Natural Fiber Composites: Review of Recent Automotive Trends

S Witayakran, W Smitthipong, R Wangpradid, and R Chollakup, Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand

PL Clouston, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA, United States
r 2017 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Introduction

Plastic waste is a growing concern in today’s society, well-acknowledged by both government and private sectors. Waste disposal
and recycling are simply not enough to manage completely the enormous volume of waste produced. Moreover, petroleum
product demand is increasing while supply is uncertain.
The industrial sector has responded by looking for new material substitutes that reduce dependence on petroleum and fossil
fuels (Salazar et al., 2011; Faruk et al., 2012; Al-Oqla and Sapuan, 2014). Natural fiber composites (NFCs) present an excellent
solution to this problem. Composites are made from two or more constituent materials – matrix and reinforcement fiber – with
significantly different physical or chemical properties to produce a new material, which has better properties than the individual
components alone. NFCs consist of natural fiber reinforcement (made from fibers such as kenaf, flax, hemp, coir or cotton)
incorporated into a (typically) polymer- or ceramic-based matrix (Taj et al., 2007; Smitthipong et al., 2013).
NFCs have become an exciting selection for the automotive industry because of their numerous advantages. Many researchers have
demonstrated the mechanical, economic, and environmental benefits of NFCs (Mueller et al., 2001; Kalia et al., 2011; Savage and
Evans, 2014; Mitschang and Hildebrandt, 2012). Natural fibers have been shown to enhance composite mechanical performance,
reduce weight and processing time, decrease production cost, and improve passenger safety and shatterproof performance (Chen,
2005). They are also biodegradable, nonabrasive to processing equipment, and can be used as acoustic and thermal insulators (Alves
et al., 2010). Moreover, the combination of thermoplastic matrix and natural fiber can provide other desirable properties such as high
resistance to adverse environmental conditions (moisture and UV radiation), as well as providing significant stiffness and hardness
(Salasinska and Ryszkowska, 2012) and superior vibration damping characteristics. The latter is significant as the addition of damping
materials to address noise, vibration and harshness is an increasing percentage of vehicle mass (National Research Council, 2011).
The aim of this article is to review the current state of NFC technology and its level of implementation in the automotive sector.
In so doing, it is hoped that the work will stimulate innovation and development in these new environmentally responsible
products while at the same time spur further adoption of the technology in the automotive industry.

Background

Natural Fiber Properties and Potential

Natural fibers are generally classified into two broad categories: wood fibers and nonwood fibers (see Fig. 1). The most extensively
studied and used fibers in automotive applications are nonwood fibers, especially those collected from the bast of plants (eg, flax,
hemp, jute and kenaf) and from leaves (eg, sisal and henequen) (Faruk et al., 2014; Mohanty et al., 2002). However, researchers
and industry proponents have also given significant attention to seed fibers (eg, cotton, coir and coconut) as well as straw and grass
fibers (eg, wheat straw, bagasse, and bamboo) as viable options for composites.
Natural fibers offer environmental, economic and technical advantages when compared to synthetic fibers. Table 1 summarizes
general attributes of various bast, leaf and seed fibers, side-by-side with traditional reinforcement fibers, glass and carbon. In this
broad comparison, plant fibers show advantages in terms of cost and density but they especially stand out in terms of environ-
mental benefits. Unlike synthetic fibers, they are biodegradable, carbon sequestering, and cause no human health concern during
production. Also, natural fibers are not just renewable, but rapidly renewable with some species capable of being harvested up to
six times per year (Beda Ricklin, 2015). Indeed, sustainability is one of the main drivers behind the eco-car trend and as public
awareness increases on the sustainable aspects of plant fibers, they will likely gain more attention for commercial use.
Generally, natural fibers have high aspect ratios while the structure of the fiber is hollow and laminated with molecular layers in
an integrated matrix. This anatomical structure results in excellent technical capabilities with low density and consequently, high
strength-to-weight ratios. The specific mechanical properties are comparable with that of glass fibers. Fig. 2 compiled from
published values in the literature (Koronis et al., 2013; Dittenber and Gangarao, 2012; Shah, 2013; Yan et al., 2014; Dicker et al.,
2014; Zini and Scandola, 2011; Bismarck et al., 2006) provides a visual comparison of the range and potential of specific stiffness
and strength for many commercially used fibers. The comparison is favorable for several types of natural fibers. Most species have
higher potential specific stiffness than glass and for many, the specific strength is quite comparable to glass. While the wide range
of properties is relective of the well-known inherent material variability of natural fibers (ie, quality of fiber varies due to growing
climate or processing methods), it is also partially due to differing conditions between studies, such as different fiber moisture
content or test methods employed (Faruk et al., 2014).
It is important to note that in order to improve the mechanical properties of the composite, modification of the natural
fiber surface is necessary. Almost all natural fibers are hydrophilic and, generally, polymer matrixes are hydrophobic so the

