Topic 1: Diversity, Inner Leadership &
Management Skills
Leading today's diverse workforce requires new
Management Skills.  Modern workplaces generally
present unique leadership challenges due to racial,
age and educational background differences. As a
result, senior executives have to find ways of
effectively leading their employees. Fortunately,
with the right leadership skills, senior executives
would be able to address diversity challenges and
improve performance at the workplace.
(Lquintero, 2020)
What is Diversity?  fundamental perspectives of the world and the
It refers to the existence of variations of different
characteristics in a group of people. These
characteristics could be everything that makes us
unique, such as our cognitive skills and personality
traits, along with the things that shape our identity
(e.g. race, age, gender, religion, sexual orientation,
cultural background) ("What is Diversity", n.d.)
The concept of diversity includes acceptance and
respect. It means understanding that each
individual is unique, and recognizing our individual
differences. These can be along the dimensions of
race, ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation,
socioeconomic status, age, physical abilities,
religious beliefs, political beliefs, or other
ideologies. It is the exploration of these differences
in a safe, positive, and fostering environment. It is
about understanding each other and moving
beyond simple tolerance to embracing and
celebrating the rich dimensions of diversity
contained within each individual. (Lee, n.d.)
What is diversity in the workplace?
Workplace diversity refers to the variety of
differences between people in an organization. The
different characteristics that employees (could)
have. First, we have the protected characteristics,
such as race, age, gender and sexual orientation.
And secondly, we have all the different: ("What is
Diversity", n.d.)
o Experiences
o Talents
o Skills
o Opinions
o Personalities
GLOBALIZATION  is the factor that advances
diversity in the workplace to an intense level.
Simple demographic attributes, such as age,
gender, mental and physical abilities and heritage,
were not only the factors that differentiated every
individual in the workplace but also cultural
diversity has lately become another significant
variable in the workplace.  Diversity can be
catagorized into three dimensions: primary,
secondary and tertiary dimensions. 
Primary dimensions, such as gender, culture, social
class, ethnicity, sexual orientation, race, age, and
mental or physical abilities, determine
way people perceive themselves. They have the
most significant influence on individual and group
in the society and workplace. Primary dimensions
are also known as internal dimensions. These
include aspects of diversity over which, typically,
we have no control.
 
Secondary dimensions are less visible and sensible
than the primary, such as educational background,
religion, first language, family, status, work
experience, income, communication style, and
geographic location. 
They shape the the self-esteem and self-definition
of an individual. Secondary dimensions are also
known as external dimensions. This can be
acquired or changed in life,  These include facets of
our lives which we have some control over and
may transition over time. These aspects are those
which may impact the careers we choose and our
workplace behaviors. 
Tertiary dimensions are mostly the centre of
individual identities, such as beliefs, assumptions,
perceptions, attitudes, values, feelings and group
norms.
 
Currently, due to the rapid globalisation, workplace
diversity is almost inevitable for any businesses.
Diversity causes the workplace to be no longer
homogeneous, but instead, heterogeneous. In
particular, the workplace comprises people who
have a different mix of variables under the three
dimensions, which guide them to be different in
thinking and analysing. In subsequent, these
people incorporate negative and positive
influences on an organization, which they can be
the key engine to propel the organization to either
success, such as increase productivity and
creativity and broader service range, or failures,
such as discrimination, communication problems,
relationship conflicts, and poor work structure .
What is Diversity Management?  predicting of the future as well as attempting to
Diversity management is a process intended to
create and maintain a positive work environment
where the similarities and differences of individuals
are valued. The literature on diversity management
has mostly emphasized on organization culture; its
impact on diversity openness; human resource
management practices; institutional environments
and organizational contexts to diversity-related
pressures, expectations, requirements, and
incentives; perceived practices and organizational
outcomes related to managing employee diversity;
and several other issues.  ("Diversity Management:
Paradigms, Rationale, and Key Elements", n.d.)
Diversity Management refers to organizational
actions that aims to promote greater inclusion of
employees from different backgrounds into an
organization’s structure through specific policies
and programs. ("Diversity Management", n.d.)
The concept of Diversity started in North America
in the MID 1990's that spread to the other parts of
the world afterwards.  Organization are adopting
diversity Management strategies as response to
the growing diversity of the workplace and around
the world.  Companies are designing specific
programs and policies to Enhance Employees
Equality of opportunity (INCLUSION), promotion
and retention of employees who are from different
background and cultures.  These programs and
policies are designed to create a welcoming
environment for groups that lacked access to
employment and more profitable jobs in the past.
("Diversity Management", n.d.)
What is Management? 
“Management is a set of principles relating to the
functions of planning, organizing, staffing,
directing, and controlling, and the applications of
these principles in harnessing physical, financial,
human, and informational resources efficiently and
effectively to achieve organizational goals”.
There are 5 functions of management namely:  
1. PLANNING
Planning is future-oriented and determines an
organization’s direction. It is a rational and
systematic way of making decisions today that will
affect the future of the company.  It involves
control the events. It involves the ability to foresee
the effects of current actions in the long run in the
future.
2.  ORGANIZING
It requires a formal structure of authority and the
direction and flow of such authority through which
work subdivisions are defined, arranged and
coordinated so that each part relates to the other
part in a united and coherent manner so as to
attain the prescribed objectives. Thus, the function
of organizing  involves the determination of
activities that need to be done in order to reach
the company goals, assigning these activities to the
proper personnel, and delegating the necessary
authority to carry out these activities in a
coordinated and cohesive manner.
3. STAFFING
Staffing is the function of hiring and retaining a
suitable work-force for the enterprise both at
managerial as well as non-managerial levels. It
involves the process of recruiting, training,
developing, compensating and evaluating
employees and maintaining this workforce with
proper incentives and motivations. Since the
human element is the most vital factor in the
process of management, it is important to recruit
the right personnel.
4. DIRECTING
The directing function is concerned with
leadership, communication, motivation, and
supervision so that the employees perform their
activities in the most efficient manner possible, in
order to achieve the desired goals. The
leadership element involves issuing of instructions
and guiding the subordinates about procedures
and methods.  The communication must be open
both ways so that the information can be passed
on to the subordinates and the feedback received
from them.  Motivation is very important since
highly motivated people show excellent
performance with less direction from superiors.
Supervising subordinates would lead to continuous
progress reports as well as assure the superiors
that the directions are being properly carried out.
5.  CONTROLLING
The function of control consists of those activities
that are undertaken to ensure that the events do
not deviate from the pre-arranged plans. The
activities consist of establishing standards for work
performance, measuring performance and
comparing it to these set standards and taking
corrective actions as and when needed, to correct
any deviations.   a great advantage for the organization.
1. Diversity in the workplace promotes
individuality within an organisation,
acknowledging that every person can contribute
with different, creative and new ideas and
solutions. Employees with different backgrounds
and experiences can bring together a variety of
perspectives on matters and thus increase the
productivity and deliver better results. Diversity
brings in different talents together working
towards a common goal using a diverse set of skills
that increases their retention and productivity.
2. Diversity within a company helps in building a
stronger brand and makes the company more
interesting  and desirable employer. With a
diversified workforce an organization gains
even good reputation and image because it is seen
as having fair employment practices.
3. Workplace diversity increases creativity and
problem solving. Having a variety of different
people from various backgrounds together is
essential for finding and implementing creative
solutions to business problems. With diverse
mindsets coming together many more solutions
will arise as every individual brings in their way of
thinking, operating and solving problems and
decision making.
4. A diversified organisation encourages personal
growth and development. Having expats or
persons with international background  working for
the company can help employees learn new ideas,
perspectives and connect professionally with
different people. That enriches the employees and
gives them another point of view on how the
market and the business work.
5. Interacting with diversified staff improves their
ability to work in a diverse environment, with
different styles, cultures and personalities.
6.  Diversity in a workforce can optimize an
organization’s ability to meet the needs of each
different market. Representatives of specific
country or demographics can be paired with clients
of the similar backgrounds, helping clients feel
more comfortable and in a way to create customer
loyalty to the company. For example, having an
employee who is actually part of a specific culture
or a region where a given business is conducted is
7. A diversified company can attract and retain
talents, young and as well experienced
professionals and thus add a competitive edge to
the organization. Possessing different sets of skills
and having a good command of different and/or
exotic languages and being appreciated for that
increases the feeling of belonging. This enables the
company to compete in the international market
or to increase its diverse customer base and
market share.
What is Leadership? 
It is about serving the people who work for you,
and not the other way around. Leadership is
putting the spotlight on your team, and not on
yourself. Leadership šis not just about clocking the
most time at work, submitting the best report, or
hitting the most amount of sales for the company.
Rather, social intelligence and emotional maturity
to lead are the essential elements in promoting
people to positions of higher power, and to
positions requiring people management. Because
in the end, the real role of leaders is to make more
leaders out of themselves.
Leadership is the art of motivating a group of
people to act toward achieving a common goal. In
a business setting, this can mean directing workers
and colleagues with a strategy to meet the
company's needs. (Ward, 2020) 
Multicultural Leaders
They work to create and maintain a safe,
accepting, and respectful workplace with creative,
innovative, and productive employees –
unencumbered by barriers that impede growth.
The Primary responsibility of the multicultural
leader is to dismantle barriers that impede the
career development of any aspiring leader
regardless of race, gender, and sexuality. To be an
effective multicultural leaders they need to
understand that GLASS CEILING are not fictitious
and that organizations must be proactive in order
to rid themselves of these barriers to leadership
diversity.
Glass Ceiling refers to the invisible barrier within
organizations that prevents members of minority
groups such as women and people of  color from
ascending to top levels of management and
leadership. (Thomas, 2005)
Inner Leadership
Inner leadership is about inspiring people to do
what needs to be done.  šInner Leadership is about
being true to yourself and doing what you need to
do because it is right for you. It does not matter to
the Inner Leader whether they have followers or
not – their own inner vision is what counts for
them. And if the Inner Leader truly honors and
values him or herself, then they will honor and
value others as well. (jdrake, 2014)
Management vs. Leadership
As a manager you are responsible for the actual
running and administration of the business and its
workforce. This role emphasizes ensuring that the
infrastructure for operations running smoothly is in
place, and that everything is exactly where it needs
to be – when it needs to be, and that the work is
documented where necessary. Management
frequently tend to be rational problem solvers,
with a head for numbers and an excitement for
flow charts. In an ideal situation, a successful
manager is very rarely seen, they do not
micromanage yet their influence is widely felt
throughout the company. Ultimately they work
behind the scenes to ensure that the business
operates as smoothly as possible.  However, when
you adopt a more Leadership oriented role, you
are dealing more from the front lines as it were,
and getting into the action up close. Whereas
managers tend to direct, leaders will often inspire
by example. To this end they are very active and
very adaptable, capable of making snap decisions
as and when the situation demands. They are also
very people orientated. Whereas managers are
better with numbers and schedules, leaders are
the driving force behind the workforce and teams.
If managers provide the goals, it is the leaders who
help the company meet them.  (Arnold, 2019) 
Naturally it follows that leadership is used when
you want to keep a company moving forward, and
to keep it mindful of the people who form it.
Whereas managers can sometimes lose sight of the
employees in the pursuit of goals, leaders remain
connected to the task force and will often bring
any issues relating to staff performance or morale
to the management’s attention. They are also
usually responsible for details including staff hiring,
training, rotas and orientation. Leaders set the
tone for the type of company they wish to attract
more talent too. (Arnold, 2019)
The differences between leaders and managers.
They are: 
 
