Macroscale Kinematic Equilibrium Between Two Bodies

Vol.
6, 2021-16
Macroscale Kinematic Equilibrium between Two Bodies
Hugo Hernandez
ForsChem Research, 050030 Medellin, Colombia
hugo.hernandez@forschem.org
doi: 10.13140/RG.2.2.21064.85767
Abstract
Kinematic equilibrium is defined as a state of motion where the bodies are moving at a
constant relative velocity under any arbitrary inertial frame of reference. In the absence of
external forces, kinematic equilibrium is achieved only for non-interacting bodies. The
interaction in the absence of external forces is a non-equilibrium condition. However, in certain
situations, the motion and interaction between the bodies will, on average, remain constant
over long periods of time. Such situation is denoted here as a macroscale kinematic
equilibrium. Examples of macroscale kinematic equilibria include the motion of ideal gas
molecules (simple inertial equilibrium), the stretching vibration of covalent bonds
(unidimensional sustained oscillation), and two- and three-dimensional orbits, including
constant distance orbits (perfect circles) and variable distance orbits (such as ellipses and
flower shaped orbits. Those orbits can be described by means of persistent periodic functions.
Different interaction potential models (Lennard-Jones, electrostatic and harmonic models)
were used to obtain a wide variety of orbits under macroscale kinematic equilibrium.
Keywords
Electrostatic, Energy, Equilibrium, Interaction Forces, Harmonic, Interaction Potential,

Kinematic, Lennard-Jones, Multiscale, Orbits, Periodic Functions, Sustained Oscillation.
1. Introduction
Equilibrium is defined as “a state in which opposing forces or actions are balanced so that one is
not stronger or greater than the other” [1]. There are several types of equilibrium, including
mechanical equilibrium (equilibrium of forces), thermal equilibrium (equilibrium of heat flows),
phase equilibrium (equilibrium of the rates of phase change), chemical equilibrium (equilibrium
of the rates of change of individual species), etc. In this report, a particular type of equilibrium
27/10/2021 ForsChem Research Reports Vol. 6, 2021-16 (1 / 38)

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Macroscale Kinematic Equilibrium
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will be discussed, denoted here as kinematic equilibrium. Let us recall that kinematics is “a
branch of dynamics that deals with aspects of motion apart from considerations of mass and
force” [2].
The kinematic equilibrium between two bodies might be defined as a state of motion where
the bodies are moving at a constant relative velocity under any arbitrary inertial frame of
reference. In mathematical terms, this means that the relative acceleration vector between
both bodies is exactly zero:
(1.1)
In Eq. (1.1), the term represents the position of body 2 relative to body 1, the
term is the position of body 1 relative to body 2, and and are the
vector positions of the bodies with respect to a certain arbitrary frame of reference.
Thus, Eq. (1.1) can be alternatively expressed as:
(1.2)
indicating that both bodies move at the exact same acceleration (relative to the arbitrary frame
of reference). This definition also implies that no interaction should take place between them,
and if it does, it must be exactly compensated on both bodies by external forces, so that:
(1.3)
where and are external forces acting on bodies 1 and 2, respectively; is the force
exerted by body 2 on body 1; and and are the masses of the bodies.
Thus, the following relation must hold under kinematic equilibrium:
( ) ( )
(1.4)
So, in the absence of external forces, . In other words, mechanical equilibrium (zero net
forces) implies kinematic equilibrium, but kinematic equilibrium does not necessarily imply
mechanical equilibrium.

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A particular case of kinematic equilibrium takes place when:
(1.5)
This condition, corresponding to a constant relative position between the bodies, is denoted as
a steady state between the bodies.
Now, from a multiscale point of view, the bodies may be subject to different accelerations
when observed at the microscale (i.e. over short periods of time), but as long as they show an
average relative acceleration of zero (i.e. over large periods of time), they can be considered to
be in kinematic equilibrium at the macroscale.
Such extended concept of macroscale kinematic equilibrium can be expressed as follows:
( ) ( )
(1.6)
while the extended concept of macroscale steady state will be:
( ) ( )
(1.7)
where the expected value operator evaluated on any variable is defined as follows
(considering the ergodic-stochastic transformation [3]):
∫ ( )
( )
(1.8)
Notice that when the rigorous (microscale) kinematic equilibrium condition (Eq. 1.1) is valid, the
macroscale kinematic equilibrium condition (Eq. 1.6) is also satisfied.
Based on the previous definition of macroscale kinematic equilibrium, different types of

equilibrium between two bodies are possible. Some examples are briefly explained in Section 2.
A more general framework of macroscale kinematic equilibrium for two bodies in permanent
interaction is presented in Section 3. Finally, examples of macroscale kinematic equilibrium for
different types of interaction models are considered in Section 4.