Reference Module in Materials Science and Materials Engineering doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-803581-8.04180-1 1

2 Natural Fiber Composites: Review of Recent Automotive Trends

Fig. 1 Examples of raw natural fibers: (A) rice straw, (B) wood, (C) kenaf, (D) flax, (E) sugar cane and (F) cotton ball.

Table 1 Broad comparison of natural and synthetic fiber attributes

Attributes Plant fibers Glass fibers Carbon fibers

Environmental
Renewable Yesa No No
Biodegradable Yesa No No
Carbon sequestering Yesa No No
Human health safe Yesa No No
Recyclable Yesa Partly Partly
Economic
Cost of raw fiber (USD/kg) Low (B0.3–4.5)a Low to moderate (B2–32) High (4100)

Technical
Density (g/cm3) Low (B1–1.6)a High (2.5–2.7) Low (1.7–2.2)
Tensile stiffness (GPa) Moderate (B10–100) Moderate (70–85) High (15–500)a
Tensile strength (MPa) Low (B250–1500) Moderate (2000–3700) High (1300–6300)a
Specific tensile stiffness (GPa/g
cm3) Moderate (B10–100) Low (27–34) High (68–290)a
Specific tensile strength (MPa/g
cm3) Moderate (B200–1400) Moderate (700–2250) High (600–3700)a
Strain at tensile failure (%) Low (B1.2–3.5) High (2.5–5.3) Low (0.3–2.2)a
a
most desirable.
Source: Adapted from Shah (2013).

compatibility of the two materials is poor. Therefore, modification is an important step prior to mixing them. Commonly, research
interests lay in modification of the natural fiber more than in the polymer matrix. Modification depends on either chemical
or physical techniques, mainly focused on grafting between the natural fibers and the matrix to improve interfacial interaction
 Natural Fiber Composites: Review of Recent Automotive Trends 3

Fig. 2 Broad comparison of specific tensile properties of various reinforcing fibers: (a) Young’s modulus (GPa) and (b) tensile strength (MPa).

Table 2 Pros and cons of NFC in automotive applications

Pros Cons

Low density and lightweight leading to the weight reduction of 10–30% in Concerns over the unevenness of the fiber supply and long
comparable parts term availability of fiber
Sustainable and renewable resource Could be more expensive if fully bio-based and biodegradable
Good mechanical and manufacturing properties Extremely sensitive to moisture and temperature
Relatively good impact performance Uncontrolled biodegradable can occur
Occupational health advantages in assembly and handling compared to High variability properties
glass fiber
Biodegradable (if proper matrix is used)
Good thermal and acoustic insulation properties
Relative cost advantages compared to conventional constructions
Low energy consumption

(La Mantia and Morreale, 2011). For example, coupling agents (trichloro-s-triazine and di-methylol melamine) can create covalent
bonds between the cellulose and the polymer matrix (Zadorecki and Flodin, 1986), or chemical treatment with sodium hydroxide,
isocyanate and peroxide can increase bonding between sisal and a PE matrix thereby enhancing mechanical properties of the
composite (Joseph et al., 1996).
It is speculated that the next generation composite will be a hybrid consisting of two or more fiber types in a polymer
matrix (Sathishkumar et al., 2014). Possible combinations of hybrid composites include natural/natural, natural/synthetic
and synthetic/synthetic fibers. Hybrid composite materials have wide applications in the field of engineering due to low cost,
strength-to-weight ratio and ease of manufacturing (Nunna et al., 2012). They provide the possibility of achieving a blend of
properties (such as stiffness, ductility and strength), which cannot be achieved by single fiber-reinforced composites. Hybrid
composites also possess increased fatigue life, better fracture toughness and lower notch sensitivity compared to single fiber-
reinforced composites. Research on various combinations of synthetic fiber-based hybrid composites revealed that they had certain
advantages like high specific strength, high toughness, and high impact resistance (Shahzad, 2011).

