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Catena
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The key role of water resources management in the Middle East dust events
Mehdi Hamidi
Faculty of Civil Engineering, Babol Noshirvani University of Technology, Babol, Iran

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Dust events in the Middle East have resulted in serious environmental problems in many countries in the area.
Dust events The dust activities in the Middle East were intensified in recent years due to many factors including climate
The Middle East change, drought, and poor water management strategies. This paper investigates the dust activity during
Water resources management 1980–2010 in the Lower Mesopotamia and southwestern Iran and demonstrates that the dust activity in the
Water scarcity
study area has increased after 1999. This study investigates the role of surface temperature, precipitation, water
Dust emission
resources, vegetation, and surface wind velocity on the development of dust events during the study period. This
investigation is performed using the correlation analysis of the normalized value of the 5 and 10 year moving
average of the mentioned parameters to evaluate the role of each parameter on the increase of dust activity in
the last decade of the study period. The correlation analysis demonstrates that the dust activity has the highest
correlation and relationship to the water resources of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers and indicates the key role of
water resources management on the dust activity in the study area. It is shown, The large scarcity of the Tigris
and Euphrates rivers water resources has occurred when there was not a sharp reduction in the average pre-
cipitation in the study area. Hence, the excessive water withdrawal through the dam construction projects could
be considered as the main reason of large reduction of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers water resources and high
dust activity in the Middle East during the last decades.

1. Introduction
Dust events are known as a natural hazard which could affect many
important processes in earth’s climate system such as ecosystem health,
land-use pattern, radiative forcing, and pollutant transport. In recent
years, the influence of dust events in the global environmental system,
such as carbon dioxide levels, climate change, and biogeochemical
cycles, is noticeable (Goudie, 2009). Also, dust events can affect the
transportation industry, energy, telecommunications infrastructures,
and plants. In addition, the dust events could result in desertification
and drought, reducing water supplies and increasing soil salinity.
The high dust concentration associated with the dust event in the
Middle East and southwestern Asia resulted in serious human health
and environmental problems in many countries in the area, i.e. Iraq,
Syria, Iran, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, U.A.E, Qatar, and Bahrain (Hermida
et al., 2018; Querol et al., 2019; Roshan et al., 2019). The alluvial plains
and dry deserts in this area are considered as important dust sources of
the world and the studies have shown that the Middle East region
contributes to about 15–20% of the global total dust emission (Miller
et al., 2004; Tanaka and Chiba, 2006). Zender et al. (2003); Ginoux
et al. (2004) demonstrated that the dust emission rate in the area is
more than 20% of total global dust. Also, the maximum dust emission
rate in the area is approximately equal to the maximum dust emission
rate in Bodele Depression and central Sahara dust sources in Africa and
exceeded 540 (µg m−2 s−1) in the area (Hamidi et al., 2017).
The Tigris and Euphrates alluvial plain is considered as the main
dust sources in the Middle East (Hamidi, 2019). This region represents
the second largest dust source of the world, and Iraq is the country with
the highest number of dust storms (Ginoux et al., 2012; Prospero et al.,
2002; Washington et al., 2003). The dust activity occurs all year long in
the area and it increases in March and April, peaks in June and July and
weakens in September (Shao, 2008). The dust activities were intensified
in recent years due to many factors such as climate change and drought,
dried marshland, ineffective irrigation systems and the shortage of
enough power for irrigation of farmlands, military actions, and mainly
poor water management strategies, including excess drainage along the
Tigris and Euphrates basin through development of water projects i.e.
dam construction (Sissakian et al., 2013).
The first step in studying the dust events is the investigation of its
processes. There are three main processes in a dust event, including
dust emission, dust transport, and dust deposition (Shao, 2008).
Amongst the mentioned processes, the most important one in forming a
dust storm is the dust emission, which plays a key role in producing a
dust plume. The dust emission rate is affected by many meteorological

E-mail address: Hamidi@nit.ac.ir.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2019.104337
Received 21 November 2018; Received in revised form 29 September 2019; Accepted 23 October 2019
0341-8162/ © 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Please cite this article as: Mehdi Hamidi, Catena, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2019.104337