1. A great leader connects daily work with
great goals. A mere manager focuses only on
the short-term.
1. A great leader thinks of people as people. A
mere manager sees only titles or organizational
charts.
1. A great leader wants to earn respect. A
mere manager wants to be liked.
1. A real leader is thrilled when team
members achieve great things. A mere manager
is threatened.
1. A great leader empowers people with
honesty and transparency. A mere manager
parcels out information as if it costs him
personally.
1. A great leader understands that if the team
falls short, he is responsible. A mere manager
blames the team.
1. A great leader cares mainly about results. A
mere manager is more concerned with process.
Everybody defines leadership differently but I
really like the way John C Maxwell defines
leadership, “A leader is one who knows the way,
goes the way, and shows the way.” Irrespective of
how you define a leader, he or she can prove to be
a difference maker between success and failure. A
good leader has a futuristic vision and knows how
to turn his ideas into real-world success stories.
Now, lets take an in-depth look at some of the
important leadership qualities that separate good
leaders from a bad one.
1. Honesty & Integrity   getting your hands dirty, they will also give their
The 34th President of United
States, Dwight.D.Eisenhower once said, “The
supreme quality of leadership is unquestionably
integrity. Without it, no real success is possible, no
matter whether it is on a section gang, a football
field, in an army, or in an office.” Honesty and
integrity are two important ingredients which
make a good leader. How can you expect your
followers to be honest when you lack these
qualities yourself? Leaders succeed when they stick
to their values and core beliefs and without ethics,
this will not be possible.
 
2. Confidence
To be an effective leader, you should be confident
enough to ensure that other follow your
commands. If you are unsure about your own
decisions and qualities, then your subordinates will
never follow you. As a leader, you have to be
oozing with confidence, show some swagger and
assertiveness to gain the respect of your
subordinates. This does not mean that you should
be overconfident, but you should at least reflect
the degree of confidence required to ensure that
your followers trust you as a leader.
3.  Inspire Others
Probably the most difficult job for a leader is to
persuade others to follow. It can only be possible if
you inspire your followers by setting a good
example. When the going gets tough, they look up
to you and see how you react to the situation. If
you handle it well, they will follow you. As a leader,
should think positive and this positive approach
should be visible through your actions. Stay calm
under pressure and keep the motivation level up.   and support they need to achieve the objective
As John Quincy Adams puts it, “If your actions
inspire others to dream more, learn more, do more
and become more, you are a leader.” If you are
successful in inspiring your subordinates, you can
easily overcome any current and future challenge
easily.
4.  Commitment & Passion
Your teams look up to you and if you want them to
give them their all, you will have to be passionate
about it too. When your teammates see you
best shot. It will also help you to gain the respect
of your subordinates and infuse new energy in
your team members, which helps them to perform
better. If they feel that you are not fully committed
or lacks passion, then it would be an uphill task for
the leader to motivate your followers to achieve
the goal.
5.  Good Communicator
Until you clearly communicate your vision to your
team and tell them the strategy to achieve the
goal, it will be very difficult for you to get the
results you want. Simply put, if you are unable to
communicate your message effectively to your
team, you can never be a good leader. A good
communicator can be a good leader. Words have
the power to motivate people and make them do
the unthinkable. If you use them effectively, you
can also achieve better results.
6.  Decision Making Capabilities
Apart from having a futuristic vision, a leader
should have the ability to take the right decision at
the right time. Decisions taken by leaders have a
profound impact on masses. A leader should think
long and hard before taking a decision but once
the decision is taken, stand by it. Although, most
leaders take decisions on their own, but it is highly
recommended that you consult key stakeholders
before taking a decision. After all, they are the
ones who will benefit or suffer from your decisions.
8.  Delegation & Empowerment
šIt is important for a leader to focus on key
responsibilities while leaving the rest to others.
Delegate tasks to your subordinates and see how
they perform. Provide them with all the resources
and give them a chance to bear the responsibility.
7.  Accountability
When it comes to accountability, you need to
follow the approach highlighted by Arnold H.
Glasow when he said, “A good leader takes little
more than his share of the blame and little less
than his share of the credit.” Make sure that every
one of your subordinates is accountable for what
they are doing. If they do well, give them a pat on
the back but if they struggle, make them realize
their mistakes and work together to improve.
Holding them accountable for their actions will
create a sense of responsibility among your
subordinates and they will go about the business
more seriously.
9.  Creativity & Innovation
šIn order to get ahead in today’s fast-paced world,
a leader must be creative and innovative at the
same time. Creative thinking and constant
innovation is what makes you and your team stand
out from the crowd. Think out of the box to come
up with unique ideas and turn those ideas and
goals into reality.
10.  Empathy
šLeaders should develop empathy with their
followers. Unfortunately, most leaders follow a
dictatorial style and neglect empathy altogether.
Due to this, they fail to make a closer connection
with their followers. Understanding the problems
of your followers and feeling their pain is the first
step to become an effective leader.
TOPIC 2: Culture and Cultural Conditioning
Culture is a strong part of people's lives. It
influences their views, their values, their humor,
their hopes, their loyalties, and their worries and
fears. So when you are working with people and
building relationships with them, it helps to have
some perspective and understanding of their
cultures.
But as we explore culture, it's also important to
remember how much we have in common. People
see the world very differently, but they know what
it is like to wake up in the morning and look
forward to the adventures that of the day. We are
all human beings. We all love deeply, want to
learn, have hopes and dreams, and have
experienced pain and fear.
At the same time, we can't pretend our cultures
and differences don't matter. We can't gloss over
differences and pretend they don't exist, wishing
we could all be alike, and we can't pretend
that discrimination doesn't exist.
This topic will give you practical information about
how to understand culture, establish relationships
with people from cultures different from your own,
act as an ally against racism and other forms of
discrimination, create organizations in which
diverse groups can work together, overcome
internalized oppression, and build strong and
diverse communities.
Lquintero2021
What is Culture? 
CULTURE  is the environment in which you live. You
learned it from your parents, teachers, the media,
everyone and everything you knew as you grow up.
Culture is what a particular group agrees is reality.
It becomes the backdrop for the ways people
think, feel, speak, and act (Ruffino, 2005)
Understanding Culture
When working across different cultures it's critical
that you understand the rules and cultural
expectations of others. Underestimating culture is
the point at which things can start to go wrong.
Although it may be easy to learn facts and do’s and
don’ts about different cultures, this is not
necessarily being culturally aware.  ("Why is
Cultural Awareness Important", 2018)
Culture represents the things we see, the tangible,
as well as the intangible things.  The iceberg, a
commonly used metaphor to describe culture, is a
great example for illustrating the tangible and the
intangible. When talking about culture, most
people focus on the “tip of the iceberg,”  Most
leaders in businesses, when addressing
intercultural situations, pick up on the things they
see—things on the “tip of the iceberg.” This means
that they never address the cultural issues and
problems that are underneath the surface level. It
is is the unseen elements of culture such as values,
beliefs, traditions etc, that are usually hardest for
people to understand and deal with.  When we
interact in cross cultural situations, a lack of
awareness can lead to bad or poor
decisions. Solutions become temporary band-aids
covering deeply rooted cultural systems.  Cultural
awareness helps us reduce the chances of making
bad decisions and increases the chance of making
us more insightful, considered decision.  ("Why is
Cultural Awareness Important", 2018)
What is particularly fascinating about cultures is
that each culture, no matter where it is located,
shares at least five basic characteristics.  All of these elements of culture underlie how the
1.  Culture is learned, not innate.  We do not
inherit it. Much of learning culture is unconscious.
We learn culture from families, peers, institutions,
and media. The process of learning culture is
known as enculturation. While all humans have
basic biological needs such as food, sleep, etc. the
way we fulfill those needs varies cross-culturally.
2.  The various facets of culture are integrated. If
you touch a culture in one place, everything else is
affected.  This is known as holism, or the various
parts of a culture being interconnected. All aspects
of a culture are related to one another and to truly
understand a culture, one must learn about all of
its parts, not only a few.
3. Culture is shared, and it defines the boundaries
of different groups. Because we share culture with
other members of our group, we are able to act in
socially appropriate ways as well as predict how
others will act.  Despite the shared nature of
culture, that doesn't mean that culture is
homogenous (the same).  symbolic forms. Consider, for example, a picture of
4. Culture is dynamic. This simply means that
cultures interact and change. Because most
cultures are in contact with other cultures, they
exchange ideas and symbols. All cultures change,
otherwise, they would have problems adapting to
changing environments. And because cultures are
interrelated, if one component in the system
changes, it is likely that the entire system must
adjust.
5. Culture is based on symbols.  A symbol is
something that stands for something else. Symbols
vary cross-culturally and are arbitrary (random).
They only have meaning when people in a culture
agree on their use. Language, money and art are all
symbols. Language is the most important symbolic
component of culture.
Cultural Elements
As a cultural group, people decide what to believe
about the world, which beliefs are most important
(values), who their heroes and heroines are, what
stories or myths are important to express their
values, how to do things – the rituals by which they
act out their values, the networks of people
connections, and which symbols will serve as
shortcuts to remind people of these cultural bonds.
people in a major culture decide to handle their
families, schools, churches, government, housing,
business, and science. They’re expressed in a
culture’s art forms, food, dress, play, and every
other aspect of life.  (Ruffino, 2005)
 
Culture combines many elements to create a
unique way of living for different people. In this
lesson, we identify the important  elements that
exist in every culture (Ruffino, 2005) albeit in
different forms:
 