Challenges of Using Natural Fibers

Although there are many positive aspects of using NFCs, there are also negative factors that prevent a more widespread adoption
of the technology. Advantages and disadvantages are summarized in Table 2 (Fung and Hardcastle, 2001; Bledzki et al., 2006).
For example, sensitivity of the natural fiber to moisture and temperature currently restricts most NFC applications to interior parts
(eg, trim in dashboards, door panels, parcel shelves, seat cushions, backrests, and cabin lining).
It should also be noted that the challenges that NFCs have in becoming more broadly adopted by the automotive industry are
in many ways representative of the challenges faced by composite materials in general, and are not exclusive to NFCs. For example,
the BMW i3 and i8 are being touted as the first mass production automobiles based upon a composite architecture. Nonetheless,
the increase of public awareness of environmental problems about what to do with nondegradable, nonrecyclable contents at
the end of product life is having an impact on the industry to favor switching from synthetics to natural fibers. To this end, the
4 Natural Fiber Composites: Review of Recent Automotive Trends

United States and Europe have both issued specific directives on end-of-life vehicles. The European Commission implemented a
“European Guideline 2000/53/EG” that set a goal of improving automotive recyclability to 85% of a vehicle (by weight) being
recyclable for 2005. This percentage will be increased to 95% by 2015 (European Parliament and Council of the European Union,
2000). Such legislation is a significant driving factor toward the adoption of NFCs. It also represents a broader accounting of the
environmental and social cost of industrial production.

Commercial Implementation

Processing Techniques and Products

In general, production technologies for NFCs are similar to those for the production of glass fiber composites. During processing,
temperatures must not exceed 2001C, and the time that the material is exposed to high temperature should not be too long, to
avoid destruction of the fibers. Compression molding, injection molding, extrusion, thermoforming, resin transfer molding and
sheet molding are common processes used to manufacture NFCs.
Table 3 presents some popular NFC products: their trade names, constituents, processes, and applications that are produced by
automotive interior companies, Johnson Controls and FlexForm Technologies. The properties of these materials are summarized

Table 3 Commercial NFCs products and their respective constituents, fabrication process and applications

Product trade name Fibers/polymer Process Automotive applications

Fibrit (in production Wood fiber (offcuts
since 1954) from sawmill
processing)/acrylic
resin
Fibrowood (in Wood fiber/acrylic
production since resin, synthetic fiber
1998)
PP-NF for injection Fibrowood recyclates/
molding polypropylene gran-
ules, thermoplastic
Wood-stock (in Wood flour/
production since polypropylene or
1982) polyolefin
EcoCor (in production Bast fibers (flax, hemp,
since 2000) kenaf, etc.)/
polypropylene
Natural mat with Natural fiber mat (flax
epoxy resin (NF-EP) or hemp)/epoxy resin
(in production since
2003)
FlexForm Bast fibers (flax, hemp,
kenaf, jute and sisal)/
polypropylene and
polyester
Wet forming process of wood fiber
(94%)/acrylic resin mat
Compression molded at 230–2501C
Preimpregnated needled wood fiber felt
(wood fiber (70%) mixed with acrylic
resin and synthetic fiber binder)
Compression molded at 2201C
Compounded shredded fibrowood
recyclates with PP-injection
molding
Extruded of thermoplastic sheet based
on polyolefin and wood flour-the
mat is heated in an infrared
oven-compression molded in a low-
temperature tool (coupling of the
coverstock, additional inserts and
cutting of holes as well as perimeter
is carried out in a one-step process)
Bast fibers (50%)/PP fiber felt-heated
to over 2001C-compression molded
in a low-temperature tool (o401C)-
the coverstock can be applied in a
one-step manufacturing process
A natural fiber mat (flax or hemp) is
imbued with epoxy resin (natural fiber
content of NF-EP is 70%)-
compression molded using a high-
temperature tool (1501C)-the carrier
can be laminated with TPO, textile or
leather
50% bast fiber/50% PP non-woven
mat-thermoformed at 2001C and
0.379 MPa using matched metal
tooling
Carrier for covered door panels
Covered or foamed instrument panels
Covered inserts (currently in production for
Mercedes-Benz, Opel)
Carrier for covered door panels
Covered or foamed instrument panels
Covered inserts and components
Covered seat back panels (currently in
production for BMW, Ford, Mercedes-
Benz, Opel, Hyundai)
Plastic retainer for seat back panel
Carrier for covered door panels
Carrier for armrest
Carrier for covered inserts (currently in
production for FIAT, Lancia, Alfa Romeo)
Carrier for covered door panels
Covered components for instrument panels
Covered inserts
Carrier for hard and soft armrests
Seat back panels (currently in production
for Dodge, Ford, Mercedes-Benz, Opel,
Porsche, Volkswagen)
Carrier for covered door panels (currently
in production for BMW)
Door panels, door bolsters, headliners,
side and back walls, seat backs, rear deck
trays, pillars, center consoles, load
floors, trunk trim (currently in production
for Mercedes-Benz, Chrysler (DCX), Ford,
GM, Honda, and Nissan)
 Natural Fiber Composites: Review of Recent Automotive Trends 5