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2. Types of Macroscale Kinematic Equilibrium
Considering only two bodies and no external forces acting on the bodies, the simplest cases of
macroscale kinematic equilibrium are discussed.
2.1. Simple Inertial Macroscale Kinematic Equilibrium
The first case is obtained when the average interaction potential ( ) and average interaction
force ( ) between the bodies are zero. That is:
( )
(2.1)
( )
(2.2)
Since no external forces are considered ( ), then applying the expected value
operator to Eq. (1.3) and using Eq. (2.2) yields:
( ) ( )
(2.3)
confirming that the macroscale kinematic equilibrium condition (Eq. 1.6) is fulfilled.
Considering the relation between the interaction force and the interaction potential, Eq. (2.2)
can be also expressed as follows:
( ) ( )
(2.4)
Eq. (2.1) and (2.4) indicates that the average potential is not affected by the position of the
bodies, remaining at a value of zero. Thus, the average total energy of the bodies corresponds
to their average kinetic energy.
From a molecular perspective, such behavior corresponds to that of an ideal gas, where
collisions (molecular interactions) exist but their frequency of occurrence is so low that their
macroscale effect on the long-term average interaction potential or interaction force can be
neglected.

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The steady-state condition for this type of kinematic equilibrium takes place when . In
this case, no collision between the bodies will ever take place.
2.2. Sustained Oscillation
The second situation arises when the average interaction force is again zero, but the average
interaction potential is not zero. In addition, the relative motion of the bodies takes place only
parallel to the interaction force. That is:
( )
(2.5)
( )
(2.6)
(2.7)
The details about this scenario have been previously described in [4]. The relative position, the
relative velocity (and speed), the interaction force and the interaction potential between the
bodies oscillate periodically between maximum and minimum values. Particularly, the minimum
relative speed in sustained oscillation is zero.
Since the interaction force is:
( ) | ( )
( )
(2.8)
and the relative velocity is:
( ) ( ) ∫ | ( )∫ ( )
(2.9)
where ( ) is the unit vector of the relative position at time , then:
( ) ( ) | ( ) ( | ( )∫ ( ))
| ( ) |
(2.10)
Eq. (2.10) satisfies Eq. (2.7) when:

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( ) |
(2.11)
which requires either that i) the relative position of the bodies is always parallel to the initial
relative velocity, or ii) the initial relative velocity is zero. In both cases, the following
relationship holds:
( ) ( )
(2.12)
While the dynamic behavior of the bodies depends on the particular interaction potential
function, the following energy conservation equation is generally valid for the case of sustained
oscillation:
( )
( ) ( )
(2.13)
This type of motion can be exemplified by the stretching vibration of covalent bonds between
atoms.
The steady-state condition for sustained oscillation takes place when the bodies are located at
the bottom of their interaction potential function. In this case:
(2.14)
which can be interpreted as an aggregation between the two bodies.
2.3. Constant Distance Orbit
A more complex situation takes place when the average interaction force is zero, the
instantaneous interaction force is not zero, and the relative motion of the bodies takes place
only perpendicular to the interaction force. That is:
(2.15)
( )
(2.16)
(2.17)

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where is the angle formed between the interaction force ( ) and relative velocity ( )
vectors.
The last condition (Eq. 2.17) implies:
(2.18)
Considering Eq. (2.8), we can observe that the interaction force is parallel to the relative
position of the bodies, and therefore, the relative position is also perpendicular to the relative
velocity:
( )
(2.19)
The solution to Eq. (2.19) is:
(2.20)
or equivalently,
‖ ‖
(2.21)
where is the constant relative distance between the bodies. For this reason, this type of
equilibrium is denoted as a constant distance orbit.
Differentiating the second term in Eq. (2.19) with respect to time we obtain:
( )
(2.22)
Therefore, the kinematic equilibrium orbit with constant distance requires the fulfillment of the
following condition:
( )
( ) |
(2.23)
Or equivalently,
( ) |
(2.24)