1.  Values
You need to recognize that value systems are
fundamental to understanding how culture
expresses itself. Values often serve as principles
that guide people in their behaviors and actions.
Our values, ideally, should match up with what we
say we will do, and our values are most evident in
the Philippine flag. If you were a Filipino, what
words do the pictures evoke for you? Freedom,
liberty, Philippines, united, independence,
democracy, or patriotism, perhaps?
What if a Nazi symbol were painted on the
Philippine flag? How would that make you
feel? Disgusted, sad, angry, revengeful? What
would the desecration of the flag
symbolize? Hatred, terrorism, nationalism? What
about freedom of speech? Symbols like the
Philippine flag evoke strong emotions for people,
and when the symbol is desecrated, it can feel like
a personal attack on the person’s value system and
their beliefs about the world. It feels out of
alignment from what we believe to be true—what
we see as our reality of the world. This is because
our values and beliefs are rooted in stories we tell
ourselves over and over again.
2. Heroes/Heroines  
o Role Models / Champions / Stars
o They’re often seen as fearless leaders or
courageous adventurers. They personify the
core values and the strength of the organization
or group. They become symbolic figures whose
deeds are out of the ordinary – but not so far
out that people cannot identify with them.
o Such leaders become great motivators, the
people everyone will count on for inspiration
when things get tough. They tend to be
intuitive, to envision the future, to experiment,
and to appreciate the value of celebrations and
ceremonies.
3. Myths
A story or saying whose function is to bind
together the thoughts of a group and promote
coordinated social action. It may be a legend that
symbolizes a central belief of the culture. It’s often
more symbolic than factual, but may be either.
Some myths are based on powerful truths; some
on manipulative, hurtful lies; still others on
harmless little white lies.
4. Rituals
The “way we do things around here.” They include
the customary day-to-day actions people take,
their expected actions and responses. Core values
have no impact without ritual and ceremony. The
unwritten rules of personal communication, the
rituals of social interaction, govern relationships
between bosses and workers, professionals and
support staff, men and women, old and young,
insiders and outsiders.
Work rituals spell out standards of acceptable
behavior and how such procedures as strategic
planning, budgeting, or report writing should be
carried out. Recognition rituals, such as awards,
are more formal. They acknowledge achievements
that are valued and signal that the person belongs
to the culture. Rituals meet people’s need to
belong. They help establish and maintain some
common values and goals that connect people in
the group. A true ritual is always connected to a
myth that represents some basic group value.
Otherwise, it’s just a habit that does nothing but
give people a false sense of security.
5. Networks
The primary means of communication within an
organization. They tie together all parts of the
company without respect to the organization
chart. They not only transmit information, they
also interpret its significance. In most
organizations, only about 10 percent of its business
takes place in formal meetings and event. The real
process of making decisions, gathering support,
and developing opinions, happens before or after
the meeting. Of course, formal networks are
important too. They include the formal
organization chart, task forces, work teams,
professional and trade associations, and similar
groupings.
6.  Symbols
Are shortcuts that remind people of those cultural
elements that bind them together. A song, banner,
flag, logo, picture, motto, or brand name may bring
up corporate values. A nickname or motto may
recall a heroine or star. A figure of speech may
recall a key myth or ritual. A good symbol can serve
to trigger communal thoughts and feelings about a
common cause or goal.
HOW DO CULTURES DIFFER?
Cultures differ in thousands of ways, and
categorizing the major differences gives us a
practical basis for comparison. These categories
deal with the ways people view themselves in
relation to others and to the world and how they
act out those viewpoints. 
1.  I'm Controlled
o “Things happen to me and I have little
control over my life. It depends on my boss, my
customer, fate, luck, God’s will.”
o Most cultures fall into this camp including
most African, Asian, Arab, and Latino cultures.
Women in all cultures are more likely than men
to hold this viewpoint.
2.  I Control
o “What happens to me is up to me.”
o “God helps those who help themselves.”
o Most Western cultures, especially Europe
and America, and especially men, hold this
viewpoint.
3. Us-First (Collectivism)/Tight Ties
o US-First (Collectivism) - “I should first
integrate my goals, thought, and actions with
 those of my group. Working within what the
group wants and needs, I can try to get what I
want and need.  o
o Tight Ties - People should always stay close
to their parents and relatives and never stray
far.”
o Most cultures fall into this camp including
most African, Asian, Arab, and Latino cultures.
Certain families, religious groups.  concerns them.
4.  Me-First (Individualism) / Loose Ties
o Me-First (Individualism) - “I must first focus
on my personal goals. I work toward better
things for my family and work team and
community, but my personal goals must come
first. I will stay with a group as long as it does
not block my efforts to meet my own wants and
needs.”
o Loose Ties - When people grow up, they
have to make their own way in the world.
European cultures fall into this camp, Euro-
Americans being the most individualistic.
5. Achievement-First (Masculine Aspect)
o “I am very ambitious , and I believe I am
here to work. Men should be assertive,
ambitious, and competitive. They should work
for material success, and respect whatever is
big, strong, and fast.”
o The most masculine culture by far is Japan,
while US culture is moderately masculine. Such
cultures define gender roles. Euro-Americans,
especially men, tend to be highly competitive in
social interaction and performance.
6.  People-First (Feminine Aspect)
o “I focus on building and maintaining
positive, personal relationships. The type of life
I build is more important than the things I
accumulate. What motivates me is contributing
to my family, workplace, and community.”  o
o The Scandinavian cultures are the most
people-focused. The roles and viewpoints of
men and women are not as separate
7.  Equality (Democratic Cultures)
o “My company’s organization chart looks
like a low box. I appreciate it when my boss
consults me about decisions that affect me and
my job. I like it even more when he lets me or
the team make the decisions.”
In moderately egalitarian cultures such as
US, Japan, and most European countries,
consultation is appreciated but not expected. In
very egalitarian cultures such as the
Scandinavian countries, Israel, and Austria,
everyone should have a say in everything that
8. Inequality (Rank/Status Cultures)
o “My company’s organization chart looks
like a pyramid. Our leaders are very strong and
powerful and we depend on them to make the
right decisions and they control things. I would
never contradict my boss, either at work or
elsewhere.”
o Nearly all underdeveloped countries and
developing countries have vertical societies.
Like those from the Latino, Asian, and African
countries
9. Achievement-First (Masculine Aspect)
o “I am very ambitious , and I believe I am
here to work. Men should be assertive,
ambitious, and competitive. They should work
for material success, and respect whatever is
big, strong, and fast.”
o The most masculine culture by far is Japan,
while US culture is moderately masculine. Such
cultures define gender roles. Euro-Americans,
especially men, tend to be highly competitive in
social interaction and performance.
10.  People-First (Feminine Aspect) 
o “I focus on building and maintaining
positive, personal relationships. The type of life
I build is more important than the things I
accumulate. What motivates me is contributing
to my family, workplace, and community.”
The Scandinavian cultures are the most
people-focused. The roles and viewpoints of
men and women are not as separate. 
11. Take Risks
o “Nothing ventured, nothing gained is my
motto. I like change and new adventure. For a
business to be successful, people must come up
with new ways of doing things, new products
and services, and new technology.”
o Singapore is by far the most risk-taking
culture, while the United States has a
moderately risk-taking culture.
12. Play It Safe
o “Since change creates many unknowns and
uncertainties, we don’t like change and try to
prevent it by sticking with traditions.”
o Greece is the most certainty-oriented
culture, followed by Japan. Most European and
Latino fall into this pattern.
13. Dive-Right-In Time
o “Several things may be happening at once
in this time because several people may need
my attention at any one time. After all, it is
more important to maintain good relationships
with others and to complete transactions with
others than to do one thing at a time on a
preset schedule.”
o Latino, Middle Eastern, and some Asian and
African cultures fall under this.
14. Step-by-Step Time
o “I measure my time and budget as I
schedule appointments, decide on the starting
and ending times for events, get to things on
time, meet my deadlines, and plan ahead. The
best way to use my time is to focus on one task,
appointment, or event at a time.”
o This view is prevalent in Western countries,
especially the United States.
15. Come-Close Space
o “When I talk with business associates and
friends, we stand close enough to be able to
feel each other’s breath on our face and catch
each other’s scent. We touch each other a great
deal as we interact. My male business
associates often embrace instead of shaking
hands.”
o Middle Eastern cultures fall under this
category followed by Latinos.
16. Back-Off Space
o “When I talk with business associates and
social acquaintances, it’s usually at arm’s
length, about two or three feet away. I usually
feel uncomfortable and back up till I feel
comfortable. It really bugs me if a person keeps
moving in even after I back off.”
o Western cultures are basically non-contact
societies. In most Asian cultures as well.
17. Communicating Indirectly (Using Implied
Messages)
o “I try to maintain harmony and get along
with people, so I never say things that would
offend them.”
o In all cultures, women are likely to use an
indirect style, such as hinting, implying, and
keeping quiet in order to keep peace.
18. Communicating Directly (Getting to the Point) 
o “I try to build trusting relationships based
on honesty and sincerity. It’s important to be
upfront and genuine in my dealings with
people. If I have a problem with a person, or a
proposal, I go directly to that person first and
try to work it out.”
o The direct style is typical in Western
cultures. Within those cultures, men are more
likely than women to use a direct
communication style.
Cultural Conditioning Is how people acquire their
culture, how they learn all the behaviors that are
regarded as right and wrong in their society. 
According to the article ("the  Process of Cultural
Conditioning", n.d.) While the majority of
conditioning occurs in early childhood, adults
continue to be conditioned as they acquire new
behaviors throughout their life. The differences
between the two are these:
o In Childhood conditioning, infants and
young children learn such basic activities of life
as eating, walking, talking, dressing, bathing,
etc.
o In Adult conditioning, people learn new
behaviors or new ways to perform already
conditioned behaviors, as, for example, learning
to use a Turkish toilet or eat with your hands
rather than with silverware.
The steps in the process of cultural conditioning
are the same for both, but adult conditioning may
take longer because it requires unlearning or
unacquiring behavior that was already acquired
through childhood conditioning. These are the five
steps OF CULTURAL CONDITIONING PROCESS:
1.  Observation
At this stage, you are only beginning to become
aware of a particular behavior but have not yet
tried to do it yourself. Taking the example of eating
with your hands, you may have observed how it is
done, or someone may have told you how it is
done.
2. Imitation
Now you actually try to carry out the activity;
you sit down at a table and begin eating with
your hands. At this stage, it is awkward for you,
and you're conscious all the while of what
you're doing, trying not to make mistakes. You
most likely are unable to eat and carry on a
conversation simultaneously, for all your
attention is on the act of eating.
3.  Reinforcement
As you eat, people encourage you when you do
it right and correct you when you are wrong.
Over the course of several meals, you naturally
try to do what they tell you.
4.  Internalization
Without needing much reinforcement, over time
and with practice, you now know how to eat with
your hands. You may still have to pay attention to
what you're doing, but not as much as during
stages 2 and 3.
5. Spontaneous Manifestation
Now you're able to eat "the right way" without
paying any conscious attention to what you're
doing. It comes naturally; as you eat, you are
aware of other things, not just the act of eating.
Savvy leaders in forward-thinking companies value
diverse employees for the unique contributions
they make to the company’s success. They are
crafting an inclusive multicultural approach to
managing diversity, an approach that welcomes all
types of employees – and then appreciates and
nurtures them. This approach goes straight to the
root of the corporate culture – its basic values,
strategies, and how they do things. It expands the
culture to reflect and include all of the major
employee groups within the company – so that
everyone feels at home and included in the inner
circle .
According to Ruffino,(2005) there are five Steps
process for becoming a Diversity-Savvy Person
1.  Become aware of culture. Its elements,
pervasiveness, and impact, as well as similarities
and differences between major cultural groups.
2.  Learn about your own culture. Recognize that
the beliefs and customs that you may accept as
reality are only one way of viewing the world, the
way of your culture.
3.  Recognize your own biases. The ways in which
you stereotype, assume, judge, and discriminate,
so you can own them and move beyond them.
 