in Table 4 and some examples of these products are shown in Fig. 3 (Bledzki et al., 2006; Johnson Controls Inc., 2015; Promper,
2010; Flexform, 2015).

Applications
Automotive applications of NFCs can be traced as far back as the 1940s, when Henry Ford developed the first composite car using
hemp fiber. The next occurrence was in the 1950s, with the production of the body of the East German Trabant. Other manu-
facturers followed suit Daimler–Benz (1994), Mercedes (1996), but NFCs only really began to play an important role in the

Table 4 Physical and mechanical properties of commercial NFC products

Trade name Density (g/cm3) Flexural strength (MPa) Flextural modulus (MPa) Impact strength (kJ/mm2)

Fibrit 0.75–0.80 30–45 3000–3300 20–30

Fibrowood 0.85–0.95 50–60 3000–3800 12–20
PP-NF 1.14 57 3800 12
Wood-stock 1.1 40 18 –
EcoCor 0.7–1.0 45–55 2300–2700 25–35
NF-EP 0.75–0.85 55–70 4500–5800 25–35
FlexForm 0.9 21–67 1793–3792 –

Fig. 3 Interior applications of natural fiber composites products by FlexForm Technologies (above) and Johnson Controls (below).
6 Natural Fiber Composites: Review of Recent Automotive Trends

Table 5 Natural fiber composites applications by manufacturer

Manufacturer Automotive parts Car models

Audi Seat back, hat rack, boot lining, spare tire lining, side and back door A2, A3, A4, A4 Avant, A6, A8, Roadstar, Coupe
panel/flax, sisal
BMW Door panels, headliner panel, boot lining, seat back/sisal 3, 5 and 7 series and others
Citroen Interior door panel/flax, jute C5
Daimler-Chrysler Windshield/dashboard, door panels, business table, pillar cover panel; A A, C, E and S class, Travego bus, Sebring
class, Travego bus: exterior under body protection trim; M class: convertible, Stratus
Instrumental panel; S class: 27 parts manufactured from natural fibers/
sisal, flax, coir, hemp, cotton
Dodge Door panels, center console Viper
Fiat Door panels Alfa Romeo 159
Ford B-pillar, boot liner, door panels, seat backs/kenaf Mondeo CD 162, D219, Focus, Freestar,
all-new Ford Escape, Expedition
General motors Cargo area floor, seat backs, tire cover, package trays, door panels/ Chevrolet TrailBlazer, Cadillac DeVille, Daewoo
hemp, kenaf, flax Lacetti, Regal, Grand Prix, Monte Carlo
Honda Cargo area Pilot
Lotus Interior carpets, body panels, seats, spoiler/hemp Eco Elise (July 2008)
Mercedes-Benz Door panels (flax/sisal/wood fibers with epoxy resin/UP matrix), seat C, S, E, and A classes, 2004 Mercedes
backrest panel (cotton fiber), glove box (cotton fibers/wood molded, 164/251
flax/sisal), instrument panel support, seat surface/backrest (coconut
fiber/natural rubber), insulation (cotton fiber), molding rod/apertures,
trunk panel (cotton with PP/PET fibers)
Mercury Door inserts Cougar
Mitsubishi Colt: instrumental panel; space star: door panels Space star, Colt
Nissan Trunk divider/flax Sentra
Peugeot Front and rear door panel 406
Opel Instrumental panel, door panels, pillar cover panel, headliner panel Zafira, Vectra, Astra
Renault Rear parcel shelf Clio, Twingo
Rover Rear storage shelf or panel, insulation Rover 2000 and others
Saab Door panels –
Saturn Door panels, package trays L300, LS
SEAT Door panels, seat back –
Toyota Raum: cargo area floor, door panels, instrumental panel; ES3: pillar Raum, ES3,
garnish and other interior parts/kenaf
Volkswagen Door panel, seat back, boot lid finish panel, boot line Golf A4, Passat Variant, Bora
Volvo Cargo floor tray, seat padding, natural foams C70, V70

