used in muddy areas or where the ground is relatively
soft. If the rodman is not careful, he may easily have some amount of soil,
clay, dirt or mud sticking to the bottom of the rod. This can cause severe
errors in leveling.

c) Defective Tripod

The movement of the level due to setting of the tripod legs can cause
possible errors in leveling work. The tripod usually settles in soft ground or
due to vibration caused by passing vehicular traffic. It is important to always
set up the tripod rigidly as this can lead to erroneous measurements and
waste of time. Bolts and nuts at hinged joints of the tripod should be
checked regularly and tightened. To avoid sliding of tripod legs due to
vibrations, the instrument should be set up only at firm and stable ground.
Smooth surfaces such as concrete pavements and steel plates should be
avoided.

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2. Personal Errors

Although personal errors occur largely due to the limitations of the senses
of touch, sight, or hearing of individuals, the skills, training, and teamwork of
the members of a leveling party are also major factors to be considered.
Such errors include the following:

a) Bubble Not Centered

Rod readings will be in error when the bubble is not centered in the level
vial. The magnitude of the error depends on how sensitive the vial has been
designed. There are various conditions in the field which may cause the
bubble not to remain centered. It could be caused by a tripod leg setting
in soft ground, the instrument may not be leveled properly, or it may be out
of adjustment. These are factors which could all be attributed to
carelessness on the part of the instrument man.

b) Parallax

If a pressure gauge or any graduated circular meter is viewed from different

angles, one will notice that a number of slightly divergent values could be
read. This is due to the effect of parallax. However, if the pointer and scale
of the gauge were positioned at exactly the same plane, parallax would
be totally eliminated. A similar condition occurs when sighting through the
telescope to read a leveling rod. The effect of parallax is to cause relative
displacement between the image of the cross hairs and the image formed
by the focusing lens. Parallax can be eliminated by careful focusing of the
telescope until no apparent movement of the horizontal hair relative to the
rod can be detected when the eye is moved up and down while sighting.

c) Faulty Rod Readings

An incorrect rod reading is usually the result of the length of sight, poor
weather conditions, and the skill of the instrument man and the rodman. In
ordinary leveling work it is advisable that the length of sight should not
exceed 90 meters. The number of reading errors is significantly reduced
when short sights are taken. When long sights could not be avoided, a series
of readings should be taken on the distant rod and only the mean readings
should be taken on the distant rod and only the mean reading should be
used. Extra-long sights are common such as when leveling across a wide
river or a deep ravine.

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In precise leveling work, instruments used are equipped with three

horizontal hairs. Three readings are usually recorded at each sighting. Since
the two extra hairs (or stadia hairs) are equally spaced from the center
middle hair, the difference between the readings of the middle and lower
hair should be equal to the difference between the readings of the middle
and upper hair. The instrument man should take time to compare these two
quantities before transferring to another set up since it is an effective
precaution against faulty rod readings.

d) Rod Not Held Plumb

Aside from holding the rod on a firm and definite points, it should also be
held as nearly vertical as possible. If it is held off the vertical, it will be
intersected by the line of sight farther from the base and the reading will be
much greater than what is should really be. The reading on the rod will be
lowest when it is held plumb.

Appreciable inclinations of the rod should be avoided particularly when a

high rod is used. In differential leveling, errors due to non-vertically of the
rod tend to compensate at turning points, however, if the foresight readings
are consistently greater than the backsights, the error becomes
cumulative. It is easy to determine if the rod is held plumb or not since it can
be checked if it is held parallel to the vertical cross hair. However, the
instrument man cannot check if the rod is leaning toward or away from the
instrument. This type of error can be avoided either by waving the rod or
attaching a rod level to it to facilitate holding it plumb. The use of a rod
level allows the rodman to plumb the rod by simply centering the bubble.
Its use is preferable to swinging or waving the rod.

e) Incorrect Setting of Target

It is important to always handle the leveling rod carefully. The rodman at

times falls to set properly the target when a high rod reading is made with
it. During use, the target may slip downward because it is not clamped
firmly at the exact position signaled by the instrument man. To avoid this
type of error, the instrument man should always take a second sight on the
target after it is clamped by the rodman in order to be sure that it has not
slipped.