4.  Learn about other cultures. The environments
of people you encounter in the workplace, so you
can recognize when cultural differences may be at
the root of problems and so you can appreciate the
contributions people from diverse cultures make to
the work situation.
5.  Build interaction skills.  Practice new behaviors
through self-analysis activities, skill builder case
studies, interviews, and applying your new
understandings to actual people situations at work,
school, anywhere you encounter diverse groups.
What is Stereotype?
Stereotypes are broad, often simplified
assumptions made about all members of a
particular group.  Stereotypes are characteristics
imposed upon groups of people because of their
race, nationality, and sexual orientation. These
characteristics tend to be oversimplifications of the
groups involved, and while some people truly do
embody the traits of their stereotype, they are not
necessarily representative of all people within that
group. Stereotypes are not always accurate and
even if positive, can be harmful (Nittle, 2020).
Almost every culture or race has a stereotype,
including Filipino people, Blacks, Irish people, and
Polish people, among others.  
What is Prejudice?
According to Cherry, (2020) Prejudice is a baseless All politicians are philanderers and think only of
and often negative preconception or attitude personal gain and benefit.
toward members of a group. Prejudice can have a
strong influence on how people behave and o
interact with others, particularly with those who o
are different from them, even unconsciously or
Girls are only concerned about physical
without the person realizing they are under the
appearance.
influence of their internalized prejudices.  Some
Common features of prejudice include negative o
feelings, stereotyped beliefs, and a tendency to o
discriminate against members of a group. In
society, we often see prejudices toward a group All blonds are unintelligent.
based on race, sex, religion, culture, and more.
While specific definitions of prejudice given by o
social scientists often differ, most agree that it o
involves prejudgments that are usually negative
All librarians are women who are old, wear glasses,
about members of a group.
tie a high bun, and have a perpetual frown on their
When people hold prejudicial attitudes toward face.
others, they tend to view everyone who fits into a
o
certain group as being "all the same." They paint
o
every individual who holds particular
characteristics or beliefs with a very broad brush All teenagers are rebels.
and fail to really look at each person as a unique
individual.  (Cherry, 2020) o
o
Common Stereotypes
All children don't enjoy healthy food.
1.  Racial Profiling focusing about race. For
example, saying that all Blacks are good at sports is o
a stereotype, because it's grouping the race o
together to indicate that everyone of that race is a
good athlete. Only anorexic women can become models.

2. Group of Individuals A stereotype that involves o

grouping of individuals such as: Skaters, Goths
(they have morbid fashion & style of dress),
Gangsters, and Preps (means image conscious)  are
a few examples. Most of this stereotyping takes
place in schools. 
o
Goths wear black clothes, black makeup, are
depressed and hated by society.
o immoral, wrong and an abomination.
o
Punks wear mohawks, spikes, chains, are a menace
to society and are always getting in trouble.
o
The elderly have health issues and behave like
children.
o
3. Sexual Stereotypes on the other hand, suggest
that any feminine man is gay and any masculine
woman is a lesbian. Those who believe gay
stereotypes may also believe that homosexuality is
Culture Stereotypes means cultures of countries as
a whole. Stereotype examples of this sort include
the premises that:

o o
o
All white Americans are obese, lazy, and dim- o
witted. Homer Simpson of the TV series The
Simpsons is the personification of this stereotype. Men are strong and do all the work.

o o
o o

Mexican stereotypes suggest that all Mexicans are Men are the "backbone."
lazy and came into America illegally.
o
o o
o
Women are not as smart as a man.
All Arabs and Muslims are terrorists.
o
o o
o
Women cannot do as good of a job as a man.
All people who live in England have bad teeth.
o
o o
o
Girls are not good at sports.Guys are messy and
Italian or French people are the best lovers. unclean.

o o
o o Men who spend too much time on the
computer or read are geeks.
All Blacks outside of the United States are poor.
Why is it bad to Stereotype?
o
o Stereotyping is not only hurtful, it is also wrong.
Even if the stereotype is correct in some cases,
All Jews are greedy.
constantly putting someone down based on your
o preconceived perceptions will not encourage them
o to succeed.  It can lead to bullying form at a young
age. Jocks and Preps pick on the Nerds and the
All Asians are good at math. All Asians like to eat Geeks; Skaters pick on the Goths, so on and so
rice and drive slow. forth. Stereotyping is encouraging bullying
behavior that children carry into adulthood. It can
o also lead people to live lives driven by hate, and
o can cause the victims of those stereotypes to be
driven by fear. For example, many gays and
All Irish people are drunks and eat potatoes. lesbians are afraid to admit their sexuality in fear
o of being judged. It is a lose-lose situation, both for
o those who are doing the stereotype and those who
are victims. 
All Americans are generally considered to be
friendly, generous, and tolerant, but also arrogant, Types of Prejudice
impatient, and domineering.
Prejudice can be based on a number of factors
o including sex, race, age, sexual orientation,
nationality, socioeconomic status, and religion.
5. Gender Profiling common stereotypes of men Some of the most well-known types of prejudice
and women, such as: include:

1. Racism is a discrimination or hatred directed to
someone because of their color, ethnicity, and
national origins.  Examples: Racial Name Calling
and  jokes or you may also consider situations
when people may be excluded from groups or
activities because of where they come from.   institutions, companies, or from our government.
2. Sexism is based on gender and is said by some
to be the root of all prejudice and discrimination.
While women are roughly half the world’s
population, they are a minority in economic and
political arenas and have fewer rights and
privileges than men.  There are different ways prejudice can be reduced
3. Ageism a type of discrimination that involves
prejudice against people based on their age.
Similar to racism and sexism, ageism involves
holding negative stereotypes about people of
different ages.   Today, the term is often applied to
any type of age-based discrimination, whether it
involves prejudice against children, teenagers,
adults, or senior citizens.  Manifestations of ageism
are frequently cited in workplace situations, where
it can lead to pay disparities or difficulty finding
employment.  Younger adults may have difficulty
finding jobs and receive lower pay due to their
perceived lack of experience, while older adults
may have problems achieving promotions, finding
new work, and changing careers.   o
4.  Ethnic Prejudice is based on a person’s
membership in an ethnic sub-culture, which is a
segment of a larger culture or society. Members of
the subculture participate in shared activities in
which the common origin and culture are
significant ingredients. A subculture is unique
because of its particular beliefs and values and
customs, heroes and heroines, myths and stories,
and social networks
5. Classism is held in place by a system of beliefs
and cultural attitudes that ranks people according
to economic status, family lineage, job status, level
of education, and other divisions.  
6. Homophobia is Negative attitudes  and feelings
towards homosexuality or people identified or
perceived  as being lesbian, gay, bisexual or
transgender.  Homophobic people may use mean
language and name-calling when they talk about
lesbian and gay people.  In most extreme forms,
people tend to bully, abuse, and inflict violence on
lesbian, gay, and bisexual people.
Some LGBTQ people experience discrimination
based on their sexual orientation or gender
identity. This may be discrimination from religious
Examples include same-sex couples not being
allowed to marry, getting legally fired just for being
LGBTQ, or not being allowed into certain housing. 
What We Can Do to Reduce Prejudice?
or even eliminated.  According to (Cherry, 2020)
Training people to become more empathetic to
members of other groups is one method that has
shown a considerable success.  By imagining
themselves in the same situation, people are able
to think about how they would react and gain a
greater understanding of others people's action.  
Other techniques that are used to reduce
prejudice include:
o Gaining public support and awareness for
anti-prejudice social norms
o Increasing contact with members of other
social groups
Making people aware of the inconsistencies
in their own beliefs
o Passing laws and regulations that require
fair and equal treatment for all groups of
people
Types of Prejudice
Prejudice can be based on a number of factors
including sex, race, age, sexual orientation,
nationality, socioeconomic status, and religion.
Some of the most well-known types of prejudice
include:
1. Racism is a discrimination or hatred directed to
someone because of their color, ethnicity, and
national origins.  Examples: Racial Name Calling
and  jokes or you may also consider situations
when people may be excluded from groups or
activities because of where they come from.  
2. Sexism is based on gender and is said by some
to be the root of all prejudice and discrimination.
While women are roughly half the world’s
population, they are a minority in economic and
political arenas and have fewer rights and
privileges than men.  or even eliminated.  According to (Cherry, 2020)
3. Ageism a type of discrimination that involves
prejudice against people based on their age.
Similar to racism and sexism, ageism involves
holding negative stereotypes about people of
different ages.   Today, the term is often applied to
any type of age-based discrimination, whether it
involves prejudice against children, teenagers,
adults, or senior citizens.  Manifestations of ageism
are frequently cited in workplace situations, where
it can lead to pay disparities or difficulty finding
employment.  Younger adults may have difficulty
finding jobs and receive lower pay due to their
perceived lack of experience, while older adults
may have problems achieving promotions, finding
new work, and changing careers.   in their own beliefs
4.  Ethnic Prejudice is based on a person’s
membership in an ethnic sub-culture, which is a
segment of a larger culture or society. Members of
the subculture participate in shared activities in
which the common origin and culture are
significant ingredients. A subculture is unique
because of its particular beliefs and values and
customs, heroes and heroines, myths and stories,
and social networks
5. Classism is held in place by a system of beliefs
and cultural attitudes that ranks people according
to economic status, family lineage, job status, level
of education, and other divisions.   different cultures communicate with each other.
6. Homophobia is Negative attitudes  and feelings
towards homosexuality or people identified or
perceived  as being lesbian, gay, bisexual or
transgender.  Homophobic people may use mean
language and name-calling when they talk about
lesbian and gay people.  In most extreme forms,
people tend to bully, abuse, and inflict violence on
lesbian, gay, and bisexual people.
Some LGBTQ people experience discrimination
based on their sexual orientation or gender
identity. This may be discrimination from religious
institutions, companies, or from our government.
Examples include same-sex couples not being
allowed to marry, getting legally fired just for being
LGBTQ, or not being allowed into certain housing.  knowledge of the turn taking system being used in
What We Can Do to Reduce Prejudice?
There are different ways prejudice can be reduced
Training people to become more empathetic to
members of other groups is one method that has
shown a considerable success.  By imagining
themselves in the same situation, people are able
to think about how they would react and gain a
greater understanding of others people's action.  
Other techniques that are used to reduce
prejudice include:
o Gaining public support and awareness for
anti-prejudice social norms
o Increasing contact with members of other
social groups
o Making people aware of the inconsistencies
o Passing laws and regulations that require
fair and equal treatment for all groups of
people
What is Cross Cultural Communication?
Cross cultural communication thus refers to the
communication between people who have
differences in any one of the following: styles of
working, age, nationality, ethnicity, race, gender,
sexual orientation, etc. Cross cultural
communication can also refer to the attempts that
are made to exchange, negotiate and mediate
cultural differences by means of language, gestures
and body language. It is how people belonging to
(Shannessy et al., 2008)
 Cross cultural communication has been influenced
by a variety of academic disciplines. It is necessary
in order to avoid misunderstandings that can lead
to conflicts between individuals or groups. Cross
cultural communication creates a feeling of trust
and enables cooperation. The focus is on providing
the right response rather than providing the right
message. ("Communication Theory,"2017)
When two people of different cultures encounter
each other, they not only have different cultural
backgrounds but their systems of turn – talking are
also different. Cross cultural communication will be
more effective and easier if both the speakers have
the conversation (For example: One person should
not monopolize the conversation or only one
person should talk at a time). ("Communication
Theory,"2017)
Importance of Cross Cultural Communication
Cross-cultural communication has become
strategically important to companies due to the
growth of global business, technology, and the
Internet. Understanding cross-cultural
communication is important for any company that
has a diverse workforce or plans on conducting
global business. This type of communication
involves an understanding of how people from
different cultures speak, communicate, and
perceive the world around them. (Shannessy et al.,
2008)
Cross-cultural communication in an organization
deals with understanding different business
customs, beliefs and communication strategies.
Language differences, high-context vs. low-context
cultures, nonverbal differences, and power
distance are major factors that can affect cross-
cultural communication.  (Shannessy et al., 2008)
High and Low Context culture
The concept of high- and low-context
culture relates to how an employee's thoughts,
opinions, feelings, and upbringing affect how they
act within a given culture. North America and
Western Europe are generally considered to have
low-context cultures. This means that businesses in
these places have direct, individualistic employees
who tend to base decisions on facts. This type of
businessperson wants specifics noted in contracts
and may have issues with trust (Shannessy et al.,
2008).   As can be seen in Figure 1.  ([High & Low
Culture],n.d.) 
High-context cultures are the opposite in that trust
is the most important part of business dealings.
There are areas in the Middle East, Asia and Africa
that can be considered high context. Organizations
that have high-context cultures are
collectivist (relating to the practice or principle of
giving a group priority over each individual in it)
and focus on interpersonal relationships.
Individuals from high-context cultures might be
interested in getting to know the person they are
conducting business with in order to get a gut
feeling on decision making. They may also be more
concerned about business teams and group
success rather than individual achievement.
COMMUNICATION is the transfer of information
and understanding from one person to another.  It
is a way of reaching others others by transmitting
ideas, facts, thoughts feelings and values.  Its goal
is to have the receiver understand the message as
it was intended (often) to act upon that
information.  When communication is effective, it
provides a bridge of meaning between the two
people so they can each share what they feel and
know.  By using this bridge, both parties can safely
cross the river of misunderstanding that sometime
separates people.  
Communication always involves at least two
people a sender and a receiver.  One person alone
cannot communicate.  Only one or more receivers
can complete the communication act.  This fact is
obvious when you think of being stranded by
yourself on an island and calling for help when
there is no one to hear the call.  The need for the
receiver is not so obvious to managers who send
out memos to employees.  They tend to think that
when message are sent, they have communicated;
but the transmission of the message is only the
beginning.  A manager may send a hundred
messages, but there is no effective communication
until each one is received, read and understood.
Communication is what the receivers understands,
not what the senders says.  
Organization cannot exist without communication.
If there is no communication employees cannot
know what their co-workers are doing,
management cannot receive information input,
and supervisors and team leaders cannot give
instructions.  Coordination of work is impossible,
and the organization will collapse for lack of it.
Cooperation is also becomes impossible, because
people cannot communicate their needs and
feelings to others.  Communication helps
accomplish all the basic management functions
such as planning, organizing, leading and
controlling so that organization can achieve their
goals and their challenges.  When communication
is effective, it tends to facilitate better
performance and improve job satisfaction. People
understand their jobs better and feel more
involved in them.  
What is Oral Communication? 
Oral communication is the process of verbally communication, on the other hand, can waste
transmitting information and ideas from one valuable time, alienate employees or customers,
individual or group to another. Oral and damage business reputation. 
communication can be either formal or informal
(Shannessy, et al., (2008).  Examples of informal Nonverbal elements such as posture, gestures, and
oral communication include: facial expressions are also important factors in
  developing good verbal communication skills. Your
outward appearance mirrors your inner
o Face-to-face conversations  mood. Ultimately, good speakers should make
o Telephone conversations  frequent eye contact with the audience, let their
o Discussions that take place at business facial expression show their interest in the ideas
meetings  they are presenting, dress in a way that is
More formal types of oral communication include:  appropriate for the occasion and keep their energy
levels high. 
o Presentations at business meetings 
o Classroom lectures  Here are some tips on how to improve your verbal
o Commencement speeches given at a communication to avoid misunderstanding at
graduation ceremony  work as stated by Mckay, (2020)
With advances in technology, new forms of oral
1. Be Prepared: Before you start a
communication continue to develop. Video phones
conversation, figure out what information you
and video conferences combine audio and video so
want to provide. Then decide on the best way
that workers in distant locations can both see and
to relay it to your recipient. For example, do
speak with each other. Other modern forms of oral
you need to do it face-to-face or will a phone
communication include podcasts (audio clips that
call do? 
you can access on the Internet) and Voiceover
2. Choose Your Words Carefully: Use
Internet Protocol (VoIP), which allows callers to
vocabulary your recipient can easily
communicate over the Internet and avoid
comprehend: If he or she doesn't understand
telephone charges. Skype is an example of VoIP.
your words, your message will be lost.
(Shannessy, et al., 2008)
3. Speak Clearly: Be aware of your volume
According to ("Intro to Business Communication ," and rate of speech. Speaking too softly will
n.d. ) for Oral Communication to be effective make it difficult for anyone to hear you, but
strong verbal communication skills are important shouting can be very off-putting. Speak slowly
for everyone to master. They are extremely enough to be understood, but not so slowly
valuable in both your personal and professional that you bore the listener or put him or her to
life. When speaking clearly, confidently, and with sleep.
poise, you are much more likely to command the 4. Use the Proper Tone: Your voice may
respect  of others and build rapport. This is reveal your true feelings and attitude. For
particularly important in business interactions.  example, if you're angry or sad, it will come
across through your tone. Try to stay in control
Conversation management  skills are essential for of this, to avoid revealing more than you want
small business owners and managers  who handle and distracting the listener from your message's
much of the burden in such areas as intent.
company/customer presentations, employee 5. Make Eye Contact: The person to whom
interviews, giving speeches, and conducting you are speaking will better be able to connect
meetings. For verbal communication to be with you if you maintain eye contact
effective, it should be clear, relevant, tactful in throughout the conversation.
forming phrases and tone, concise, and 6. Check In With the Listener
informative.   Periodically: Get feedback to make sure the
person with whom you are speaking
Presentations or conversations that have these understands you. He or she must "get" what
factors included usually bear good fruits. Unclear, you are trying to say. While you are speaking,
inaccurate, or inconsiderate business observe his or her facial expressions and body
 language, or simply ask for verbal confirmation
that he or she understands you.
7. Avoid Distractions: Background noise will
distract your listener and make it hard for him
or her to hear what you are saying, never mind,
understand it. Find a quiet place to talk. If you
are speaking to someone by phone, go to a
quiet area and make sure he or she is in one as
well. If that isn't possible at the moment,
arrange to talk when it is.
 
As stated ("Intro to Business Communication ," n.d.
) Strong verbal skills will help to encourage
essential discussion while playing a major role in
bringing people together. Ask questions if you are
wondering about a new concept in order to
become more knowledgeable about that topic.
Explain why you are confused about a certain
policy to get the assistance required for a better
understanding of that set of guidelines.
Express what you experienced in a certain situation
so you can work through what you are feeling.
Relaying this information will not only help
yourself, but also those who you are speaking with
by solving problems, making connections, and
avoiding conflicts. Additionally, be prepared to
serve as a good listener in return because lacking
the ability to give the same level of attention that
you expect from somebody else when you are
speaking is not fair.
Effective verbal communication is an important
skill to understand. Having the courage and ability
to convey your thoughts in a respectable way will
help enhance mutual understanding, trust,
decision-making, and problem-solving between
yourself and others, making the act of properly
speaking and listening to an imperative influence
on how we learn and think for ourselves.
What is Non Verbal Communication? 
Your Facial expression, gestures, posture and tone
of voice are powerful communication tools.  
While the key to success in both personal and
professional relationships lies in your ability to
communicate well, it’s not the words that you use
but your nonverbal cues or “body language” that
speak the loudest. Body language is the use of
physical behavior, expressions, and mannerisms to
communicate nonverbally, often done instinctively
rather than consciously.  
Whether you’re aware of it or not, when you
interact with others, you’re continuously giving
and receiving wordless signals. All of your
nonverbal behaviors—the gestures you make, your
posture, your tone of voice, how much eye contact
you make—send strong messages. They can put
people at ease, build trust, and draw others
towards you, or they can offend, confuse, and
undermine what you’re trying to convey. These
messages don’t stop when you stop speaking
either. Even when you’re silent, you’re still
communicating nonverbally.
In some instances, what comes out of your mouth
and what you communicate through your body
language may be two totally different things. If you
say one thing, but your body language says
something else, your listener will likely feel that
you’re being dishonest. If you say “yes” while
shaking your head no, for example. When faced
with such mixed signals, the listener has to choose
whether to believe your verbal or nonverbal
message. Since body language is a natural,
unconscious language that broadcasts your true
feelings and intentions, they’ll likely choose the
nonverbal message.  
However, by improving how you understand and
use nonverbal communication, you can express
what you really mean, connect better with others,
and build stronger, more rewarding relationships.  
Your nonverbal communication cues—the way you
listen, look, move, and react—tell the person
you’re communicating with whether or not you
care, if you’re being truthful, and how well you’re
listening. When your nonverbal signals match up
with the words you’re saying, they increase trust,
clarity, and rapport. When they don’t, they can
generate tension, mistrust, and confusion.
If you want to become a better communicator, it’s
important to become more sensitive not only to
the body language and nonverbal cues of others,
but also to your own.
Non verbal Communication can play five roles:  
o Repetition: It repeats and often
strengthens the message you’re making
verbally.
o Contradiction: It can contradict the
message you’re trying to convey, thus indicating
to your listener that you may not be telling the
truth.
o Substitution: It can substitute for a verbal
message. For example, your facial expression
often conveys a far more vivid message than
words ever can.
o Complementing: It may add to or
complement your verbal message. As a boss, if
you pat an employee on the back in addition to
giving praise, it can increase the impact of your
message.
o Accenting: It may accent or underline a
verbal message. Pounding the table, for
example, can underline the importance of your
message.
There are different types of nonverbal
communication or body language include:
Facial expressions. The human face is extremely
expressive, able to convey countless emotions
without saying a word. And unlike some forms of
nonverbal communication, facial expressions are
universal. The facial expressions for happiness,
sadness, anger, surprise, fear, and disgust are the
same across cultures.
Body movement and posture. Consider how your
perceptions of people are affected by the way they
sit, walk, stand, or hold their head. The way you
move and carry yourself communicates a wealth of
information to the world. This type of nonverbal
communication includes your posture, bearing,
stance, and the subtle movements you make.
Gestures. Gestures are woven into the fabric of
our daily lives. You may wave, point, beckon, or
use your hands when arguing or speaking
animatedly, often expressing yourself with
gestures without thinking. However, the meaning
of some gestures can be very different across
cultures. While the “OK” sign made with the hand,
for example, usually conveys a positive message in
English-speaking countries, it’s considered
offensive in countries such as Germany, Russia, and
Brazil. So, it’s important to be careful of how you
use gestures to avoid misinterpretation.
Eye contact. Since the visual sense is dominant for
most people, eye contact is an especially important
type of nonverbal communication. The way you
look at someone can communicate many things,
including interest, affection, hostility, or attraction.
Eye contact is also important in maintaining the
flow of conversation and for gauging the other
person’s interest and response.
Touch. We communicate a great deal through
touch. Think about the very different messages
given by a weak handshake, a warm bear hug, a
patronizing pat on the head, or a controlling grip
on the arm, for example.
Space. Have you ever felt uncomfortable during a
conversation because the other person was
standing too close and invading your space? We all
have a need for physical space, although that need
differs depending on the culture, the situation, and
the closeness of the relationship. You can use
physical space to communicate many different
nonverbal messages, including signals of intimacy
and affection, aggression or dominance.
Voice. It’s not just what you say, it’s how you say it.
When you speak, other people “read” your voice in
addition to listening to your words. Things they pay
attention to include your timing and pace, how
loud you speak, your tone and inflection, and
sounds that convey understanding, such as “ahh”
and “uh-huh.” Think about how your tone of voice
can indicate sarcasm, anger, affection, or
confidence.
How to become better in reading the non verbal
signals sent by others:  
 