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The effect of relative position on the equilibrium relative speed between the bodies (given by
Eq. 2.24) will strongly depend on the particular interaction potential function existing between
them. The term on the left of Eq. (2.24) represents the kinetic energy of the relative motion
between the bodies. Thus, the total energy of the system will be:
( ) |
(2.25)
Two important remarks are necessary. First, notice that the magnitude of the relative
acceleration is constant (as long as is only a function of relative distance). And second, that
the interaction potential energy must increase with the relative distance (since the kinetic
energy must be positive):
(2.26)
In other words, a net attractive interaction force is a first condition to achieve a constant
distance macroscale kinematic equilibrium. The second condition, obtained from Eq. (2.24), is
that the relative velocity between the bodies must be exactly:
√ ( ) |
(2.27)
where
(2.28)
However, any deviation from Eq. (2.27) will result in a variable distance orbit (although still at
macroscale kinematic equilibrium), a non-sustained collision (followed by a permanent
separation), or simply a permanent separation between the bodies. The particular result
obtained depends on the total energy of the system ( ), on the tangential relative speed
( | |), and on the interaction potential function.
If a sustained periodic orbit with variable distance is formed, the relative distance between the
bodies will fluctuate between and along the orbit. Similarly, the relative speed
between the bodies and the interaction potential will fluctuate between and , and
and , respectively.

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Since the total energy is constant during the interaction, the potential energy is obtained
when the relative speed between the bodies is . Similarly, the interaction potential is
obtained when the relative speed is .
Furthermore, there are certain limits for the fluctuation in the interaction potential imposed by
the energy conservation. Thus,
(2.29)
since the kinetic energy cannot be negative ( ). This, of course, also limits the
maximum relative distance between the bodies along the orbit.
Similarly, the maximum relative speed will be limited by:
√ ( )( )
(2.30)
whereas the minimum relative speed will be:
√ ( )( )
(2.31)
When , then , and a constant distance orbit is obtained. We have

seen that a constant distance orbit between two bodies satisfies the conditions of kinematic
equilibrium. We have also found that not only the relative distance ( ‖ ‖) between the
bodies is constant, but also their relative speed ( ‖ ‖) and magnitude of relative
acceleration ( ‖ ‖). These constant properties can be related by the angular speed
( ):
(2.32)
In vector notation, the angular velocity is:
(2.33)
Notice that Eq. (2.32) satisfies Eq. (2.22) considering that the direction of relative acceleration is
opposed to the direction of relative position.

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Then, the kinetic energy between the bodies can be expressed as follows:
( )
(2.34)
where ( ) is an equivalent rotational moment of inertia between the two bodies.

Notice that this term depends only on the relative distance between the bodies and does not
depend on the particular axis of rotation, as is the case of the classical definition of the
rotational moment of inertia.
In general, the motion of two bodies orbiting around a certain rotation axis with the same
angular velocity can be described by the following equations:
( ) ( )
(2.35)
( ) ( )
(2.36)
where the unit directions and represent a plane perpendicular to the rotation axis, and
are the constant distances between each body and the intersection between the rotation
axis and the plane of the bodies, and and are phase angles related to the geometry of
the system. These variables can be related to the distance between the bodies by the law of
cosines:
( )
( ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ))
(2.37)
Now, the relative position between the bodies is:
( ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ))
( ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ))
(2.38)
with

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‖ ‖ ( ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ))
( ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ))
( ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ))
(2.39)
confirming that a constant relative distance orbit is obtained.
On the other hand, the classical moment of inertia of this system will be:
(2.40)
which is a function of the arbitrary location of the rotation axis, whereas the equivalent
rotational moment of inertia between the two bodies ( ) is independent of the location
of the rotation axis.
If the two bodies are considered as a single composite body [5] with mass
(2.41)
and center of mass located at the position:
(2.42)
Then, the moment of inertia of the composite body when rotating about will be:
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )( ) ( )
( )
( )
(2.43)
In other words, the moment of inertia of two bodies ( ) is the result of adding the moment of
inertia of the composite body ( ) and the internal moment of inertia between the bodies
( ). Such internal moment of inertia corresponds to the moment of inertia when the bodies
rotate around their center of mass.

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In addition, the instantaneous linear momentum of the composite body with respect to is:
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
(2.44)
and the angular momentum of the composite body is:
( ) ( )( ) ( )
( )
(2.45)
where is the angular momentum of the two bodies, and is the internal angular
momentum between the bodies.
Finally, considering the relation between linear momentum and kinetic energy in translational
motion, we may also find the magnitude of an internal instantaneous linear momentum of the
composite body as follows:
√ ( ) ( )
(2.46)
In vector notation we would have:
( ) ( )
(2.47)
Therefore,
( ) ( )
(2.48)
which is consistent with Eq. (2.45).
This type of kinematic equilibrium can be found in the rotational motion of diatomic molecules,
and probably also in the orbit described around the proton by the electron in the Hydrogen
atom.