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f) Unequal Backsight and Foresight Distances

In leveling work, it is usually good practice to make backsight and

corresponding foresight distances nearly equal. In such a practice, errors
due to imperfect adjustment of the instrument and also those due to
curvature and refraction are reduced or totally eliminated since the error
in the backsight is equal to that in the foresight.

It is sufficient to approximate only by eye foresight and backsight distances

in ordinary leveling work. For more precise work, pacing, direct taping, or
stadia measurements are employed in determining sight distances.
Balancing foresight and backsight distances, however, may not always be
practical or possible. This situation may occur when the terrain is extremely
rugged or when leveling across wide rivers. For example, in leveling up a
steep slope the distance to the foresight will be about one-half the distance
to the backsight. The two distances could still be kept nearly equal by
properly positioning the level a certain distance from the straight line
between the turning points. The whole length of the level route is traversed
by a zig-zagging manner in order to eliminate this source of error.

3. Natural Errors

These errors are which are due to natural sources and could not be totally
removed but their effects can be reduced by applying corrections and
using good judgment. Such errors include the following:

a) Curvature of the Earth

The effect of curvature of the earth is to increase the rod reading. From this
source the error amounts to about 0.7 cm per 100 meters. This error is
introduced even if the instrument used is in perfect adjustment. It, however,
only occurs in extra-long sights and when backsight and foresight distances
are not made equal. Since sight distances in ordinary leveling do not vary
significantly, the resultant error arising from this source is so small and is
considered a negligible quantity.

When long sights could not be avoided, the error may be eliminated by
applying a correction to the computed difference in elevation or by
employing the method of reciprocal leveling. In other situations, the error
due to curvature can be eliminated by keeping the backsight and foresight
distances from the same set up nearly equal.

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b) Atmospheric Refraction

The presence of heat waves on a hot day is a sign of rapidly fluctuating

refraction in the atmosphere. Reading errors are likely to occur when heat
waves are present since it marks the rod appear unsteady when a sight is
taken on it. Since the refraction is usually larger when sights are taken close
to the ground surface, the line of sight should be established at least one
meter above the ground. Because it may be impossible to read the rod
when heat waves are particularly intense, leveling work should only be
resumed when heat waves subside.

To reduce the effects of atmospheric refraction only short sights should be

taken. Balancing the lengths of backsights and foresights also eliminates
errors due to refraction. Its effect is negligible in ordinary leveling but in
precise leveling, combined corrections for curvature and refraction are
applied to observed rod readings.

c) Temperature Variations

Changes in temperature causes leveling rods to either expand or contract

and these could introduce errors when taking rod readings. To guard
against such errors, invar or nilvar graduated strips are used on rods for
precise leveling work. Heat also causes warping or twisting of the parts of a
level. The liquid in the level vial expands and the bubble shortens when it is
heated. This temporarily disturbs the adjustment of the instrument and may
affect the accuracy of rod readings. It is preferable to use a surveying
umbrella since this will prevent the rays of the sun from falling directly on the
level and thus reduce the effects of heat.

d) Wind

A strong wind can shake a leveling instrument making it difficult to center

the bubble in the level vial. It can also exert a sufficient amount of force to
cause and extend rod to vibrate making it stand unsteady and hard to
read or plumb. If leveling has to be performed during windy days, the
instrumentman should either exert effort to shelter the instrument or wait for
a lull in the wind. Setting up the level behind a building or close to a large
tree trunk should reduce the effects of wind. In an open field, long sights
should reduce the effects of wind. In an open field, long sights should be
avoided to limit the use of a high rod.