Pay attention to inconsistencies. Nonverbal
communication should reinforce what is being
said. Is the person saying one thing, but their body
language conveying something else? For example,
are they telling you “yes” while shaking their head
no?
Eye contact – Is the person making eye contact? If
so, is it overly intense or just right?
Facial expression – What is their face showing? Is it
masklike and unexpressive, or emotionally present
and filled with interest?
Tone of voice – Does the person’s voice project
warmth, confidence, and interest, or is it strained
and blocked?
Posture and gesture – Is their body relaxed or stiff
and immobile? Are their shoulders tense and
raised, or relaxed?
Touch – Is there any physical contact? Is it
appropriate to the situation? Does it make you feel
uncomfortable?
Intensity – Does the person seem flat, cool, and
disinterested, or over-the-top and melodramatic?
Timing and place – Is there an easy flow of
information back and forth? Do nonverbal
responses come too quickly or too slowly?
Sounds – Do you hear sounds that indicate
interest, caring or concern from the person?
Look at nonverbal communication signals as a
group. Don’t read too much into a single gesture or
nonverbal cue. Consider all of the nonverbal
signals you are receiving, from eye contact to tone
of voice and body language. Taken together, are
their nonverbal cues consistent—or inconsistent—
with what their words are saying?
Trust your instincts. Don’t dismiss your gut
feelings. If you get the sense that someone isn’t
being honest or that something isn’t adding up,
you may be picking up on a mismatch between
verbal and nonverbal cues
What is ‘Written Communication’?
It means sending of messages, orders or
instructions in writing through letters, circulars,
manuals, reports, telegrams, office memos,
bulletins, etc.  It is a formal method of
communication and is less flexible. A written
document preserved properly becomes a
permanent record for future reference. It also
allows one to think thoroughly and refer back to it
whenever required. This means record
maintenance in business.  (Shannessy et al., 2008)
There are different ways businesses encounter
written communication (Shannessy et al.,
2008).  Following are a few examples :
o Bulletins
o Memos
o Instant messages
o Reports
o Job descriptions
o Employee manuals
o Letters
o Proposals
o Telegrams
o Postcards
o Contracts 
o Advertisements 
o Brochures
o News releases
Written communication, to be effective, should be
clear, complete, concise, correct, and courteous.
Here are some simple factors that are essential to
effective written communication according to
(Intro to Business Communication, n.d.):
1. Appropriate Words in the business world,
everything truly comes down to communication.
Work is executed by people and people are
humans. They have feelings, expectations, and
needs. Choosing the right words in time is what
saves the day.
For example, words like “Could you please”,
“would you please”, “requesting you to”, “may I
request your kindness”, while addressing a
superior on a mail for getting some work done is
more appropriate than blurting out an order.
Notice that the action is the same. It’s only the
words that will bring about a difference of
acceptance of your request or not.
Even while addressing juniors or peers, being
polite, respectful and sometimes even friendly
goes a long way. Being perceived as a cold boss
because of showing lack of empathy also hurts
your reputation at work and most likely your work
environment.  A simple comma or exclamation can
change the meaning of a sentence. Know your
language well to communicate appropriately.
2. Clarity in intent or idea a pre-defined agenda or
intent of the idea is like setting a tone for your
communication. Imagine you want to give facts in a
report and the usage of words like “may” or
“could” make it sound uncertain.
3. Inoffensive Language not once should we sound
like we are not on the readers’ team, even when
we have different ideas, it should never sound like
we are against the user? What good is a written
document that does not get read? By using a blunt,
highly rigid and opinionated language that could
offend the reader, we may shut his mind to the
document making the whole document futile.
Even when we have a complain there’s a difference
between being firm and being offensive. 
 Example #1:   if the well in advance scheduled
delivery of my consignment hasn’t reached on its
desirable date and it’s past 2 days already. I am
waiting but there’s not even communication from
the vendor’s end. Now we know they are in the
wrong and also irresponsible enough not  to
communicate yet, but this is my trusted vendor
and I don’t want to go through the trouble of
finding another one now.  (Shannessy et al., 2008)
Example #2:  Because of this e-communication, there is a lot of
“Hello xyz,
We are compelled to write to you about our
consignment no. 123. This consignment was
expected to be delivered by 12-12-2018 and hasn’t
arrived so far. Would you please let us know
what’s the bottleneck there? We have had a
smooth experience of business with you thus far
and would appreciate your honesty here. Please
feel free to let us know if we could help you in
some way.
Thanks and regards.
Your name”
Based on the given, in example #2 the complaint
was addressed politely, for them to lead to the
conclusions of what you wanted to say anyway.
Message well received and it keeps the tone soft
yet firm.
4. The tone of your writing another important and
final factor of your written communication is the
style or tone of writing. This is what the color of
your communication is. This is what separates
jokes from sarcasm, the assertion from
negation. It’s true that tone is more felt in verbal
communication, but there are aspects to even
written communication that sets the tone. For
example, by using dignified and mannered writing,
we do what is called “formal writing”.
Other times we want to be less formal, more
personalized and closer to the reader in the
“informal writing” style. Depending upon your
audience, and the kind of message you are
conveying, the tone is set and it helps the reader to
set expectations from your writing and understand
you better.
Electronic Communication
Electronic communication can be defined as, the
communication which uses electronic media to
transmit the information or message using
computers, e-mail, telephone, video calling, FAX
machine, etc. This type of communication can be
developed by sharing data like images, graphics,
sound, pictures, maps, software, and many things.
changes have occurred in work areas, society, etc.
Thus, people can simply access global
communication with no physical movement.  
There are different Types of Electronic
Communication namely:  
1.  Email
Email is a method originally intended to imitate
physical mail. Messages are delivered from one
specific address to one or more specific addresses.
Users are alerted to the presence of new messages
in their inboxes by email clients that display the
content and offer an opportunity to reply.
Messages are primarily text but may include file
attachments of various types including images and
short movies. Unlike instant messages, emails are
generally not expected to be read immediately
upon receipt. Most email readers keep track of
conversations that include multiple people through
the use of threads. Thus email is ideally suited for
long, involved conversations between two people
or among small groups of
people.
2. Forums
Conversations that go on indefinitely, involve
large numbers of people or need to be archived
are not well suited to email. Forums, often
hosted on the Web, provide an alternative that
combines many of the aspects of email and
Web pages. They involve discussions around a
single, limited topic but can take place over
 months or years and involve dozens or even
hundreds of participants. Most use a treelike
structure that allows participants to jump in at
whatever level their comments are most
appropriate.
3. Video Chat
Like instant messaging, most video chatting is
conducted over Internet protocols that stream
images from one device to another. At times,
nothing beats a face-to-face conversation. Video
chats provide an immediacy to a conversation.
Because a person's tone is often easier to read
when you can see his face, businesses often use
videoconferencing to aid in virtual meetings
4. Text & Instant Messaging
Text messaging uses cellular airwaves and
protocols to deliver textual messages from one
cellular phone to another or from one phone to a
group of other phones. Text messaging is usually
intended as near-instant communication and can
be quicker than a phone call because the sender
doesn't have to wait for the recipiant to answer
before delivering a message. Because text
messaging is informal and easy, it's sometimes
called chatting. Text messaging can also facilitate
private discussions when there is a chance that a
phone call could be overheard. Instant messaging
is similar to text messaging but is carried over the
Internet rather than over cell phone airwaves.
5. Social Networking
Social networking sites facilitate communication
among people with common interests or
affiliations. Sites such as Facebook and LinkedIn
provide places for people to interact, sometimes in
real time. Microblogging services like Twitter, allow
short textual messages of no more than 140
characters to be broadcast to a large audience.
Unlike text messages, which are delivered to only
small groups, microblog posts are intended to be
seen by all of a user's followers. Microblog users
can repost messages that they want to share with
their own followers, so a microblog post can
spread quickly. A widely reposted message is called
a viral post.
COMMUNICATION BARRIERS can include anything
that prevents or disables communicators to deliver
the right message to the right person at the right
time, or a receiver to get the right message at the
right time. 
Effective communication in the workplace is not
always straightforward and barriers can easily get
in the way. They cause messages to become
distorted, subsequently leading to confusion,
misunderstanding and even offense in some cases. 
 