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3. Macroscale Kinematic Equilibrium between Two Bodies under Permanent

Interaction
In the previous Section, the simplest cases of macroscale kinematic equilibrium have been
discussed. In the first case considered (simple inertial equilibrium), interaction between the
bodies may or may not take place, and when it does, it only occurs once (during collision). All
other cases of macroscale kinematic equilibrium occur when the interaction between the
bodies is permanent, although not necessarily constant. In addition, when the interaction is
permanent, macroscale kinematic equilibrium not only requires an average relative
acceleration of zero, but also an average relative velocity of zero. In other words, the average
relative distance between the bodies over long periods of time must be constant. Otherwise,
they will eventually separate (with or without collision) until the interaction between them no
longer exists. This could be considered as a macroscale steady-state condition, even when there
is no steady state at the microscale. Let us now consider the macroscale equilibrium in different
dimensions.
3.1. One Dimension
The case of sustained oscillation represents a fluctuation in relative distance, relative velocity,
relative acceleration, and interaction force in a single dimension. These variables are described
by periodic functions. In general, the relative position between the centers of mass of the
bodies is:
( ) ( )
(3.1)
where is the unit vector in the direction of the relative position between the centers of
mass of the bodies, and is a periodic function such that:
( ) ( )
(3.2)
where is the constant period of the oscillation, and
∫ ( )
(3.3)
is the average constant relative distance between the bodies, and is an arbitrary initial or
reference time.
In addition, the derivatives of the periodic function must also be periodic (and with the same
period) with zero-average cycles. So, in general:

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| |
(3.4)
(3.5)
Of course, not many functions satisfy the above mentioned conditions for macroscale
kinematic equilibrium in one dimension (Eq. 3.2 to 3.5).
For harmonic or quadratic interaction potentials, the periodic function of sustained oscillation
[4] is the general sinusoidal function:
( ) ( ( ) )
(3.6)
where is the angular frequency of the oscillation defined as (considering cycles of

radians):
(3.7)
is the amplitude of the oscillation (maximum deviation with respect to the average distance):
(3.8)
and is the phase angle of the oscillation, related to the relative position of the bodies at time
:
( )
( )
(3.9)
where is the arcsine function.
Considering that
( ( ) )
(3.10)
all conditions for macroscale kinematic equilibrium in one dimension (Eq. 3.2 to 3.5) are
fulfilled.

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Different periodic functions will be obtained for other interaction potentials. However, all the
conditions must remain valid. Finding analytical expressions for these periodic functions when
the interaction potential is known is not always an easy task. Even more, finding the interaction
potential function when the periodic function is known may be even more difficult.
The main relationship between the periodic distance function and the interaction potential
function is given by the energy conservation equation:
( ) (( ) ( | ) )
(3.11)
where is the minimum interaction potential between the bodies, and | is the
relative speed between the bodies at the position of minimum interaction potential ( ).
Considering the periodic distance function given in Eq. (3.6), and given that the maximum
relative speed is achieved at the position of minimum potential ( ), we can obtain the
following interaction potential function:
( ) ( )
(3.12)
which is the harmonic or quadratic potential function.
3.2. Two Dimensions
In the case of motion in two dimensions, a wider range of possibilities for macroscale kinematic
equilibrium emerges. An example is the constant distance orbit discussed in Section 2.3. A
general representation of the relative motion between the bodies in macroscale kinematic
equilibrium is the following:
( ) ( ) ( )
(3.13)
where and are unit vectors in the arbitrary orthogonal directions and , respectively, and
and are arbitrary periodic functions with a common orbit period, such that:
( ) ( )
(3.14)
( ) ( )
(3.15)

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where and are the corresponding periods of each periodic function, and is the common
orbit period:
(3.16)
where and have the smallest possible natural values.
In addition,
∫ ( )
(3.17)
∫ ( )
(3.18)
Thus, the constant position of the center of the orbit with respect to the reference body (the
second body according to Eq. 3.13), selected as arbitrary frame of reference, will be given by:
(3.19)
Also, the derivatives of the periodic functions are also periodic (and with the same period) with
zero-average cycles:
| |
(3.20)
| |
(3.21)
(3.22)
(3.23)
For example, the constant distance orbit is given by the following general relative position
function:
( ) ( ( ) ) ( ( ) )
(3.24)