automotive industry in 1999, when Morassi produced seats made of coir with latex for trucks and top-of-the-line cars for
Mercedes-Benz. Today, all of the major car manufacturers, including Daimler-Chrysler, Mercedes, Volkswagen, Audi Group, BMW,
Ford, Opel, Toyota, Nissan, and Mitsubishi, use NFCs in various applications as summarized in Table 5 (Bledzki et al., 2006;
Dai and Fan, 2014; Huda et al., 2008).
NFCs are used mostly for interior parts such as dashboards, door panels, parcel shelves, seat cushions, backrests and cabin
linings (Bledzki et al., 2006; Huda et al., 2008). So far, there are only a few examples of exterior parts made from NFCs due to their
high moisture absorption behavior: an example is the exterior under floor paneling on the Mercedes A-class made with abaca fiber-
reinforced composite and other nonspecific exterior parts for Travego and Top Class models by Mercedes-Benz used flax fibers.
Automotive applications of NFCs have proven themselves very well, especially in the German automotive industries. Germany
holds a dominant market position in terms of product innovation, research, and commercially available products; laying claim to
two-thirds of all plant fibers consumed in the European automotive industry. In Germany, car manufacturers are aiming to make
every component of their vehicles either recyclable or biodegradable (Bruijn, 2015).
In 2013, the nova-Institute (Germany) in cooperation with Asta Eder Composites Consulting (Austria/Finland) conducted a
market study about biocomposites produced in the European Union (EU) (Carus et al., 2013). The report showed that the total
volume of biocomposites, including wood and other NFCs, produced in the EU in 2012 was 352,000 t. Wood–plastic composites
accounted for 260,000 t while the remaining amount represented other NFCs. Wood–plastic composite production for decking
(174,000 t) and automotive (60,000 t) are the most important application sectors, followed by siding and fencing (16,000 t).
Only the automotive sector was relevant for other natural (nonwood) fiber composites (90,000 t).
In the automotive sector, NFCs have a clear focus on interior trims for high value doors and dashboards. Wood–plastic
composites are mainly used for rear shelves and trims for trunks and spare wheels, as well as in interior trims for doors. The total
volume of wood and natural fibers used in the production of biocomposites for passenger cars and lorries produced in Europe in
2012 was 80,000 t (Fig. 4). Recycled cotton fiber composites were mainly used for the driver cabins of the lorries.
 Natural Fiber Composites: Review of Recent Automotive Trends 7

Fig. 4 Use of wood and natural fibers for composites in the EU automotive industry in 2012.