M. Hamidi
and geophysical conditions. Regardless of the meteorological condition,
the emission rate strongly depends on surface conditions, such as ve-
getation and characteristic of the soil, including soil moisture, surface
roughness and soil-salt concentration (Hamidi et al., 2017). Availability
of enough water, strongly affect the soil moisture, vegetation and sur-
face roughness and consequently can be the main factor suppressing the
dust emission and controlling the dust events. Hence, controlling the
dust events in an area needs special attention to water resources
management of the area and availability of enough water for the soil
and the plants.
This study can demonstrate that forming a dust event in Iraq
strongly depends on the management of water resources in the coun-
tries which are located upstream of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. It
means upstream countries could have a key role in suppressing the dust
events in the lower Mesopotamia and preventing its harmful effects on
the neighboring countries. Hence, this paper can exhibit that, man-
agement and control of the dust events in the Middle East need suitable
cooperation between the riparian countries of the Tigris and Euphrates
rivers, and paying special attention to water policy and management of
water resources in the area. In other words, this paper can be useful for
providing suitable information for the countries which are suffering
from dust events and demonstrate the necessity of forming cooperation
for controlling and suppressing severe dust storms in the Middle East
and consequently improve the environmental situation in the area.
The paper is organized as follows. Section 1 is the introduction of
the study. In Section 2, entitled dust activity in the study area, the study
regions are described and the dust activity in the study area is in-
vestigated. Section 3, entitled methods and materials, provide the data
and the corresponding analysis. Section 4, entitled discussion, consists
of a complimentary analysis and correlation tests. Section 5 is the
conclusion of the paper.
2. Dust activity in the study area
Studies have shown that the number of the days with sand and dust
storms in western Asia countries, including Syria, Iraq, Iran, Jordan,
and Saudi Arabia, have a noticeable increase in recent years (Bin
Abdulwahed et al., 2019; Cao et al., 2015; Gharibzadeh et al., 2019;
Namdari et al., 2018; Zoljoodi et al., 2013). Fig. 1 displays the
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frequency of sand and dust storms in western Asia based on the me-
teorological stations data during 2000–2013 and exhibits that, the
Lower Mesopotamia (green box) and southwestern Iran (yellow box)
have a high frequency of dust storm occurrence in the Middle East (Cao
et al., 2015). Synoptic analysis of the dust storms in the Middle East
demonstrated that the high dust activity in the Lower Mesopotamia (the
area from Baghdad to the Persian Gulf) and southwestern Iran relates to
the Tigris and Euphrates alluvial plain dust sources (Hamidi et al.,
2013). As discussed in the introduction, the Tigris and Euphrates rivers
alluvial plains are considered as the main dust sources in the Middle
East. The main dust sources in the Tigris and Euphrates rivers alluvial
plain, especially in lower Mesopotamia, are the dried marshlands and
the areas which were devoted to agriculture in the past and suffer
serious water scarcity in these days. Hence, it is necessary to study the
availability and scarcity of water in the Tigris and Euphrates rivers
alluvial plain for clarifying the role of these rivers in forming the dust
sources in the study area.
The Euphrates river is the longest river in western Asia. This river
has three main riparian countries consisting of Iraq, Syria, and Turkey.
The Euphrates river originated mainly from the Armenian Highlands in
Turkey and the contributions of the other riparian countries are gen-
erally small. The Euphrates river runs about 1180 km southward to
reach Turkey-Syria borders and continues its path to Syria-Iraq borders
with the length of nearly 605 km. The Euphrates river runs about
1160 km inside Iraq to reach its confluence with the Tigris river in
southeastern Iraq. The total length of the Euphrates river is almost
2800 km and the total drainage area of the river is about 440,000 km2
(UN-ESCWA, 2013). The second largest river in western Asia is the
Tigris river with an overall length of 1718 km and 235,000 km2
catchment areas (Al-Ansari et al., 2014). This river originated from the
Armenian Highlands in Turkey and fed by the other branches that rise
in the Zagros mountains in Turkey, Iran, and Iraq. Fig. 2 shows the
sketch of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers system. The Tigris and Eu-
phrates rivers join together in southeastern Iraq and form the Shat-Al-
Arab river, which drains to the Persian Gulf. Hence, it is obvious the
water shortage in the Tigris and Euphrates rivers can increase the dust
source area in Syria and especially in Iraq and led to the increase of dust
activity in the study area.
For a detailed analysis of the dust activity during the past three
Fig. 1. Frequency of sand and dust storms in
western Asia based on the meteorological
stations data during 2000–2013 (adapted
from Cao et al., 2015). Lower Mesopotamia
(green box) and southwestern Iran (yellow
box) have a high frequency of dust storms in
the Middle East. (For interpretation of the
references to colour in this figure legend, the
reader is referred to the web version of this
article.)
M. Hamidi
Fig. 2. Sketch of the Mesopotamian river system (UN-ESCWA, 2013).
decades in the Lower Mesopotamia and southwestern Iran, two regions
are selected based on the displayed boxes in Fig. 1. The first region (R1)
is located between 43° E to 47° E and 31° N to 34° N which contains
many important cities including Baghdad, Karbala, Najaf and Ramadi in
Iraq and Ilam in Iran. The second region (R2) is located between 45° E
to 49° E and 29° N to 31° N which contains many important cities in-
cluding Basrah in Iraq, Ahwaz, and Abadan in Iran and Kuwait City in
Kuwait. The area of the R1 and R2 regions are almost 127,160 and
84,804 km2, respectively. Also, there are many meteorological stations
in R1 such as Baghdad, Ramadi, Kut, Kerbala, Hella, Najaf, Samawa,
Diwaniya, Ilam, Samarra, and in R2 such as Nasiriya, Basra, Ahwaz,
Abadan, which could present suitable data for analysis.
The Dust Column Mass Density (DCMD) is used for illustrating the
monthly dust activity in the study area. The monthly values of the Dust
Column Mass Density (DCMD) are calculated by the integration of dust
concentrations from the bottom to the top layer of the modeled area
and were obtained from MERRA-2 model (M2TMNXAER v5.12.4 pro-
duct available from http://giovanni.sci.gsfc.nasa.gov/giovanni) for
1980–2010. The second Modern-Era Retrospective analysis for Re-
search and Applications (MERRA-2) is a NASA atmospheric reanalysis
that upgraded by Rienecker et al. (2011). The annual dust activity in
each region was calculated by averaging the monthly DCMD through
March to September in each year. This period is selected based on the
starting and weakening time of dust activities in the Middle East (Shao,
2008; Nabavi et al., 2016; Hamidi, 2019).
Figs. 3 and 4 display the yearly dust activity in R1 and R2 regions,
respectively. For illustrating the long time variation of the dust activity
in R1 and R2 regions, the linear trend lines together with the 5 and
10 year moving average lines were displayed. The linear trend line
shows the increase in dust activity during 1980–2010 in R1 and R2
regions. Also, the 5 and 10 year moving average lines show a sharp
increase in dust activity of R1 and R2 in the first decade of the 21st
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century. The 5 and 10 year moving average of DCMD in R1 and R2
regions have nearly a constant value from 1984 to 1999, but they start
to increase in 1999 and reach their maximum value in 2010. The 5-year
moving average of DCMD in R1 region has nearly 40 percent increase,
from 0.43 gr/m2 in 1999 to 0.6 gr/m2 in 2010. Also, the 5 year moving
average of DCMD in R2 region has nearly 31 percent increase, from
0.55 gr/m2 in 1999 to 0.71 gr/m2 in 2010. On the other hand, the
maximum yearly DCMD in R1 is around 0.5 gr/m2 during 1980 to 1999
while it reaches 0.66 gr/m2 during 1999–2010. Also, the maximum
yearly DCMD in R2 is 0.62 gr/m2 during 1980–1999 while this value is
equal to 0.78 gr/m2 during 1999–2010. The above-described compar-
ison demonstrates that there is a meaningful increase in dust activity
after 1999 and, shows the necessity of an investigation on the role of
the factors which could affect the dust event’s occurrence in the Lower
Mesopotamian area.
3. Methods and materials
The dust event processes consist of the distinct phases of particle
emission, transport, and deposition. These processes could be influ-
enced by many factors consisting of atmospheric conditions (e.g. wind
and temperature), soil properties (e.g. soil texture and aggregation),
land-surface characteristics (e.g. moisture, roughness length, vegeta-
tion, and non-erodible elements) and land-use changes (e.g. farming)
(Shao, 2008). Amongst the dust event processes, the dust transport and
deposition mostly depend on atmospheric conditions, but the dust
emission is nearly related to the all described factors. On the other
hand, the introductory process for generating a dust storm is the dust
emission, and a dust event would be initiated by wind erosion and entry
of dust particle into the atmospheric boundary layer. Hence, for in-
vestigation of the main factors which affect a dust event occurrence, the
main step is studying the parameters which could influence the dust
M. Hamidi Catena xxx (xxxx) xxxx

Yearly Dust Activity (March to September) Over R1 Region

0.70
10 Year Moving Average

Average Dust Load (g/m^2) 0.65 5 Year Moving Average

Yearly Average
0.60 Linear (Yearly Average)

0.55

0.50

0.45

0.40

0.35
1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
Year

Fig. 3. The yearly dust activity in R1 region (43° E to 47° E and 31° N to 34° N) in the Middle East.

emission. investigation of precipitation over the above-mentioned area.