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with common period:
(3.25)
At any moment , the relative distance between the bodies is constant:
( ) √ ( ( ) ) ( ( ) )
√ ( ( ) ) ( ( ) )
(3.26)
and the center of the orbit is positioned at:
(3.27)
Furthermore, the velocity vector is always orthogonal to the position vector:
( ) ( )
( ( ) ) ( ( ) ) ( ( ( ) ))
( ( ( ) ))
( ( ) ) ( ( ) )
( ( ) ) ( ( ) )
(3.28)
Variable distance orbits can be obtained considering the following expression of the relative
positions, based on the general sinusoidal periodic functions:
( ) ( ( ( ) )) ( ( ( ) ))
(3.29)
Some examples using different values for the parameters are shown in Table 1.
More versatility in the description of orbits can be achieved by adding different numbers of
sinusoidal functions ( and ) in each direction:
( ) ( ∑ ( ( ) ))
( ∑ ( ( ) ))
(3.30)

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Examples of possible shape of orbits obtained using Eq. (3.30) are illustrated in Figure 1.
Of course, other periodic functions can be alternatively used in the sums as long as conditions
(3.14) to (3.23) remain valid.
Table 1. Examples of orbits in a plane described by Eq. (3.29). The center of the Cartesian
coordinate is .
Orbit Shape Parameter values Plot Example
Centered Circle
| |
(Constant distance
orbit)
| |
Non-centered | |
Circle
| |
| |
Centered Ellipse
Non-centered | |
Ellipse
| |
Lemniscate
| |
Other Orbits

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Figure 1. Examples of additional orbit shapes obtained with Eq. (3.30). Horizontal axis: .
Vertical axis: .
While many different shapes can be obtained, the behavior of the interaction potential
function in many cases is too complex to be described by common analytical expressions.
Notice that, in general, the dynamic behavior of the interaction potential is described by:
( ) (( ∑ ( ( ) ))
(∑ ( ( ) )) ( | )
( | ) )
(3.31)

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In addition, the relative motion of interacting bodies in the absence of external forces must
satisfy:
( )
(3.32)
where ‖ ‖. Thus, considering Eq. (3.30) we obtain the following set of equations (one
equation for each dimension):
∑ ( ( ) )
∑ ( ( ) )
( ) ( )
( )
(3.33)
∑ ( ( ) )
∑ ( ( ) )
( ) ( )
( )
(3.34)
Differentiating Eq. (3.31) and replacing in Eq. (3.33) and (3.34), the following general condition
is obtained:
(∑ ( ( ) )) ( ∑ ( ( ) ))
(∑ ( ( ) ))
( ∑ ( ( ) ))
(3.35)
or equivalently, the most general expression:
(3.36)

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This condition greatly limits the range of possible orbits under macroscale kinematic
equilibrium due to the interaction between two bodies, and in the absence of external forces.
Considering the periodic function given by Eq. (3.30), Eq. (3.35) can be alternatively expressed
as follows:
∑ ∑ ( ) ( ( ) ) ( ( ) )
∑ ( ( ) )
∑ ( ( ) )
(3.37)
indicating the following possible solution:
[ ] [ ]
(3.38)
This solution represents only centered ellipses. For these orbits, the energy conservation
equation becomes:
( )
(3.39)
Of course, other orbits for other periodic functions are possible as soon as condition (3.36) is
met. Some orbits may even require interaction potentials which not only are functions of the
relative distance between the bodies, but also functions of their relative orientation, resulting
in more complex analytical expressions.
3.3. Three Dimensions
Finally, a more general description of periodic orbits in three dimensions is:
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
(3.40)

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where , and are unit vectors in the arbitrary orthogonal directions , and ,
respectively, and , and are arbitrary periodic functions with a common orbit period ,
such that:
( ) ( ) { }
(3.41)
The common orbit period is:
{ }
(3.42)
The three-dimensional orbits can also be centered about any arbitrary position. However, for
two interacting bodies in the absence of external forces, the orbit obtained will most likely be
centered:
∫ ( )
{ }
(3.43)
Also, the derivatives of the periodic functions are also periodic (and with the same period) with
zero-average cycles:
| | { }
(3.44)
∫ { }
(3.45)
In addition, the following conditions are required by the equations of motion:
(3.46)
(3.47)
(3.48)
Then again, a possible periodic function to be considered is:

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( ) (∑ ( ( ) )) (∑ ( ( ) ))
(∑ ( ( ) )) { }
(3.49)
This function satisfies the conditions given by (3.46) to (3.48), at least when:
[ ] [ ] [ ]
(3.50)
Also, the energy conservation equation for this case is the same as in Eq. (3.39).
Other orbits and periodic functions are possible, depending on the particular interaction
potential function considered.
4. Examples of Macroscale Kinematic Equilibrium
In this Section, the macroscale kinematic equilibrium of some of the most common interaction
potential models will be considered.
4.1. Lennard-Jones Interaction Potential Model
The Lennard-Jones interaction potential model is [6]:
( ) (( ) ( ) )
(4.1)
where is related to the depth of the potential well, and is related to the molecular size.
The sustained oscillation between two molecules interacting by the Lennard-Jones model was
already discussed in a previous report [4], so now we will focus on two-dimensional orbits.
A constant distance orbit is possible when:
( ) | ( )( ( ) ( ) )
(4.2)

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Thus, the tangential relative speed of two molecules orbiting at a constant distance will be:
√ ( ) (( ) ( ) )
(4.3)
Eq. (4.3) implies that a constant distance orbit is possible only for:
√
(4.4)
Let us recall that a constant distance orbit requires a permanent attractive force, and for
√ the interaction force becomes repulsive. Also, at √ and , a constant-
distance steady-state is obtained, but without a circular orbit. For √ , up to two
constant-distance orbits can be obtained by solving Eq. (2.25):
( ( ) ( ) ) (( ) ( ) )
(4.5)
resulting in:
√
√
(4.6)
Eq. (4.6) indicates that no constant distance orbit is possible when
(4.7)
Only one constant distance orbit is obtained for
(4.8)
And two constant distance orbits are obtained for
(4.9)

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The case when is particularly interesting because one of the constant distance orbits
occurs for . In practice, this condition somehow resembles the simple inertial kinematic
equilibrium condition.
Figure 2 to Figure 5 illustrate the behavior of different orbits obtained by numerical integration
considering the Lennard-Jones interaction potential for the case when , and different
initial positions§. For this total energy, two different constant distance orbits can be obtained.
In each Figure, different plots are presented including the relative position of the bodies in the
interaction plane, the periodic functions describing relative position, relative velocity and
relative acceleration in each dimension, the periodic function describing the potential energy,
and the section of the potential energy function covered by the oscillation. Considering a total
energy , constant distance orbits are obtained for √ (Figure 3 and Figure 5).
√
The behavior of all periodic functions for these constant distance orbits is clearly sinusoidal,
and can be derived from the periodic position represented by Eq. (3.24). Such orbits require a
very precise location of the initial condition at ( ) . Any slight deviation will result in a
different type of orbit, or permanent separation.
Figure 2. Orbits and periodic behavior for the Lennard-Jones interaction potential for ,
and ( ) .
§
All initial positions are assumed to have only tangential motion. The numerical integration is done using
the Runge-Kutta method.

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and ( ) .
√ √
and ( ) .

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and ( ) .
√ √
The variable distance orbits presented in Figure 2 and Figure 4 show periodic patterns which
cannot be described by single sinusoidal functions. In addition, the common period of the
functions is much larger than the simulation time considered.
Figure 6 to Figure 9 show different orbits obtained by numerical integration considering the
Lennard-Jones interaction potential for the case when , starting from different initial
positions. For this energy, the only constant distance orbit is obtained at √ √
. Different orbits are obtained for different initial conditions (in purely tangential motion).
When the initial distance is close to , no repulsion forces are experienced by the bodies,
resulting in almost circular orbits with slight deviations. However, the periodic functions
describing the relative motion of the bodies, and particularly those describing relative velocity
and acceleration, significantly deviate from the single sinusoidal function (Eq. 3.29). For larger
deviations in the initial position with respect to , repulsion forces emerge, giving rise to
periodic flower shaped orbits. Those shapes reflect the fact that the bodies are permanently
colliding while orbiting around each other. The corresponding periodic functions reflect the
contribution of different individual periodic functions, similar to Eq. (3.30).

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Figure 6. Orbits and periodic behavior for the Lennard-Jones interaction potential for
, and ( ) .
, and ( ) .
√ √

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, and ( ) .
, and ( ) .