Future Directions and Challenges

While the share of biocomposites in today’s total composite market in the EU (including glass, carbon, wood and natural fiber
composite) is already an impressive 15%, even higher shares are expected in the future. NFCs are starting to enter other markets
such as consumer goods, although they are still at a very early stage. In the EU, the production and use of 150,000 t biocomposites
(using 80,000 t of wood and natural fibers) in the automotive sector in 2012 could expand to over 600,000 t of biocomposites in
2020, using 150,000 t of wood and natural fibers each along with some recycled cotton. Yet this fast development will not take
place if there are no major political incentives to increase the bio-based share of the materials used in cars.
Besides the EU, according to a Food and Agricultural Organization survey, Tanzania and Brazil produce the largest amount of
sisal. Henequen is grown in Mexico. Abaca is grown mainly in the Philippines. The largest producers of jute are India, China and
Bangladesh. Presently, the annual production of natural fibers in India is about six million tons as compared to worldwide
production of about 25 million tons. In temperate climate countries, flax and hemp are the most representative plants. Cultivation
of kenaf has recently been introduced in several countries, and is now grown in places such as the United States, Malaysia,
Bangladesh, Thailand, among others (FAO, 2012).
Since 2009, improved compression molding technology has shown impressive weight reduction characteristics of auto parts
based on NFCs. Currently, it is possible to get area weight down to 1500 g/m2 (with thermoplastics) or even 1000 g/m2 (with
thermosets), which are outstanding properties when compared to pure plastics or glass fiber composites. In addition, in 2012,
three big paper companies in Europe and the United States recently introduced cellulose-based PP granulates for injected molded
parts to the automotive market. The cellulose-based PP granulates have fiber shares of between 20 and 50% for new and
interesting applications such as furniture, consumer goods and automotive parts. This technology is still small in volume but
strong in innovation (Carus et al., 2013). Recently, Johnson Controls developed a “visible natural fiber surface material” concept
used for the instrument panel and door panels of the Johnson Controls re3 interior demonstrator (Johnson Controls Inc., 2015).
This innovation enables a unique eco-fashion vehicle interior that shows natural wood fibers as a structural, visible surface
material.
Today, many studies focus on the development of fully biodegradable green composites – those made from natural fibers and
bio-based resins derived from soybeans, pure cellulose acetate, citrate-based plasticizer, and polylactic acid (PLA), for example. It is
expected that the future will see increased use of these green composites due to their renewable and environmentally benign
constituents (Bogoeva-Gaceva et al., 2007). Research suggests that these are producible with competitive properties (Schuster et al.,
2014; Liu et al., 2007).
Toyota has, in fact, begun producing Eco Plastic such PLA, Bio-PET, which is used for automotive applications (Boshoku,
2014). They substituted the PP used in the kenaf-based material with PLA resin and developed spare tire covers and door trim
using 100% plant-derived kenaf-PLA that is more environmentally friendly. In 2011, Bio-PET derived from sugar cane and new
ecological plastic were used in the CT200h and SAI, respectively. In cooperation with the Aichi Industrial Technology Institute,
8 Natural Fiber Composites: Review of Recent Automotive Trends

Mitsubishi Motors developed an automotive interior material that uses a novel plant-based resin polybutylene succinate (PBS),
combined with bamboo fiber for reinforcement. Parts made from the material was used in the interior of a revolutionary minicar
launched in Japan in 2007 (Mitsubi, 2006). Recently, Mitsubishi filed the patent about the method of producing automobile
interior boards based on green composites. The composite material is comprised of bamboo, cotton, hemp and a mixture of
cotton and hemp in decreasing order of content together with a biodegradable resin (PBS) (Terasawa et al., 2009).

Conclusions

NFCs have good potential for both interior and exterior automotive applications. Their advantages include having low density and
cost, high specific strength, and being sustainable and environmentally friendly. The resulting products from those composites can
be both reused and incinerated and do not have to be land filled as glass fiber compounds, which can help in developing cars
according to the EU end-of-life directive. Consequently, these composites are becoming attractive alternatives to glass and carbon
fiber-reinforced polymer composites for automotive components; however, further research is necessary to overcome challenges
such as moisture absorption, to instead enhance mechanical properties for use as exterior parts. In addition, the current intensive
development of bio-based resin could provide fully bio-based composite options to future automotive designers. Market devel-
opments of NFCs also depend on the political framework: any political incentives for the use of natural fibers in the automotive
industry could help increase existing volumes of natural fibers used. The future looks very bright for NFCs; in addition to the
automotive industry, other markets, such as consumer goods and furniture, are beginning to incorporate NFCs into their products.

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