A dust emission initiates when the surface wind velocity exceeds the
threshold shear velocity. On the other hand, the threshold shear velo-
city is closely related to land surface processes, especially, the status of
soil moisture and vegetation cover which strongly influenced by soil
water content. In other words, the high surface temperature and water
scarcity result in low soil moisture, low vegetation cover, and finally
reduction of threshold shear velocity. The dust emission occurs when
the above described conditions accompanied by high surface wind
speed. It can be concluded, the parameters which could affect the dust
emission in an area consist of surface wind speed, precipitation, vege-
tation, temperature and water resources of the area. This section fo-
cuses on the variation of the described parameters during 1980–2010 in
the study area.
3.1. Precipitation
Precipitation is one of the main factors that can directly affect the
vegetation and soil moisture, which are important factors in dust
emission. Also, the precipitation over the upstream areas of the catch-
ment could affect the surface runoff and consequently soil moisture and
vegetation of the dust sources which are located in downstream areas of
the catchment. Hence, it is important to consider the precipitation over
dust sources and upstream areas of the catchment for investigation of
water availability in the study area.
For a detailed analysis of the availability of moisture in Lower
Mesopotamia during the past three decades, the precipitation in a re-
gion which is located between 39° E to 46° E and 31° N to 40° N is
investigated. This area contains the Tigris and Euphrates alluvial plain
dust sources and upstream areas of the catchment in Turkey. In other
words, the availability of moisture for the dust sources based on the
direct precipitation and surface runoff could be estimated using the
The Total Monthly Precipitation Rate (TMPR) for all months is used
for illustrating the monthly and yearly precipitation in the study area.
The Total Monthly Precipitation Rate (TMPR) values of the study area
were obtained from the GLDAS model (GLDAS_NOAH10_M v2 product
available from http://giovanni.sci.gsfc.nasa.gov/giovanni) for
1980–2010. Fig. 5 displays the yearly precipitation over the above-
described region. For illustrating the long time variation of the pre-
cipitation in the study region, the linear trend line together with the 5
and 10 year moving average lines was displayed. The linear trend line
shows the reduction of yearly precipitation during 1980–2010 in R1
and R2 regions.
According to the Fig. 5 the maximum and minimum yearly pre-
cipitation during 1980–2010 is 378 mm/year in 1988, and 171 mm/
year in 2008, respectively. Also, the maximum and minimum of the 5-
year moving average of the yearly precipitation during 1980–2010 are
311 and 250 mm/year, respectively. The diagram shows the 5-year
moving average of the yearly precipitation is 262 mm/year in 2001 but
it reaches 300 mm/year in 2006. In addition, the average yearly pre-
cipitation is less than the 30-year average value (i.e. 285 mm/year)
during 1983–1985, 1989–1990, 1995, 1997–2000, 2005, and
2007–2010. Hence, during the mentioned years, high dust activity is
expected in the study area due to the low yearly precipitation. On the
other hand, the 10-year moving average of the yearly precipitation
during the 1998–2010 is nearly 280 mm/year and has not a meaningful
difference with 1989–1998 period. The above-described comparison
demonstrates that, however, there is a reduction in precipitation rate in
some periods, but the average precipitation doesn’t have a sharp re-
duction during the 2000–2010. In other words, the average of the
available water in the catchment that could provide water resources for
the Lower Mesopotamian area dust sources doesn’t have a meaningful
reduction during the period of high dust activity.

Yearly Dust Activity (March to September) Over R2 Region

0.85
10 Year Moving Average
Average Dust Load (g/m^2)

0.80 5 Year Moving Average

Yearly Average
0.75 Linear (Yearly Average)

0.70

0.65

0.60

0.55

0.50
1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
Year

Fig. 4. The yearly dust activity in R2 region (45° E to 49° E and 29° N to 31° N) in the Middle East.

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Yearly Precipitation in the region which is located between 39o E to 46o E and 31o N to 40o N
550

Yearly Precipitation (mm/year)

10 Year Moving Average
500 5 Year Moving Average
Average Yearly Precipitation
450
Linear ( Average Yearly Precipitation)
400
350
300
250
200
150
1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
Year

Fig. 5. Yearly Precipitation in the region, which is located between 39° E to 46° E and 31° N to 40° N.