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e) Settlement of the Instrument

In soft or thawing ground, mud, and swamps the instrument may settle in
the interval of time between rod readings. This source of error is cumulative
since every settlement of the instrument increases the computed elevations
of all other observed points by the amount of the settlement. Errors due to
settlement can be avoided if the instrumentman takes the necessary
precautions to ensure that the level is always set up on firm and stable
ground. It is also important that as little time as possible should be taken
between rod readings.

f) Faulty Turning Points

In differential leveling work, a poorly chosen turning point may be a source

of error. This condition is similar to that resulting from settlement of the
instrument. It is a cumulative type of error. Since two rod readings are
always taken at a turning point from different set ups of the level, it is
important to select firm and solid turning points. They must also be easily
identified. Care should be taken not to strike the rod against the turning
point or to exert any pressure on it. In soft and unstable ground, it is
advisable to use a peg or a steel plate as a support to prevent settlement
of a turning point. The instrument man should guard against movement of
the turning point and the rod should be held at exactly the same point
when another reading is to be taken on it.

7.2 Mistakes in Leveling

1. Misreading the Rod

During leveling the instrument man may occasionally read the rod
incorrectly; for example, he may read 2.75 m instead of 1.75 m. This mistake
most frequently occurs when the line of sight to the rod is partially
obstructed by vegetation or other objects in the field. It is important that
the instrument man always carefully note the full meter marks above and
below the observed rod reading. Also, it is preferable to call out readings
as they are taken to use a target and have the instrument man and the
rodman take and compare their respective readings.

2. Incorrect Recording

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The recorder should always call out the reading as he records them in order
to prevent the recording of incorrect values. To detect mistakes in
recording rod readings, the best method is to read the rod, record the
reading, and then sight the rod again to check if the value recorded is the
correct reading. It is important that the recorder understands the leveling
process. He should be able to visualize the operation for which he makes
his recordings. For example, he should know in which column backsight and
foresight readings should be entered.

3. Erroneous Computations

Although level notes only require simple additions and subtractions,

mistakes in these computations are still committed. For this reason,
mathematical checks should always be performed to ensure that only
correct values are determined.

4. Rod Not Fully Extended

When using a Philadelphia rod it is important that is it fully extended when

reading the high (or long) rod. The two sliding sections should lock properly
into position. The clamp should also be tightened firmly to avoid the upper
portion of the rod from sliding downward.

5. Moving Turning Points

A turning point carelessly or accidentally moved out of its position by a

rodman will cause a serious mistake in leveling work. This mistake could be
prevented by using only stable and clearly defined turning points or by
making the position of the rod with paint, lumber crayon, or chalk. The mark
should be made on the selected point before the first sight is taken on it
and the rodman should be careful to use the same marked spot when
another reading is to be made.

7.3 Leveling Adjustment

1. Adjustment of the Cross Hairs

The reticle or the cross-hair ring is adjusted to see to it that the horizontal
cross hair lines in a plane perpendicular to the vertical axis of the instrument.
If this particular requirement is not satisfied, an error will occur each time a
reading is made.

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a) Procedure of Testing

The instrument is first approximately leveled then one end of the horizontal
cross hair is focused and sighted on some well-defined stationary point. The
telescope is slowly turned about the vertical axis using the tangent screw
to see if the point sighted appears to move along the hair throughout its
length. If the point sighted remains on the horizontal hair, the cross hairs are
in adjustment; if it departs from the cross hair, an adjustment is necessary.

b) Making the Adjustment

The adjustment is made by loosening two parts of capstan headed screws

which hold the reticle. An adjustment pin is inserted into one of the holes of
the screws to turn it slowly while using the pin as a lever. The reticle is then
turned as necessary by trial or trapped lightly with a light object to allow it
to move into a correct position. The testing procedure and the process of
adjustment are repeated until the point no longer departs from the
horizontal cross hair. The screws are then tightened upon completion of the
adjustment.