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In conclusion, the nature of the Lennard-Jones model provides a rich variety of orbits at
macroscale kinematic equilibrium between two interacting bodies, involving either only
attractive forces, or an alternation between attractive and repulsive forces.
4.2. Electrostatic Potential Model
In second place, let us consider a purely electrostatic interaction potential model [7]:
(4.10)
where and , represent the electrical charges of the bodies (in

). And the interaction force becomes:
(4.11)
According to this model, bodies with charges of the same sign repel each other, whereas
bodies with charges of opposite sign attract each other. However, this is a relatively long-range
model as it neglects the short-range repulsion that emerges impeding the interacting bodies to
occupy the same spatial position upon close approach.
For the purely electrostatic interaction model given in Eq. (4.10), sustained oscillation is
impossible because the bodies are subject to only attractive or only repulsive, under the
assumption that their charges remain constant. Certain closed orbits are possible but only for
the interaction of bodies with charges of opposite sign (attractive interaction forces). Flower
shaped orbits are not possible when non-electrostatic repulsion forces are neglected.
The tangential speed condition for the constant distance orbit considering the electrostatic
interaction potential becomes:
√( ) | √ ( )
(4.12)
Clearly, the charges must have opposite signs as real speeds are only possible for .
Assuming uniform electrical charge per unit mass ( ) in the bodies, Eq. (4.12) can be
alternatively expressed as follows:

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( )
√
(4.13)
Constant distance orbits are possible for any separation distance between the bodies, as long
as they have the exact equilibrium relative tangential speed ( ). Also notice that shorter
constant distance orbits between the bodies are only possible when their relative tangential
speeds are higher. Slight deviations from the constant distance orbit will result in other types
of variable distance closed orbits, i.e. ellipsoidal orbits. Larger deviations will result in simple
inertial macroscale kinematic equilibrium, either with (low tangential speeds) or without
collision (high tangential speeds).
Figure 10 to Figure 13 show different examples of closed orbits obtained by the electrostatic
interaction potential model considering different initial positions (in purely tangential motion),
but the same total energy.
Figure 10. Orbits and periodic behavior for the electrostatic interaction potential for
, and ( ) .

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, and ( ) .
, and ( ) .

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, and ( ) .
The total energy for the constant distance orbit is:
(4.14)
whereas the total energy for the general variable distance orbit is:
( )
( )
( )
(4.15)
4.3. Harmonic Potential Model
As a final example, the harmonic interaction potential will be discussed. The harmonic
interaction potential model can be expressed as follows:
( )
(4.16)
where ( ) and is the minimum interaction potential distance.

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The interaction force is given by:
( )
(4.17)
When the distance between the bodies is larger than , the interaction is attractive. When the
bodies are closer than , the interaction becomes repulsive. At , the net interaction
force is zero.
The tangential speed condition for the constant distance orbit considering the harmonic
interaction potential is:
√( ) | √ ( ) ( )
(4.18)
It can be concluded that a constant distance orbit requires .
The total energy of the constant distance orbit is:
( ) ( ) ( )( )
(4.19)
whereas the total energy for the general variable distance orbit is:
( )
( ) ( ( ) )
(4.20)
Contrary to the purely electrostatic interaction, for the harmonic interaction larger orbits
require larger tangential speeds. Deviations from will result in different types of closed
orbits, also including flower shaped orbits. Even an initial tangential speed of zero will result in
a periodic kinematic equilibrium, corresponding to a one-dimensional sustained oscillation.
Figure 14 to Figure 17 show different examples of closed orbits obtained by the harmonic
interaction potential model considering the same total energy but different initial positions (at
purely tangential motion).

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Figure 14. Orbits and periodic behavior for the harmonic interaction potential for
, and ( ) .
, and ( ) .

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, and ( ) .
, and ( ) .