3.2. Surface wind speed
The dust emission can occur when the surface wind speed exceeds
the threshold shear velocity. Hence, the surface wind speed is an im-
portant factor in dust emission and the variation of this parameter could
have a direct effect on the rate of the dust emission. For a detailed
analysis of the surface wind speed in the Lower Mesopotamia dust
sources during the past three decades, monthly surface wind speed
(SWS) on the R1 (43° – 47° E and 31°–34° N) and R2 (45°–49° E and
29°–31° N) regions were used. The monthly values of surface wind
speed were obtained from MERRA-2 model (M2TMNXFLX v5.12.4
product available from http://giovanni.sci.gsfc.nasa.gov/giovanni)
during 1980–2010. The yearly average surface wind speed in each re-
gion was calculated by averaging the monthly SWS.
Figs. 6 and 7 display the yearly average of surface wind speed in R1
and R2 regions, respectively. The average SWS in R1 region is
5.96 m s−1 and the maximum and minimum value of yearly-averaged
SWS in this region is equal to 6.16 and 5.77 m s−1 which were occurred
in 2006 and 1982, respectively. The average SWS in R2 region is
6.21 m s−1 and the maximum and minimum value of yearly-averaged
SWS in this region is equal to 6.52 and 5.85 m s−1 which were occurred
in 1991 and 1986, respectively. For illustrating the long time variation
of the surface wind speed in the study region, the linear trend line to-
gether with the 5 and 10 year moving average lines was displayed in
Figs. 6 and 7. The linear trend line shows the increase of the surface
wind speed during 1980–2010 in R1 and R2 regions. The 5-year moving
average of SWS in R1 is higher than the 30-year average value (i.e.
5.96 m s−1) during 1990–1995 and 2001–2010. Also, The 5-year
moving average of SWS in R2 is higher than the 30-year average value
(i.e. 6.21 m s−1) during 1991–1996 and 2003–2010.
According to Figs. 6 and 7, the yearly average surface wind speeds
in R1 is higher than the 30-year average (i.e. 5.96 m s−1) during
1983–1984, 1987–1988, 1990–1992, 1994, 1999–2001, 2003,
2005–2006, and 2008. Also, the yearly average surface wind speeds in
R2 is higher than the 30-year average (i.e. 6.21 m s−1) during 1980,
1983–1984, 1989–1992, 1994–1995, 1999, 2001, 2003, and
2005–2009. Thus, during the mentioned years, the yearly average
surface wind speeds are higher than the 30-year average value and
consequently, higher dust activities are expected to compare to the
other years of the past three decades.
3.3. Surface temperature
The surface temperature has an important role in dust activities. The
high surface temperature could increase the dust activity via two pro-
cesses. The high surface temperature would increase the evaporation
rate and result in the reduction of the surface soil moisture and con-
sequently decrease the threshold velocity and increase the dust emis-
sion. Also, the high surface temperature could result in vertical trans-
port of the emitted dust plumes and increase the vertical mixing of the
dust particles and the dust particle residence time in the atmosphere
and led to higher dust load in the study area.
Monthly 2-m air temperature in R1 (43° – 47° E and 31°–34° N) and
R2 (45°–49° E and 29°–31° N) regions were used for investigating the
effect of surface temperature on Lower Mesopotamia dust activity
during the past three decades. The monthly values of 2-m air tem-
perature (2MAT) were obtained from MERRA-2 model (M2TMNXSLV
v5.12.4 product available from http://giovanni.sci.gsfc.nasa.gov/gio-
vanni) for 1980–2010. The yearly average surface temperature in each
region was calculated by averaging the monthly 2MAT of the whole
year.
Figs. 8 and 9 display the yearly average 2-m air temperature in R1
and R2 regions, respectively. The average 2MAT in the R1 region is
22.45 C and the maximum and minimum value of yearly-averaged

Yearly average of surface wind speed over R1 region

6.40 10 Year Moving Average
5 Year Moving Average
surface wind speed (m/sec)

6.30 Yearly average of surface wind speed

Linear ( Yearly average of surface wind speed)
6.20

6.10

6.00

5.90

5.80

5.70
1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
Year

Fig. 6. The yearly average of surface wind speed in the R1 region (43° E to 47° E and 31° N to 34° N).

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M. Hamidi Catena xxx (xxxx) xxxx

Yearly average of surface wind speed over R2 region

6.90 10 Year Moving Average
6.80 5 Year Moving Average
Surface wind speed (m/sec) 6.70 Yearly average of surface wind speed
6.60 Linear ( Yearly average of surface wind speed)
6.50
6.40
6.30
6.20
6.10
6.00
5.90
5.80
1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
Year

Fig. 7. The yearly average of surface wind speed in the R2 region (45° E to 49° E and 29° N to 31° N).

2MAT in this region are equal to 24.9 and 19.85 C, respectively. The
average, maximum, and minimum 2MAT in R2 are 24.24 C, 26.4 C, and
21.85 C, respectively. The linear trend line together with the 5 and
10 year moving average lines of yearly 2MAT was displayed in Figs. 8
and 9. The linear trend line shows the increase of the yearly 2MAT
during 1980–2010 in R1 and R2 regions. The 5-year moving average of
2MAT in R1 is higher than the 30-year average value (i.e. 22.45 C)
during 1987–1989, 1999–2007, and 2010. Also, The 5-year moving
average of 2MAT in R2 is higher than the 30-year average value (i.e.
24.24 C) during 1988, 1998–2007, and 2010. In addition, the average
yearly 2MAT in R1 is higher than its 30-year average value (i.e. 22.45
C) during 1980–1981, 1984–1988, 1994, 1996, 1998–2006, and 2010.
Also, the average yearly 2MAT in R2 is higher than its 30-year average
value (i.e. 24.24 C) during 1980–1981, 1984–1988, 1994, 1996,
1998–2004, 2006, and 2010. Hence, during the mentioned years, high
dust activity is expected in the study area due to the high surface
temperature.
Figs. 10 and 11 display the linear trend line together with the 5 and
10 year moving average lines of the Maximum yearly 2-m air tem-
perature in R1 and R2 regions, respectively. The linear trend line shows
the increase of the yearly 2MAT during 1980–2010 in R1 and R2 re-
gions. The mean value of the maximum annual 2MAT in R1 region is
36.55 C and the maximum and minimum value of yearly 2MAT in this
region are equal to 38.2 and 34.4 C, respectively. The above-described
values in the R2 region are equal to 37.35 C, 39.3 and 35.6 C, respec-
tively. The 5-year moving average of the maximum annual 2MAT in R1
is higher than the 30-year average value of maximum annual 2MAT (i.e.
36.55 C) during 1987–1990 and 1999–2010. Also, The 5-year moving
average of 2MAT in R2 is higher than the 30-year average value of
maximum annual 2MAT (i.e. 37.35 C) during 1989–1990 and
1999–2010. In addition, the maximum monthly 2MAT in R1 is higher
than its 30-year average value (i.e. 36.55 C) during 1980, 1985–1990,
1996, 1998–2006, 2008, and 2010. Also, the maximum monthly 2MAT
in R2 is higher than its 30-year average value (i.e. 37.35 C) during
1980, 1986–1990, 1996, 1998–2008, and 2010. Thus, during the
mentioned years, the maximum monthly surface temperature is higher
than the 30-year average value and consequently, higher dust activities
are expected to compare to the other years of the past three decades.
3.4. Vegetation
The threshold shear velocity for dust emission strongly depends on
the vegetation in the dust sources. Vegetation is defined as an assem-
blage of plant species and the ground cover they provide. High vege-
tation can increase the roughness length and decrease the influence of
wind momentum on the soil, and consequently, it can reduce wind
erosion and dust emission. Also, the plants’ roots could increase the
cohesion strength of soil particles and result in the increase of threshold
velocity and reduce wind erosion, and dust emission.
Vegetation Health Index (VHI) of three provinces in Iraq was used
for investigating the effect of vegetation on Lower Mesopotamia dust
activity during 1980–2010. VHI is a deputy characterizing vegetation
health or a combined estimation of moisture impacts on vegetation and
thermal conditions (Kogan, 1997, 2001). Hence, VHI could be good
data for estimating the vegetation and moisture impacts on vegetation
in the study area and evaluation of their role in the dust activity during
the study period. Fig. 12 shows the variation of the average value of
yearly VHI for the Al-Muthanna, Sala ad-din, and Neinava provinces.
The mean VHI for the mentioned provinces during 1980–2010 is nearly
43 and the maximum and minimum value of yearly-averaged VHI is
equal to 75 and 26, respectively. For illustrating the long time variation
of the VHI, the linear trend line together with the 5 and 10 year moving
average lines was displayed in Fig. 12. The linear trend line shows the
reduction of VHI during 1980–2010. Also, The 5-year moving average
of VHI in Iraq is lower than the 30-year average value (i.e. 43) during
1986, 1988–1991 and 2002–2010. In addition, the average yearly VHI