2. Adjustment of the Level Vial

The purpose of this adjustment is to make the axis of the level vial
perpendicular to the vertical axis of the instrument.

a) Procedure of Testing

Align the level vial along an opposite pair of leveling screws and carefully
center the bubble. Rotate the telescope through 90 degrees and again
center the bubble by manipulating the other opposite pair of leveling
screws. Then turn the telescope through another 90 degrees (in the same
direction as the first rotation) such that this time it is positioned again along
the first pair of opposite screws. After the bubble is brought exactly to
center, turn the telescope about (end for end). If the level vial is in
adjustment, the bubble will remain centered; if not, a field adjustment is
necessary.

b) Making the Adjustment

This time during the bubble halfway back to the center by raising or
lowering one end of the level vial by means of a capstan screw. By
manipulating the leveling screws, now bring the bubble exactly to center.

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Repeat procedure of testing and continue undertaking the corresponding

adjustment until the bubble remains centered at any time the telescope is
rotated end for end. If the adjustment has been performed correctly, the
bubble should remain centered before and after reversal of the telescope.
Three or four trials may be necessary to finally adjust the level vial.

3. Adjustment of the Line of Sight

The line of sight is adjusted to make it parallel to the axis of the level vial.
There is always the possibility that the line of sight of a dumpy level will be
inclined either above or below the horizontal. Such a condition will
introduce corresponding errors when determining differences in elevation.
When this adjustment is made the line of sight is truly horizontal when the
bubble is centered on the level vial. To check and adjust the line of sight, a
procedure known as the “two-peg” test is employed. There are two ways
by which the test is undertaken. One procedure is described in this lesson;
another is explained in the succeeding lesson.

𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒:

𝑎 = 𝑟𝑜𝑑 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑛 𝐴 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑢𝑝 𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝐴

𝑏 = 𝑟𝑜𝑑 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑛 𝐵 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑢𝑝 𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝐴
𝑐 = 𝑟𝑜𝑑 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑛 𝐵 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑢𝑝 𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝐵
𝑑 = 𝑟𝑜𝑑 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑛 𝐴 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑢𝑝 𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝐵

a) Procedure of Testing

Two pegs, 60 to 90 meters apart are established on the ground. It is

preferable that the two pegs have a considerable difference in elevation
in order to arrive at more accurate test results.

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The instrument is set up and leveled in a location such that the eyepiece is
20 cm or less in front of the rod held on one of the pegs at A. A rod reading,
a, is taken on the rod held at point A by sighting through the objective end
of the telescope. In this procedure the cross hairs will not be visible, but the
field of view will be so small that its center may be determined easily by
holding a pointed pencil on the rod. The telescope is then turned toward
the rod now held over the other peg at B and a rod reading b, is taken on
it.

The instrument is next moved, set up, and leveled near B where a second
set of rod readings, c, and d, are taken on the rod held at B and A,
respectively. The computed difference in elevation for the two set ups are:

𝐷𝐸𝑎 = (𝑎 − 𝑏) ; 𝐷𝐸𝑏 = (𝑑 − 𝑐)

If the two differences in elevation are equal, the line of sight is in adjustment.
When the line of sight is inclined from the horizontal, the error in the line of
sight for this distance AB is e or the difference between d and d’ as shown
in figure. Considering the rod readings taken with the instrument set up near
A and also near B, the true difference in elevation between A and B for
each set up would be:

𝑇𝐷𝐸𝑎 = 𝑎 − (𝑏 − 𝑒) ; 𝑇𝐷𝐸𝑏 = (𝑑 − 𝑒) − 𝑐

𝐴𝑙𝑠𝑜

𝑇𝐷𝐸𝑎 + 𝑇𝐷𝐸𝑏 𝑎 − (𝑏 − 𝑒) + (𝑑 − 𝑒) − 𝑐
𝑇𝐷𝐸 = =
2 2
𝑎−𝑏+𝑒+𝑑−𝑒−𝑐
𝑇𝐷𝐸 =
2
(𝑎 − 𝑏) + (𝑑 − 𝑐)
𝑇𝐷𝐸 =
2