Following are the common barriers to effective
communication:  
 
Physical barriers
Physical barriers may prevent an individual from
being able to interpret non-verbal cues. This is
more common in communication methods relying
on technology rather than face-to-face. Other
physical barriers include:
o Old or broken equipment used for
communication
o Uncomfortable temperatures
o Background noise
o Poor lighting
o Communicating close to the time of your
break/ lunch/ end of work hours
o Large work areas or working in an area that
is physically separated from colleagues
o Closed doors
o Large geographic distances between the
sender and the receiver - communication is
usually easier over shorter differences
Psychological barriers
The psychological state of the speaker and listener
can affect communication, for example:
o Someone who suffers from social anxiety
and/or low self-esteem may be too distracted
about how they are perceived when talking
with a superior. They may be worried about
whether their manager will notice that they're
nervous, they may find it difficult to share their
real thoughts etc. Afterwards this person may
realise they can't remember what the manager
 said because they were too distracted with
their thoughts.
o Anger can lead to saying things you regret
and misinterpreting what others say.
Organizational structure barriers
Companies with unclear structures can make
communication difficult. For example, they may
have an inefficient information sharing and
communication system, employees may not know
what their role is in the communication system etc.
If a company has a complex structure with lots of
management levels, information will be lost or
distorted as it travels through each layer of the
hierarchy.
Perceptual barriers
Differing opinions and views can reduce objectivity.
You may enter a conversation assuming that the
listener will not understand you or be uninterested
in what you're speaking about - this may
consequently lead you to unintentionally harming
your message, such as, using dismissive language
or trying to be more humorous.  Or you may be the
listener that doesn't agree with the speaker's
beliefs so you choose not to listen properly or you
look for faults in what they're saying rather than
trying to understand.
Attentional barriers
The listener may not pay enough attention  to what
is being said, perhaps they're distracted, or
uninterested or they think the speaker's topic is
irrelevant. This is very common in written
communication, such as not reading the minutes
from a team meeting. Communication is two-way;
without paying attention and actively listening you
will not understand the message.
Too much information
Providing someone with an overwhelming amount
of details can confuse them and distract from your
message. This is especially the case if the message
has a lot of information that is new to the receiver.
Make sure you avoid information overload in
meetings, where people can easily switch off.
Emotional barriers
Emotional reactions from either or both the
speaker and listener can prevent effective
communication. It's difficult to put aside and not
act on our emotions but it's necessary. Try to work
out what words, topics etc. can trigger your strong
emotional reactions so you can create a plan for
managing them.
A common emotion, in regard to communication,
is fear. People often have the tendency to think
that their opinions don't matter in the workplace
or that people will negatively judge them if they
speak up. But this isn't the case and it's likely that
others around you will also feel too afraid to say
anything so they'll respect you when you do speak
up. What is valuable to you will be valuable to
another person.
Cultural barriers
Cultural barriers can interfere with communication
in a variety of ways:
o The norms of communication vary between
cultures, such as, personal space. It's important
to find common ground in these situations.
o People may form assumptions based on
stereotypes of the other person's culture
(cultural noise).
o Work cultures differ between companies
which means you have to adapt to your
company's culture to communicate effectively.
 
Assumptions, jumping to conclusions and
premature evaluations
Forming a judgement before listening to
everything the speaker has to say distorts your
understanding. People often hear what they're
expecting which can lead to false conclusions.
Semantic and language barriers
There may be:
o Language differences between the speaker
and the listeners
o Difficulties in understanding unfamiliar
accents
o Uses of: jargon, unfamiliar/regional
expressions, specialist abbreviations, slang,
technical terminology
Interpersonal barriers
Low self-esteem and prejudices can prevent you
from forming relationships and connections with
others due to your false perceptions. To overcome
this you need to communicate more with others to
increase your confidence  and learn about your
strengths and weaknesses.
Physiological barriers
Impaired eyesight, hearing problems, illness and
pain can interfere with effective communication in
the workplace
Lack of similarities
To clarify your points it's common to use examples
and stories. However, their impact is reduced if:
the other person does not find these relatable,
they don't have the same knowledge or the same
experiences as you. Also, information is filtered on
a personal level using our experiences and beliefs.
The more similar somebody is to you the more
likely they will view things in the same way. So
speakers with different socioeconomic
backgrounds to their listeners must be careful to
tailor their speech to their audience.
Ambiguity
Being vague in your explanations and using too
many generalisations or proverbs can lead to
unclear communication and misinterpretation.
Status
Communication may suffer from selective
communication. The top of a company's hierarchy
may not share certain information to subordinates
for fear of being judged as incompetent and they
want to reinforce status differences. Subordinates
tend to share only information that would please
their superiors and avoid sharing their mistakes
and asking for further clarification on work.
Shortage of time
There may simply be a lack of time to convey
information effectively.
Resistance to change
People may want to maintain the status quo so
when, for example, a speaker tries to provide ideas
involving a change, people may ignore or oppose it.
Credibility barriers
People are more likely to listen to a message if the
sender has a credible and trustworthy reputation.
Without this credibility, receivers may be
suspicious, resistant or even hostile towards
communication.
Communication barriers can never be completely
eliminated. However, there are ways to reduce
their negative consequences and make
communication more streamlined and
effective. Digging deeper into the causes of
barriers in communication and a better
understanding of people’s communication
preferences are the most important prerequisites
for effective communication. 
1. Understand your multigenerational workforce
There are 5 working generations right now:
o Traditionalists – born in 1945 and before
o Baby Boomers – born between 1946 and
1964
o Generation X – born between 1965 and
1976
o Millennials – born between 1977 and 1995
o Generation Z – born in 1996 and after
Since these generations have different
communication preferences, neglecting to adjust
to them forms an inevitable communication
barrier. We need to better understand these
differences and adapt to them in order to make
communication more efficient. 
For example, millennials and Generation Z
employees  are used to having personalized news
feeds on social media. They like to build online
communities, share insights, and look for
recommendations on their favorite social channels.
This is the communication experience they also
expect from their employers. 
2. Make communication more agile
Earlier, we saw that highly hierarchical
organization can struggle with communication
more than those within which information flows
more freely. In today’s ever-changing world, it is
extremely important to implement more agile
means and ways of communication.  away from their smartphones. Moreover,
Information should always flow both ways, upward
communication (meaning the process in which
employees directly communicate with upper
management to provide feedback, share ideas and
raise concerns regarding their day-to-day
work.) should continuously be encouraged, and
employers should be able to quickly reach their
target audiences.  The sender should ensure that the message should
Upward communication is increasing in popularity
among organizations that want to build and
encourage an inclusive, participative and engaging
workplace culture.  Companies that foster upward
communication enjoy many benefits such as
workplace transparency, better team
collaboration, easier decision-making and,
therefore, better employee experience. 
3. Create and share engaging and personalized
content
People want to consume authentic, engaging, and
fun content. The days when we would just send
mass emails to the entire workplace are dead.  In
their personal lives, people consume media in
increasingly smaller bites. Long-form content is still
here, but social media has shown us
that organizations need to share messaging in
people’s preferred formats, including video,
infographics, webinars, podcasts, and memes.  
Additionally, content irrelevancy also creates
barriers to communication. Yet, many
organizations still don’t have ways to better
segment their internal audiences based on various
criteria such as age, location, job function,
language, interest, and preferences. Hence,
irrelevant content can be the biggest cause of
disengagement and poor workplace experience.  Both should listen to the each other’s point of view
4. Switch to mobile-first communication
Since communication is highly digital today, we
need to better understand people’s preferred
communication devices in both their personal and
professional lives. 
Millennials, who are the largest generation labor
force, are projected to represent 75%  of the
global workforce by 2025.  Them and generation Z
both grew up in the technological age, they are
always connected and can’t spend a few hours
they check their phones 150 times a day!
Therefore, switching to mobile-first
communication can go a long way to eliminating
some of the most significant communication
barriers.
5. Be aware of language, message and tone
be structured in clear and simple language. The
tone of the message should not harm the feelings
of the receiver. As far as possible, the contents of
the message should be a concise and unnecessary
use of technical words should be avoided.
6. Consistency of Message
The message sent to the receiver should not be
self- opposing. It should be in unity with the
objectives, programmes, policies and techniques of
the organization. When new information has to be
sent inlay of the old one, it should always make a
declaration of the change; otherwise, it can raise
some doubts and queries for the same.
7.  Make sure to receive proper feedback
The reason for feedback is to find out whether the
receiver has appropriately understood the
meaning of the information received. In face-to-
face communication, the reply of the receiver can
be understood. But in the case of written
communication or other forms of
communications, some correct process of
feedback should be adopted by the sender.
8.  Be a good listener
It is the essence of communication that both the
sender and the receiver should be good listeners.
with attention, patience and positive attitude. A
sender can receive much relevant information by
being a good listener.
An essential skill for all tourism professionals is the
ability to Work in a Team . The reason it is
important is because all facilities and services
offered by tourism enterprise are the result of the
input of many (Shannessy at al., 2008).   
A Team  according to (Shannessy at al., 2008) is a
collection of people who work together to achieve
collectively established common goals.  A team has
one main objective: Achieving a goal through the
combined efforts of the members of that team.
On the other hand, Team Spirit is an attitude that
enables people to work together, it is about
camaraderie, cooperation and collaboration.  A
team spirit exists in successful teams, team
members who have team spirit demonstrate
through their actions, commitment to the other
members, the job and themselves.  several advantages:
Team Work is the collective effort of all team
members to achieve the team’s common goals.
When teams are effective there is no doubt that is
the result of teamwork, organization will benefit
and that our work life will be considerably more
enjoyable as a result.  When the work environment
is pleasant, employees are generally happy.  When
employees are happy, the customers will
benefit. (Shannessy at al., 2008)
According to (Moga, 2017) in any organization, no
one works alone. Every employee is a part of a
team and works in close coordination with the
team members to perform his level best and in
turn benefit the organization. The team members
should complement each other and come to each
other’s need whenever required.  Teams can be
formed anywhere, anytime whenever the task is
little difficult and complicated.  which require a team involving a number of
Teams are divided into four main types namely:   element of diversity, at least in terms of
1. SELF MANAGED TEAM
Also known as Self-reliant or Self Directed teams.
They are natural work groups that are given
substantial Autonomy and in return are asked to
control their own behavior and produce significant
results.  The combination empowerment and
training to plan, direct, monitor and control their
own activities distinguishes this team from many
others.  They have wide-ranging autonomy and
freedom, coupled with capability to act like
managers.  What is Self Managing team Like?
Typically, teams members learn a wide range
relevant skills; this practice is
called multiskilling. As a result, members are
flexibly float from area to area and task to task,
depending on where they are needed the most.
They make joint decision about work schedules,
resource requirements, and assignment of tasks.   most highly qualified team members maybe
Self Managed Team may begin by assuming
responsibility for simple matters such as
housekeeping issues and safety trainings.  Later,
they may begin to manage their own absenteeism,
set overtime and vacation schedule, select and
appraise team members, train co-workers, and
engage in direct contact with key customers.  
Organization using self-managing teams report
 