Yearly 2-m Air Temperature in R1 Region

26.00 10 Year Moving Average
5 Year Moving Average
25.00
2-m Air Temperature (C)

Yearly 2-m Air Temperature

24.00 Linear (Yearly 2-m Air Temperature)

23.00

22.00

21.00

20.00

19.00
1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
Year

Fig. 8. The yearly average of 2-m air temperature in the R1 region (43° E to 47° E and 31° N to 34° N).

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M. Hamidi Catena xxx (xxxx) xxxx

Yearly 2-m Air Temperature in R2 Region

28.00
10 Year Moving Average
27.00 5 Year Moving Average
2-m Air Temperature (C) Yearly 2-m Air Temperature
26.00 Linear (Yearly 2-m Air Temperature)

25.00

24.00

23.00

22.00

21.00
1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
Year

Fig. 9. The yearly average of 2-m air temperature in the R2 region (45° E to 49° E and 29° N to 31° N).

of the mentioned provinces is less than the 30-year average value
during 1985–1986, 1988–1990, 1996, 1998, 2000–2002 and
2005–2010. Hence, during the mentioned years, high dust activity is
expected in the study area due to the low VHI.
3.5. Water resources management
Availability of water resources plays a key role in suppressing the
dust event by providing enough water for increasing the vegetation
cover and soil water content and finally, the threshold velocity. The
Tigris and Euphrates rivers are the main water resources for the Iraq
agricultural area and marshlands. Hence, water scarcity in these rivers
could result in water shortages in the areas which were devoted to
agriculture and marshlands and consequently, could alter their soils to
potential dust sources. Thus, it is necessary to study the availability and
scarcity of water in the Tigris and Euphrates rivers alluvial plain in Iraq
and clarify the role of water resources management in controlling the
dust events.
The contribution of each riparian countries for providing the water
supply of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers is a vital issue in water re-
sources management in Iraq. Seventy-eight percent of the Tigris and
Euphrates rivers water resources is provided by Turkey, while Iran, Iraq
and Syria contribution are thirteen, eight and less than one percent,
respectively (Biedler, 2004). According to the World Bank report, the
whole water resources of the Euphrates river in Iraq is provided by Iraq
adjacent countries, while, sixty-seven percent of the Tigris river water
resources in Iraq are provided by outside countries (World Bank, 2006).
It can be concluded, the main water resources of Iraq exist outside of its
border and water availability or scarcity in Iraq strongly depends on the
upstream countries’ water resources management.
Water use in the Mesopotamian area focuses on irrigation, hydro-
power, domestic, and industrial, where the agriculture consuming the
largest share of water in this area. Several ancient civilizations in the
Mesopotamia were supported by the irrigation from the Tigris and
Euphrates Rivers since 5000 BCE and nowadays more than 50 million
people live in these rivers basins in Iran, Iraq, Syria, and Turkey. The
share of agriculture in water consumption of the Euphrates river is
estimated to be more than seventy percent (UN-ESCWA, 2013). Almost
90% of the irrigation water in the Mesopotamian area is provided by
the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. The overall cultivated area in Iraq
mounts to 5.5 million ha of which 2.3 million ha are irrigated land (Al
Ansari, 2013). The irrigation potential in Iraq is 63% and 35%, for the
Tigris and Euphrates rivers, respectively (Al Ansari et al., 2015). The
described estimates demonstrate the role of the Tigris and Euphrates
Rivers water supplies on the Mesopotamian area agriculture and ve-
getation cover.
In addition to the role of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers on the
vegetation cover and soil moisture in the cultivable area, these rivers
have a distinct role in the marshlands life in Iraq. The marshes spread
on the fluvial sediments carried by the Tigris and Euphrates rivers to
southeastern Iraq. The Iraqi marshlands cover an area almost 1.5–2
million ha of the lower Mesopotamia area. The Marshlands played a
vital environmental role in southeastern Iraq and southwestern Iran and
a key economic role for the people of Iraq by providing freshwater and
livelihoods for nearly half a million Iraqis. More than 90 percent of the
original Marshlands in Iraq was drained or damaged during 1970–2003
and the fluvial sediments which were transported to the Marshlands
could be considered as a potential dust source (UN-ESCWA, 2013).
The discharge of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers have a meaningful
reduction in recent years. The data records demonstrated that the mean
annual flow of the Euphrates river at the Syrian-Iraqi border was nearly
30 BCM during 1932–1970, but it reduced to around 19 BCM during
1971–2003 (World Bank, 2006). Construction of large water en-
gineering structures in upstream countries, including Turkey and Syria
is the main reason for the reduction of the mean flow of the Euphrates
river (UN-ESCWA, 2013). According to recent reports, the average

MaximumYearly 2-m Air Temperature in R1 Region

39.00
10 Year Moving Average
38.50 5 Year Moving Average
38.00
2-m Air Temperature (C)

Maximum Yearly 2-m Air Temperature

37.50 Linear (Maximum Yearly 2-m Air Temperature)
37.00
36.50
36.00
35.50
35.00
34.50
34.00
1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
Year

Fig. 10. The yearly maximum monthly 2-m air temperature in the R1 region (43° E to 47° E and 31° N to 34° N).