If DEa is not equal to DEb, the correct rod reading at A with the instrument
still setup near B is:

(𝑎 − 𝑏) + (𝑑 − 𝑐)
𝑑 ′ = 𝑐 + 𝑇𝐷𝐸 = 𝑐 +
2

If d is greater than d’, the line of sight is inclined upward; if d is less than d’,
it is inclined downward. It is important to remember that the values of TDE
and d’ must always be solved with due regard to signs. Also, it is always

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advisable to draw a sketch of the set up and the observations made in the
field to avoid confusion.

b) Making the Adjustment

Before making any adjustment, the bubble is brought to the center of the
level vial. The adjustment is then made by moving the cross-hair ring
vertically until the line of sight cuts the rod at d’. If the line of sight is inclined
upward, the capstan screw on top at the reticle is loosened and the
capstan screw at the bottom is tightened. The opposite is done if the line
of sight is inclined downward. Two or more trials may be necessary to obtain
the final adjustment.

SAMPLE PROBLEMS:

E7-1 TWO-PEG TEST. In the two-peg test of a dumpy level in figure, the following
observations were taken:

INSTRUMENT SET UP INSTRUMENT SET UP

ROD READING
NEAR A NEAR B
On Point A 1.505 m 0.938 m
On Point B 2.054 m 1.449 m

Requirements:

a) Determine if the line of sight is in adjustment and explain your answer.

b) If the line of sight is not in adjustment, determine the correct rod
reading on A with the instrument still set up near B.
c) Determine the error in the line of sight for the net distance AB.
d) Explain how the line of sight of the instrument should be adjusted.

Solution:

𝐷𝐸𝑎 = 𝑎 − 𝑏 = 1.505 𝑚 − 2.054 𝑚 = −𝟎. 𝟓𝟒𝟗 𝒎

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𝐷𝐸𝑏 = 𝑑 − 𝑐 = 0.938 𝑚 − 1.449 𝑚 = −𝟎. 𝟓𝟏𝟏 𝒎

𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐷𝐸𝑎 ≠ 𝐷𝐸𝑏 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑑𝑗𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝐷𝐸𝑎 + 𝐷𝐸𝑏 −0.549 𝑚 + (−0.511 𝑚)
𝑇𝐷𝐸 = = = −𝟎. 𝟓𝟑𝟎 𝒎
2 2
𝑑 ′ = 𝑐 + 𝑇𝐷𝐸 = 1.449 𝑚 + (−0.530 𝑚) = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟏𝟗 𝒎
𝑒 = 𝑑 − 𝑑 ′ = 0.938 𝑚 − 0.919 𝑚 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟗 𝒎
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑑 > 𝑑 ′ , 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑢𝑝𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑. 𝑇𝑜 𝑎𝑑𝑗𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡, 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛
ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑤 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑤 𝑢𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑙 𝑡ℎ𝑒 ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 ℎ𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑠 0.919 𝑚 (𝑜𝑟 𝑑 ′ )
𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑑 ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝐴 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑢𝑝 𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝐵.

7.4 Curvature and Refraction

Curvature and Refraction

The effects of earth curvature and atmospheric refraction are taken into
account in leveling work since the measurements are made in vertical
planes and these effects all occur in the same plane. The combined effects
are presented in figure. Due to the earth’s curvature, a horizontal line
departs from a level line by 0.0785 m in one kilometer, varying as the square
of the length of the line. This expression for earth’s curvature is based on the
mean radius of the earth which is about 6371 km. In the given figure the
vertical distance between the horizontal line and the level line (or BD) is a
measure of the earth’s curvature.

In physics, we learned that when a ray of light passes through a stratum of

different densities, it is refracted or bent downward towards the denser
medium. This bending is referred to as a refraction. The effect of refraction
is greatest when the line of sight passes near the ground or when it skims
through bodies of water where temperature differences are large. It is here
that large variations in air densities occur. During summer, heat waves or
boiling air indicates rapidly changing refraction.