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4. Conclusion
Kinematic equilibrium between two bodies occurs when there is a zero relative acceleration
between them. In the absence of external forces, such kinematic equilibrium is only possible in
non-interacting bodies. When the bodies interact, their relative position, velocity and
acceleration will keep changing as the interaction remains. However, in certain situations the
average relative acceleration may be zero over long periods of time, giving rise to a special case
of kinematic equilibrium only observed at a larger scale, denote here as macroscale kinematic
equilibrium.
In addition, if the average relative velocity is also zero (the average relative position remains
constant) over long periods of time, the system is not only at macroscale kinematic equilibrium
also at macroscale steady state. This is the case of sustained oscillations in one dimension, or
periodic orbits (either constant distance or variable distance orbits) in two and three
dimensions. The macroscale steady state relative trajectory of the interacting bodies can be
described by means of a linear combination of persistent periodic functions, whose time
derivatives are also periodic. The most representative example of a persistent periodic function
is the sinusoidal function. However, other types of persistent periodic functions are possible.
The particular behavior of the two bodies at the macroscale (kinematic equilibrium, steady
state or non-equilibrium), as well as the particular shape of the relative trajectory of the bodies,
will depend on the particular interaction potential function and also on the state of the system
at an arbitrary initial or reference condition. Sustained oscillations, for example, require an
interaction force alternating between attraction and repulsion, and relative motion aligned to
the centers of mass of the bodies. Constant distance orbits are only possible under attractive
interactions, for purely tangential relative velocities, and for a very precise value of the relative
speed (depending on the interaction force). Variable distance orbits can be obtained from
solely attractive forces (resulting in elliptical orbits and other shapes) or from alternating
attractive and repulsive forces (resulting in flower shaped orbits).
Different examples of macroscale steady state orbits were shown considering some of the
most common interaction potential functions (Lennard-Jones, electrostatic and harmonic
potential functions) under different initial conditions. It is observed that even when the total
energy of the system is the same, different initial conditions lead to orbits with completely
different shapes. If the energy of the system is too large, a macroscale steady state cannot be
sustained. In the case of purely electrostatic attraction, low energy systems also become
unstable. However, in real systems a short-range non-electrostatic repulsion must also exist,
which may lead to stable flower shaped orbits.

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Acknowledgments
This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public,
commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
References
[1] Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Equilibrium. In Merriam-Webster.com dictionary. Retrieved

September 29, 2021, from https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/equilibrium.
[2] Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Kinematics. In Merriam-Webster.com dictionary. Retrieved

September 29, 2021, from https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/kinematics.
[3] Hernandez, H. (2017). Ergodic-Stochastic Transformations. ForsChem Research Reports, 2,

2017-12. doi: 10.13140/RG.2.2.20325.70881.
[4] Hernandez, H. (2021). Sustained Oscillating Collisions between Two Monoatomic Molecules.
ForsChem Research Reports, 6, 2021-14. doi: 10.13140/RG.2.2.29666.86724.
[5] Hernandez, H. (2021). On the N-Body=Single-Body Multiscale Equivalence. ForsChem

Research Reports, 6, 2021-15. doi: 10.13140/RG.2.2.21992.60160.
[6] Lennard-Jones, J. E. (1931). Cohesion. Proceedings of the Physical Society, 43(5), 461. doi:
10.1088/0959-5309/43/5/301.
[7] Coulomb, C. A. (1785). Second mémoire sur l’électricité et le magnétisme. Histoire de

l’Académie Royale des Sciences, 579, 578-611. https://www.academie-
sciences.fr/pdf/dossiers/Coulomb/Coulomb_pdf/Mem1785_p578.pdf.

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Vol.

Macroscale Kinematic Equilibrium between Two Bodies

Electrostatic, Energy, Equilibrium, Interaction Forces, Harmonic, Interaction Potential,

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Thus, Eq. (1.1) can be alternatively expressed as:

Thus, the following relation must hold under kinematic equilibrium:

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A particular case of kinematic equilibrium takes place when:

Such extended concept of macroscale kinematic equilibrium can be expressed as follows:

Based on the previous definition of macroscale kinematic equilibrium, different types of

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2. Types of Macroscale Kinematic Equilibrium

2.1. Simple Inertial Macroscale Kinematic Equilibrium

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2.2. Sustained Oscillation

Since the interaction force is:

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2.3. Constant Distance Orbit

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The last condition (Eq. 2.17) implies:

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Similarly, the maximum relative speed will be limited by:

whereas the minimum relative speed will be:

When , then , and a constant distance orbit is obtained. We have

In vector notation, the angular velocity is:

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where ( ) is an equivalent rotational moment of inertia between the two bodies.

Now, the relative position between the bodies is:

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3. Macroscale Kinematic Equilibrium between Two Bodies under Permanent

3.1. One Dimension

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where is the angular frequency of the oscillation defined as (considering cycles of

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3.2. Two Dimensions

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with common period:

and the center of the orbit is positioned at:

Furthermore, the velocity vector is always orthogonal to the position vector:

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3.3. Three Dimensions

Finally, a more general description of periodic orbits in three dimensions is:

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4. Examples of Macroscale Kinematic Equilibrium

4.1. Lennard-Jones Interaction Potential Model

The Lennard-Jones interaction potential model is [6]:

A constant distance orbit is possible when:

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4.2. Electrostatic Potential Model

where and , represent the electrical charges of the bodies (in