7
M. Hamidi Catena xxx (xxxx) xxxx

MaximumYearly 2-m Air Temperature in R2 Region

40.00
10 Year Moving Average
39.50
5 Year Moving Average
2-m Air Temperature (C) 39.00 Maximum Yearly 2-m Air Temperature
38.50 Linear (Maximum Yearly 2-m Air Temperature)
38.00
37.50
37.00
36.50
36.00
35.50
35.00
1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
Year

Fig. 11. The yearly maximum monthly 2-m air temperature in the R2 region (45° E to 49° E and 29° N to 31° N).

monthly discharge of the Euphrates river at Hit and Haditha stations
during 1948–1972 was 967 cms (i.e. 30.5 BCM annual flow) but it re-
duces to 553 cms (i.e. 17.5 BCM annual flow) during 1985–2007 (Al
Ansari et al., 2015). The Tigris has a higher discharge than the Eu-
phrates river, however, the Tigris flow discharge has been affected by
large water development projects in Iraq and Turkey. Fig. 13 shows the
variation of the Tigris river discharge at the Sarai Baghdad station
during 1980–2010 and the reduction of this river discharge during the
recent years. According to Fig. 13, the 10-year moving average of the
Tigris river at the Sarai Baghdad station dropped from 774 (i.e. 24.4
BCM annual flow) cms in 1989 to 539 cms (i.e. 17 BCM annual flow) in
2010. Recent calculations demonstrated that the average monthly dis-
charge of the Tigris river at the Sarai Baghdad station during
1960–1999 was 929 cms (i.e. 29.3 BCM annual flow) but it reduced to
520 cms (i.e. 16.4 BCM annual flow) during 2000–2012 (Al Ansari
et al., 2015).
As discussed before, the dam construction project could be the main
reason for the reduction of the flow in the Tigris and Euphrates rivers.
During the 1970s, Turkey and Syria started to build several dams on the
Euphrates and Tigris Rivers. In 1977, the Turkish government started a
huge project known as the Southeastern Anatolia Project, commonly
called GAP. The GAP consists of twenty-two dams and nineteen hy-
draulic power plants and planned to irrigate more than 17 million ha of
land (Unver, 1997). The main object of the project is to develop the
southeastern Turkey provinces which cover nearly ten percent of the
Turkey area and consist of 20% of the Turkish agricultural land. With
the completion of the Ataturk dam, Turkey has enough storage capacity
to control the headwaters of the Euphrates and to potentially divert
huge volumes of water for irrigation (Goor et al., 2007). The overall
volume of water to be captured is about100 BCM (while the required
water to irrigate the supposed area is about 29 BCM) which is three
times more than the overall capacity of Iraq and Syrian reservoirs.
Using the GAP project, eighty percent of the Euphrates river water will
be controlled by Turkey. By operation of Ilisu dam (completed in 2018)
on the Tigris river, Iraq could receive only 9.7 BCM which result in
forty-seven reduction of the river flow and abandon of nearly 0.7 mil-
lion ha of agricultural land due to the water scarcity (Al-Ansari et al.,
2015). On the other hand, Syria built three large dams on the Euphrates
river with a total reservoir volume of 16.9 BCM for irrigation and en-
ergy purposes, which is not as important as Turkey projects in water
scarcity in the area.
There are some treaties between the riparian countries for assigning
a water-sharing strategy and suitable management of water resources of
the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. The latest treaty in 1989 demonstrated
that Turkey has assured Syria 15.75 BCM (i.e. 500 cms at the border) of
Euphrates water annually and Syria has engaged to pass 9.1 BCM (i.e.
288 cms at the border) of the Euphrates water to Iraq (World Bank,
2006). Al-Ansari and Knutsson (2011) indicate that Iraq is receiving a
little amount of water (i.e. 0.03 BCM/year) of the Euphrates river re-
sources. Hence, the lack of cooperation between the three riparian
countries has prevented the development of an integrated water man-
agement plan for the entire basin and creates a particular risk for Iraq as
the downstream riparian of a diminishing flow.
It can be concluded, according to recent water resource manage-
ment research, the calculated supply and demand in 2015 in Iraq was
43 and 66.85 BCM, respectively. Based on the mentioned calculations,
the Iraq agricultural sector needs about 40.5 BCM and the necessary
volume of water for Iraq Marshlands maintenance is 11 BCM. Also, 6.95
BCM is devoted to civil uses, power generation, and industry, and 8.4
BCM of the total 66.8 is the water losses (i.e. evaporation). On the other
hand, the predicted supply and demand in 2025 is 17.61 and 77 BCM,
respectively (Al-Ansari et al., 2015). Based on the described

The Yearly Average of Vegetation Health Index for Iraq

90 10 Year Moving Average
5 Year Moving Average
80
Yearly VHI for 3 Provinces
Vegetation Health Index

Linear ( Yearly VHI for 3 Provinces)

70

60

50

40

30

20
1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
Year

Fig. 12. The yearly average vegetation health index for Al-Muthanna, Sala ad-din and Neinava provinces in Iraq ().
adapted from Zoljoodi et al., 2013

8
M. Hamidi Catena xxx (xxxx) xxxx

Average Yearly Discharge of the Tigris River at the Sarai Baghdad Station
2000

Average Yearly Discharge (CMS)

10 Year Moving Average
1800 5 Year Moving Average
Average Yearly Discharge (CMS)
1600 Linear (Average Yearly Discharge (CMS))
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
Year

Fig. 13. The average yearly discharge of the Tigris river at the Sarai Baghdad station in Iraq ().
adapted from Al-Ansari et al., 2015

calculations, large areas of Iraq are facing serious problems of water normalization of the 10-year moving average of the parameters was
scarcity for irrigation of agricultural lands and Marshland maintenance performed. This normalization demonstrates the long-term variation of
and this will result in desertification and the conversion of the areas Each Parameter (EP) during 1989–2010. The normalized value of each
which were devoted to agriculture and Marshlands into the areas which parameter in the ith year (NVEPi) is calculated by
are prone to dust emission.
EPi
NVEPi = ⎛⎜ − 1⎞ × 100
⎟