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Atmospheric refraction varies with atmospheric conditions. Under ordinary

conditions, it is approximately equal to 0.0110 m in one kilometer, also
varying directly as the square of the length of the line. This is about one-
seventh the effect of curvature of the earth. In figure, it can be seen that
due to refraction, a ray of light which apparently is the straight-line AB
actually follows the curved path AC. The point observed through the level
(at A) appears to be point B but is actually point C. The angular
displacement resulting from refraction is variable. It depends upon the
angle the line of sight makes with the vertical and the surrounding
atmospheric conditions.

The combination of the earth’s curvature and atmospheric refraction

causes the telescope’s line of sight to vary from a level line by
approximately 0.0785 minus 0.0110 or 0.0675 m in one kilometer, varying as
the square of the sight distance in kilometers. This may be represented by a
mathematical equation as follows:

ℎ′ = 0.0675𝐾 2

Where h’ is the departure of a telescope of a line of sight from a level line

(in meters) and K is the length of the line of sight (in kilometers). The value
0.0675 is called the coefficient of refraction. Its value actually varies to a
certain degree for different elevation but is taken with an average value of
0.0675. For surveys of ordinary precision, corrections for the combined
effects of curvature and refraction may be omitted. The correction is only
necessary in precise leveling work and where the difference in elevation in
length of backsight and foresight distances are great. If the backsight
distance were exactly equal to the foresight distance for each set up of the
instrument, the errors caused by atmospheric refraction and the earth’s
curvature would cancel each other. Since refraction changes rapidly with
changes in temperature, it is advisable to undertake precise leveling during
cloudy days or at mid-afternoon on sunny days when the ground and air
are uniformly warm.

SAMPLE PROBLEMS:

E7-2 CURVATURE AND REFRACTION. Determine the combined effects of the

earth’s curvature and atmospheric refraction on sight distances of 60, 90,
120, 150, and 500 meters.

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Solution:

2
60 2
ℎ′60 = 0.0675𝐾 = 0.0675 ( ) = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟐𝟒𝟑 𝒎
1000
2
90 2
ℎ′90 = 0.0675𝐾 = 0.0675 ( ) = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟓𝟒𝟕 𝒎
1000
2
120 2
ℎ′120 = 0.0675𝐾 = 0.0675 ( ) = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟗𝟕𝟐 𝒎
1000
2
150 2
ℎ′150 = 0.0675𝐾 = 0.0675 ( ) = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟓𝟏𝟗 𝒎
1000
2
500 2
ℎ′500 = 0.0675𝐾 = 0.0675 ( ) = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟔𝟖𝟕𝟓 𝒎
1000

E7-3 CURVATURE AND REFRACTION. Two points, A and B, are 525.850 meters
apart. A level is set up on the line between A and B and at a distance of
240.500 m from A. If the rod reading on A is 3.455 m and that on B is 2.806
m, determine the difference in elevation between the two points, taking
into account the effects of curvature and atmospheric refraction.

Solution:

2
240.500 2
ℎ′𝑎 = 0.0675𝐾 = 0.0675 ( ) = 0.003904 𝑚 𝑠𝑎𝑦 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟒 𝒎
1000
2
525.850 𝑚 − 240.500 𝑚 2
ℎ′𝑏 = 0.0675𝐾 = 0.0675 ( ) = 0.005496 𝑚 𝑠𝑎𝑦 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟓 𝒎
1000
𝑎′ = 𝑎 − ℎ′𝑎 = 3.455 𝑚 − 0.004 𝑚 = 𝟑. 𝟒𝟓𝟏 𝒎
𝑏′ = 𝑏 − ℎ′ 𝑏 = 2.806 𝑚 − 0.005 𝑚 = 𝟐. 𝟖𝟎𝟏 𝒎
𝐷𝐸 = 𝑎′ − 𝑏′ = 3.451 𝑚 − 2.801 𝑚 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟓 𝒎

E7-4 CURVATURE AND REFRACTION. A woman standing on a beach can just see
the top of a lighthouse 24.140 km away. If her eye height above sea level
is 1.738m, determine the height of the lighthouse above sea level.