⎝ EP1989 ⎠
4. Results and discussion
where EPi is the 10-year moving average of each parameter in the ith
The Dust Column Mass Density (DCMD), Total Monthly
year, and EP1989 is its value in 1989. Fig. 14 shows the variation of the
Precipitation Rate (TMPR), Monthly Surface Wind Speed (SWS), 2-m normalized value of each parameter during 1989–2010. The linear
Air Temperature (2MAT), Vegetation Health Index (VHI) of three pro-
trend lines of the normalized value of each parameter were drawn and
vinces in Iraq, and the Tigris River Inflow (TRI) at the Sarai Baghdad the slope of the variation of the dust load, precipitation, wind speed,
station were used to evaluate the dust activity, annual precipitation,
temperature, vegetation, and the inflow was equal to 0.82, −0.37,
surface wind speed, surface temperature, vegetation cover, and water 0.08, 0.19, −0.38 and −1.73, respectively. The mentioned slopes show
resources for the agricultural area and Marshlands in Iraq, respectively.
that the dust load and the river inflow had the highest slope and
For illustrating the long time variation of the mentioned parameters in sharpest variations during the study period.
the study region, the 5 and 10 year moving average of the data was
Fig. 14 shows that the normalized value of the dust load increases
calculated. Table 1 shows the 10-year moving average of the data from 0.7 in 2001 to 18.4 in 2010 which is its maximum value during the
during 1989–2010.
study period. It means the normalized value of the dust activity in-
In order to make a harmonious comparison between the parameters creases with a steep slope which is nearly 1.73 per year during the last
which are effective on dust events occurring in the Middle East, the decade, but the slope of its variation during 1989–1999 is nearly 0.1 per
year. Thus, it is necessary to pay more attention to the normalized value
Table 1
of the affecting parameters during 1989–1999 and 2000–2010.
The 10-year moving average of Dust Load (DCMD), Total Precipitation (TMPR),
Amongst the affecting parameters, the normalized values of surface
Surface Wind Speed (SWS), Surface Air Temperature (2MAT), Vegetation
Health Index (VHI) and the Tigris River Inflow (TRI).
temperature and surface wind speed have not a distinct change during
the study period. The normalized values of surface temperature are
Year DCMD (gr/ TMPR 2MAT (C) VHI (%) TRI (cms) SWS (m/ −2.03 and 1.48 in 1998 and 2010, respectively. The normalized values
m2) (mm) sec)
of surface wind speed are 1.25 and 2.24 in 1998 and 2010, respectively.
1989 0.51 299.06 23.27 42.40 774.04 6.01 The mentioned values demonstrated that, although there is an increase
1990 0.51 292.06 23.22 40.43 783.13 6.03 in the normalized values of surface temperature and surface wind speed
1991 0.51 291.63 23.06 40.99 782.22 6.06 during 2000–2010, the slope of variations is very mild and is not
1992 0.50 289.78 22.87 43.00 776.59 6.09
comparable with the slope of the normalized value of dust load in this
1993 0.50 293.34 22.96 45.78 795.32 6.07
1994 0.50 300.59 22.97 45.46 825.34 6.07 period.
1995 0.50 296.72 22.85 47.24 868.27 6.09 Fig. 14 shows that the normalized values of precipitation rate are
1996 0.50 301.88 22.89 48.35 907.38 6.11 −6.25 and −8.06 in 1998 and 2009, respectively. On the other hand,
1997 0.50 293.25 22.78 48.90 933.94 6.10
the normalized values of water resources and vegetation cover are 13.7
1998 0.49 280.38 22.80 50.04 880.28 6.08
1999 0.49 281.91 23.08 51.00 860.99 6.09
and 18.02 in 1998, and −30.4 and −9.3 in 2010, respectively. Thus,
2000 0.51 284.40 23.20 51.87 829.34 6.08 the variation rate of the normalized value of precipitation is −0.62 and
2001 0.51 283.87 23.33 50.40 805.87 6.08 −0.15 per year during 1989–1999 and 2000–2009, respectively, and
2002 0.52 284.50 23.58 47.65 779.13 6.07 the slope of the water resources normalized value changes is 1.1 per
2003 0.53 284.93 23.72 44.90 727.10 6.10
year and −3.4 per year during 1989–1999 and 2000–2010, respec-
2004 0.53 282.78 23.78 43.98 696.18 6.08
2005 0.54 285.41 23.87 43.47 645.61 6.09 tively. It means the normalized value of Iraq water resources decreases
2006 0.54 280.76 23.84 43.04 624.32 6.12 sharply during 1999–2010 in comparison with the 1989–1999 period,
2007 0.56 278.66 23.86 40.20 601.77 6.13 but the slope of the variation of the normalized value of precipitation
2008 0.58 271.45 23.69 39.76 568.66 6.16
during 1989–1999 and 2000–2010 is low. Hence, the sharp decrease of
2009 0.60 274.97 23.45 39.06 545.56 6.15
2010 0.60 N.A. 23.62 38.48 539.01 6.14
the water resources in Iraq during the past decade have not a close
relation to precipitation, and the excessive water withdraws could be