Solution

ℎ𝑤 = 0.0675𝐾𝑤 2

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1.738 𝑚 = 0.0675𝐾𝑤 2
𝐾𝑤 = 5.074 𝑘𝑚
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒: 𝐾𝑤 + 𝐾𝐿 = 24.140 𝑘𝑚
𝐾𝐿 = 24.140 𝑘𝑚 − 5.074 𝑘𝑚 = 19.066 𝑘𝑚
ℎ𝐿 = 0.0675𝐾𝐿 2 = 0.0675(19.066 𝑘𝑚)2 = 𝟐𝟒. 𝟓𝟑𝟕 𝒎

E7-5 CURVATURE AND REFRACTION. Two hills A and C have elevations of 600 m
and 800 m respectively. In between A and C is another hill B which has an
elevation of 705 m and is located at 12 km from A and 10 km from C.

a) Determine the clearance or obstruction of the line of sight at hill B if the

observer is at A so that C will be visible from A.
b) If C is not visible from A, what height of tower must be constructed at C
so that it could be visible from A with the line of sight having a clearance of
2 m above hill B.
c) What height of equal towers at A and C must be constructed in order
that A, B, and C will be intervisible.

Solution:

𝐷2 (ℎ1 − ℎ2 )
ℎ = ℎ2 + − 0.067𝐷1 𝐷2
𝐷1 + 𝐷2

10 𝑘𝑚(600 𝑚 − 800 𝑚)
ℎ = 800 𝑚 + − 0.067(12 𝑘𝑚)(10 𝑘𝑚)
10 𝑘𝑚 + 12 𝑘𝑚
ℎ = 701.05 𝑚
𝑂𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 705 𝑚 − 701.05 𝑚 = 𝟑. 𝟗𝟓 𝒎

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10 𝑘𝑚(600 𝑚 − (800 𝑚 + 𝑥 ))
707 𝑚 = (800 𝑚 + 𝑥 ) + − 0.067(12 𝑘𝑚)(10 𝑘𝑚)
𝐷1 + 𝐷2
707 = 800 + 𝑥 − 90.91 − 0.4545𝑥 − 8.04
𝒙 = 𝟏𝟎. 𝟗𝟏 𝒎

10 𝑘𝑚((600 𝑚 + 𝑥 ) − (800 𝑚 + 𝑥 ))
705 𝑚 = (800 𝑚 + 𝑥) + − 0.067(12 𝑘𝑚)(10 𝑘𝑚)
(10 𝑘𝑚) + (12 𝑘𝑚)
705 = 800 + 𝑥 − 90.91 − 8.04
𝒙 = 𝟑. 𝟗𝟓 𝒎

Modular Questions

M7-1 Differentiate the three (3) major type of errors in leveling works.

M7-2 Enumerate and discuss at least three mistakes in leveling.

M7-3 CURVATURE AND REFRACTION. A man on shore standing close to the sea’s
water edge looks out toward the direction of the sea. If his eyes measure
1.72 m above sea level, determine how far out to sea is his visible horizon,
neglecting the effect of waves.

M7-4 CURVATURE AND REFRACTION. Neglecting the effect of tide and waves,
determine how far out to sea a boat will be when a light on its mast 60
meters above the water disappears from the sight of a man on shore whose
eye level is 1.583 m above the water.

References
La Putt, J.P. (1987). Elementary Surveying (3rd ed.). Baguio City, Philippines:
Baguio Research & Publishing Center

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Disclaimer
This module may contain copyrighted material, the use of which may not
have been specifically authorized by the copyright owner. However, this
module was created and made to serve as a tool for educational purposes
only and will be distributed without any profit.

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