9
M. Hamidi
Normalized Value of Dust Load, Precipitation, Vegetation, Temperature, Surface Wind
30
24
18
Normalized Value (percent)
12
6
0
1989
-6
-12
-18
-24
-30
Fig. 14. The Normalized value of Dust Load, Precipitation, Surface Wind Speed, Surface Air Temperature, Vegetation Health Index, and the Tigris River Inflow during
1989–2010 in Lower Mesopotamia.
the main reason for water scarcity in Iraq. On the other hand, the
variation of the normalized value of vegetation is closely related to the
normalized value of the water resources. According to the Fig. 14 the
vegetation trend closely obeys the water resources with a quite delay,
and the sharp decrease of the water resources normalized values (i.e.
−4.2 per year during 2000–2010) result in the sharp reduction of ve-
getation cover normalized values (i.e. −3 per year during 2000–2010).
The correlation analysis of the described data was performed for the
investigation of the effectiveness of each parameter on dust activity of
the study area. The normalized value of the 10-year moving average
data was used for the analysis. Fig. 15 shows the linear correlation
diagrams between the dust activity and surface wind speed during
1980–2010.
Fig. 16 shows the linear correlation diagrams between the dust
activity and the parameters which could affect dust emission via their
influence on the threshold shear velocity (i.e. temperature, vegetation,
precipitation, and inflow) during 1980–2010. Figs. 15 and 16-a de-
monstrate that dust activity decreases with the reduction of surface
wind speed and temperature, respectively. Also, the positive sign of the
correlation coefficient in the mentioned diagrams demonstrate the po-
sitive relationship of dust activity with the temperature and surface
wind speed. On the other hand, Fig. 16-b, -c, and -d demonstrate that
dust activity increases with the reduction of the vegetation, precipita-
tion, and inflow. Also, the negative sign of the correlation coefficient in
these diagrams demonstrate the negative relationship of the dust ac-
tivity with the vegetation, precipitation, and inflow.
Table 2 summarizes the coefficient of correlation and determination
between the dust activity and the described effective parameters for
evaluating the correlation of dust activity to each parameter. Also,
additional correlation analysis based on 5-year moving average data is
20
15
10
Dust
5
0
0 1
-5
-10
Fig. 15. Linear correlation diagram between the dust activity and surface wind speed.
Catena xxx (xxxx) xxxx
Speed, and Inflow Based on 10-Year Moving Average Data
Dust Load
Precepitation
Temperature
Vegetation
Inflow
Wind Speed
1993 1997 2001 2005 2009
Year
performed and the results are added to the Table 2.
Table 2 demonstrates that the correlation coefficient of 10-year
moving average data between the dust activity and the inflow has the
highest magnitude (i.e. −0.91) among the correlation coefficients.
Also, the coefficient of determination between the 10-yr M.A. data of
dust activity and the inflow is 0.84 but the other coefficients are be-
tween 0.4 and 0.5. On the other hand, the coefficient of correlation and
determination between the dust activity and the inflow based on the 5-
yr M.A. data are −0.68 and 0.47, respectively, which are the highest
magnitude amongst the coefficients of correlation and determination of
the 5-yr M.A. data. Hence, the mentioned comparisons demonstrate
that the dust activity has the highest correlation and relationship to the
river water resources than the other parameters and indicate the key
role of water resources management on the dust activity in the study
area. Also, the correlation analysis of 10-yr M.A. data demonstrates that
the correlation coefficient between the vegetation and inflow is 0.76
which is higher than the correlation coefficient of the vegetation to
other parameters. Thus, the vegetation of the study area strongly de-
pends on the river inflow to compare to the other parameters.
5. Conclusion
This paper investigates the parameters which are effective on the
dust activity in the Middle East during 1980–2010 and tries to evaluate
the effectiveness of each parameter on the forming of the dust events.
This study evaluates the role of surface temperature, precipitation,
water resources, surface wind speed, and vegetation on the increase of
dust activity in the last decade of the study period. The evaluation was
performed using the correlation analysis of the normalized value of the
5 and 10 year moving average of the mentioned parameters, and other
Dust and Surface Wind Speed
y = 6.7324x - 6.5144
R² = 0.4806
Cor.= 0.69
1 2 2 3 3
Surface Wind Speed Dust vs. SWS
Linear (Dust vs. SWS)
10
M. Hamidi Catena xxx (xxxx) xxxx

a) Dust and Temperature b) Dust and Vegetation

20 20

15 15
y = 2.3683x + 2.2555 y = -0.3941x + 4.9575
R² = 0.4794 R² = 0.4204

Dust
Dust

10 Cor.= 0.69 10 Cor.= -0.65

5 5

0 0
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 -10 0 10 20 30
-5 -5
Temperature Vegetation
Dust vs.Temp.
Dust vs.Vegt.
-10 Linear (Dust vs.Temp.) -10 Linear (Dust vs.Vegt.)

c) Dust and Precipitation d) Dust and Inflow

20 20

15 15
y = -1.4359x - 3.2585
R² = 0.4913 y = -0.3639x + 1.8661
Dust
Dust

Cor.= -0.70 10 10 R² = 0.8357

Cor.= -0.91

5 5

0 0
-10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30

-5 Inflow -5
Precipitation

Dust vs. Prec. Dust vs. Inf.

Linear (Dust vs. Prec.)
-10 Linear (Dust vs. Inf.)
-10

Fig. 16. Linear correlation diagram between the dust activity and the parameters which can affect the threshold shear velocity and dust emission, including a: dust
and temperature, b: dust and precipitation, c: dust and vegetation, and d: dust and inflow.

complementary analysis. The correlation analysis demonstrated that
the water resources of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers have the highest
correlation and relationship to the dust activity in the study area. The
result illustrates, although there are many parameters which could af-
fect the dust events occurring in the Middle East, the scarcity of water
resources of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers play a key role in in-
tensifying the dust activity during the last decade. The paper results
show the sharp reduction of the water resources in the study area led to
a decrease in vegetation cover and result in high dust activity during
the last decade. Also, the study demonstrates that the tremendous
scarcity of water resources has occurred when there was not a sharp
reduction in the average precipitation. It means the excessive water
withdrawal, which caused by the dam construction projects during the
last decade resulted in the sharp reduction of the Tigris and Euphrates
rivers water resources and could be introduced as the main reason of
water scarcity and high dust activity in Iraq. Hence, it is necessary to
find a suitable way for establishing a cooperation between the riparian
countries of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers to release adequate water
for improving the vegetation cover and Marshlands life in Lower
Mesopotamia.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influ-
ence the work reported in this paper.

Table 2
Coefficient of correlation and determination between the dust activity and Precipitation, Surface Wind Speed, Surface Air Temperature, Vegetation Health Index and
the Tigris River Inflow.
Correlation Correlation Coefficient Based on Coefficient of Determination Based on Correlation Coefficient Based on Coefficient of Determination Based on
10-yr M.A. Data 10-yr M.A. Data 5-yr M.A. Data 5-yr M.A. Data

Dust vs. Precipitation −0.70 0.49 −0.46 0.21

Dust vs. Temperature 0.69 0.48 0.37 0.14
Dust vs. VHI −0.65 0.42 −0.54 0.29
Dust vs. Inflow −0.91 0.84 −0.68 0.47
Dust vs. Wind Speed 0.69 0.48 0.50 0.25

11
M. Hamidi
Acknowledgement
Data from the National Aeronautics and Space Administration
(NASA) have been used in this study. The data were obtained from the
Giovanni online data system. Also, the author appreciates Samira
Firouz Jang for her valuable help.
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