o Improved flexibility of the staff
o More efficient operations through reduced
number of job classification 
o Lower Absenteeism and turnover rates
o Higher level of organizational commitment
and job satisfaction 
2. CROSS FUNCTIONAL TEAM
Teams where people from different functions work
together towards a common goal.  Members of
this team could be subject matter experts from
different functions, say for example, one person is
from Marketing, one person from Sales and the
other one from Product Development.  These
people are put together to make a cross functional
team. Cross Functional Teams are used when a
company is working on its improvement projects,
functions.  By their very nature, they contain a high
professional background and work specializati
3. VIRTUAL TEAM
Information technology has a powerful effect on
the individual behavior in organizations, and its
effect is equally strong on social networks at the
Team level.  Technology has allowed the
emergence of Virtual teams.  Groups of Individuals
from around the globe that meet through the use
of technological aids without all their members
being present in the same location.  
The explosion in the use of Virtual teams came
about due to several compelling reasons.  For
example, the global marketplace has created a
demand for placing employees (e.g. customer-
service persons) near their customers.  Also, the
located thousand of Miles from each other, and
the cost and time constraints of travel to a central
location would be prohibitive.  Further, the
personal expectations of contemporary employees
for flexibility and involvement also create a push in
this direction.  Finally, the rapid development of
both transmission capabilities (fiber-optic lines)
and communication software has made it possible
for groups to "meet" from afar.    their attention towards the group's task.  An aura
Three (3) Dimensions characteristics of Virtual
teams
o TIME: When people work – working with
different hours, shifts or time zones
o SPACE: Where they work – different
locations/countries/continents
o CULTURE: How and to whom people work
for – Gender, Race, Language, Profession,
Education, Nationality etc. 
4. Problem Solving Team
They are usually temporary and focus on solving
specific issues.  Once guidelines are set in place
and plans are formed the task force, committees
or such problem-solving teams are disbanded.   sense of cohesion becomes apparent.
Many times, PROBLEM SOLVING TEAM are created
when an organization experiences a crisis,
financial, operation or involving other major units
or any unforeseen events or challenges.  The
team’s aim is to come up with proper solutions to
help the organization climb up out from a steep
recession or whatever its current difficult state.   some members.  Eventually, however, a fully
For teams to be effective, the people in the team
must be able to work together to contribute
collectively to team outcomes (Shannessy et al.,
2008). But this does not happen automatically: it
develops as the team works together. You have
probably had an experience when you have been
put on a team to work on a school assignment or
project. When your team first gets together, you
likely sit around and look at each other, not
knowing how to begin. Initially you are not a team.  jobs.  The adjournment stage is becoming even
You are just individuals assigned to work together.
Over time you get to know each other, to know
what to expect from each other, to know how to
divide the labor and assign tasks, and to know how
you will coordinate your work. Through this
process, you begin to operate as a team instead of
a collection of individuals.  helpful to group members and their leaders.
There are 5 stages of Team Development process: 
1.  FORMING Members share and exchange basic
personal information, start to get to know and
accept one another, ask questions about their
assignments and objectives, and begin turning
of courtesy prevails, uncertainty is in the air, and
interaction are often cautious.  
2. STORMING Members compete for status, jockey
for position of relative control, and argue about
appropriate direction for the group.  External
pressure interfere with the group, and tensions
rise between individuals as they assert themselves
and disagree about initial actions.  If these stresses
are not confronted, hard feelings may emerge and
slows the group's progress.  
3. NORMING The group begin moving together in a
cooperative fashion, and tentative balance among
competing forces is struck.  Group Noms emerge to
guide individual behavior, role clarity emerges,
cooperative feelings are increasingly evident, and a
 
4.  PERFORMING The group matures and learns to
handle complex challenges. Functional roles are
performed fluidly exchanged as needed, and task
efficiently accomplished. However, a sense of
achievement may also prematurely emerge
because of errors made, pessimism about the
prospects of success, and complacency among
functioning team will resolve their issues, establish
a unique identity, and develop an atmosphere of
openness.  
5. ADJOURNING Even the most successful groups,
committees, and project teams disband (or change
their composition) sooner or later.  Their break-up
is called adjournment.  which requires dissolving
intense social relations and returning to
permanent assignments or moving on to another
more frequent with the advent of flexible
organizations, which features temporary groups.
Successful teams examine their own history in
search of lessons they have learned, and bid
farewell to their teammates.  
Advising new teams of these likely stages can be
Awareness by all team members can help them
better understand what is happening and work in such a team all the ideas of the members are
through the issues involved.  Consequently, not all heard equally and manage the team effectively?
teams will clearly experience all the stages of the
cycle.  Some groups maybe temporarily stuck in a According to (Ahmed, 2020) it’s important to
certain stage and others may find themselves understand the differences in order to foster
reverting to an earlier stage from time to time.  To harmony in a team. Cultural differences affect
prevent unnecessary trials and tribulation and teamwork as a result of the following areas: 
expedite their own development, team members  
may find it useful to study what problems other
1. Religious & Political beliefs  a  person’s religious
teams have encountered and also know what
or political belief should not affect the team as
elements help create successful teams.  
their relevance in the workplace is
The workplace is a dynamic environment that is insignificant. However, religious observation may
frequently changing. Whether it is people, influence a person’s ability to perform their task,
processes, markets or products, there are often which they need to observe certain practices
shifts that employees have to deal with. While during work time.  
some employees work with the same team for a
2.  Communication styles  In some cultures, it is
long period of time, it is more likely that new team
considered rude to speak directly, whereas in
members will come and go as business needs
others it is encouraged. This can cause
change.  However, not all employees have the
miscommunication, resentment and confusion.
same cultural background or personality traits, so
Some team members may not speak up if they
it can be difficult to get along with everyone and
disagree with another team member because it is
function effectively as a productive team. As a
not something that is done in their culture. In
result, it is important to understand the differences
other cases, providing direct feedback or
between team members and know how to work
instruction may be taken as stepping on toes or
through them in order to achieve business goals.
taking too much authority. 
(Ahmed, 2020) 
3. Hierarchy and power  equality in the workplace
Cross-cultural teams are global teams that include
is the norm in some cultures, whereas in others the
people who come from different cultures and
structure is more hierarchical. For employees that
unique experiences. Companies fail to consider
come from cultures that focus on status and
these fundamental differences within a
authority, speaking up about problems may be
team, leading to conflicts and frustration that can
difficult because they feel uncomfortable or
be easily thwarted once you gain a quick
disrespectful. On the other hand, those that value
understanding of the individuals in a team.
equality may perceive others as lacking
These differences can stem from communication competence if they don’t share their thoughts and
styles and individual frame of references. For opinions with leadership. 
example, members in some countries are willing to
4. Risk and decision making In some cultures,
work more than the stipulated hours of work, even
making a decision requires more data and
working remotely from home. On the other hand,
information than others. Some employees may
workers in different countries may not consider
have a low tolerance for risk and not want to
working beyond the said hours except in
commit to making a decision without having
emergency situations, and their mobile devices are
context or details. Others may be confident in
switched off when they leave the office.
making decisions without much data. This can
Another major difference of style in a cross-cultural affect the pace of the team and how work is
team is the communicating pattern of each team conducted.
member.  While some team members vociferously
5.  Influences There can be chances that a section
voice their unfiltered opinions and ideas, those
or group of the team has similar cultural identity or
from hierarchical cultures tend to think a lot before
homogeneity. They may attempt to dominate the
raising their voice. So, how can you make sure that
process and try to influence the entire team to
swing their way. As a result, it can create
unnecessary tensions and a frustrating
environment for other team members. Team and
group dynamics can be a major concern in a cross-
cultural team. This can lead to unnecessary group
politics and conflicts within a team.
6. Motivation Factors Normally, companies have a
single-threaded motivation and rewards system
that is largely determined by the norms and values
of the company.  It does not account for the
distinct motivational factors of a cross cultural
teams.  The motivators for employees can range
from tangible benefits of increments, bonus,
incentives, career progression and intangible
benefits that include recognition, job satisfaction,
encouragement, etc.   members. For example, different cultures prioritise
It is important to recognize what motivates each
individual to excel in their role so that you can
drive them aptly towards performance. In the
absence of a proper catalyst, the team members
may lack enthusiasm and be less engaged at work.
A prime concern in managing a cross-cultural team
is to find a unified thread to tie across all the
distinct personalities. A one size fits all approach is
not an effective solution. Since there are different
beliefs and styles of communication at play,
multicultural teams are prone to friction. 
The good news is that there are simple ways to
minimise this friction and manage a cross-cultural
team successfully.
According to statistics, culturally diverse teams
outperform non-diverse teams by 35%. If you have
a cross-cultural team and steer it in the right
direction, it can lead to greater
efficiency. Companies are afraid to implement
diversity with a fear that introducing people who
may not agree with each other will hamper
productivity.
On the contrary, having different types of people
on the same team can help others look at
problems prudently while also being more
innovative, creative and inclusive about their
solutions.
Here are some tips to foster cross-cultural working
relationships:
1. Get to Know Each Team Member
It is essential for the team leader to take the time
and get to know each team member. Learn about
their story and journey. This will help you analyse
individual skills and leverage the knowledge to help
the group. You might uncover specialised skills that
can be beneficial to everyone and also understand
the personality of the member at the same time.
2. Adopt Flexibility
According to a book named the Cultural
Map, scheduling and decision making are two key
workplace values that greatly vary across
cultures. Assessing these values can go a long way
to understand the priorities of your team
either flexibility or a linear time construct to finish
a task.
3. Promote Open Communication
Give every team member a chance to voice their
opinions. An open communication line is essential
for greater efficiency. Otherwise, team members
feel under-appreciated and dominated by either
the management or the dominant players in the
group. 
When attempting to reach a consensus through
virtual meetings, plan ahead and ensure to send
the agenda well in advance to actively solicit each
team member’s opinions.
4. Encourage Team Building Activities
When a mix of cultures is trying to come together
in a team, organisations should make every effort
to create opportunities for casual interactions.
Happy hours, team outings, lunch and learn,
birthday parties, pantry banter, etc. help
employees to bond with each other despite their
differences.  Encourage team members to interact
during their downtime and through social events.  
5. Address Conflict Immediately
If a conflict ensues regardless of your efforts, make
sure to address it promptly before it is too
late. Understand different cultural perspectives at
play and try to resolve the conflict by taking the
middle path. A leader should serve as a cultural
bridge to connect different members of the team
and bring unison.
7. Create a Cross-Cultural Awareness Program
You can teach your members how to interact with
others in different regions and countries
effectively. Training and awareness can include
sessions on greetings, business etiquette and
dining customs. This will help to dissolve the
tension and educate members on the prevalent
cultural styles of other team members.
This will also enable you to identify and embrace
cultural differences rather than ignoring them
altogether. Organisations will be able to create
resilient global teams and better relationships with
clients, customers across the globe.
8. Develop a Team Identity and Clearly Define
Roles and Responsibility of Members
In a team, it’s important that all members
understand the common goal. Having a shared goal
and a common purpose will give your team an
identity that can bring them together. At the same
time, clearly outline the expectations of each team
member and let everyone know that their
contribution matters.
Break down the common goal into actionable steps
that define each member’s role and
responsibilities. This way, everyone will collaborate
and work together without stepping on each
other’s territory.
9. Build Great Rapport and Trust
Building work relations and trust cannot happen
overnight. Take the steps to slowly build an
environment for collaboration. Respect individual
differences and understand them to build unity in a
culturally diverse team.
The proliferation of cross-cultural teams might
bring challenges, but it can be handled successfully
with sensitivity and respect for other cultures. We
need  to institute a framework that makes it easier
to understand individual differences and leverage
those differences to bring out the best capabilities
in a team.
Most of the times a clear understanding and
acceptance of cultural differences is what it takes
to successfully manage a cross-cultural team.
Having a cross-cultural team is the greatest
opportunity to learn different backgrounds,
innovate new solutions and procreate success. It’s
time to consider cross-cultural teams as an asset
and not a liability!
What is Team Feedback?
This is information about a reaction to a product,
or a person’s performance of a task, which is used
as basis for improvement.  Giving and receiving
feedback is an important component of successful
teamwork.  In addition, feedback should always
focus on work performance.  According to
(Shannessy et al., 2008) Team feedback must:  
o Be communicated positively to have the
desired effect. 
o Positive Feedback would include
communicating your concerns assertively,
openly and by highlighting the impact the
behavior has on achieving the team’s goals. 
o Positive feedback allows the person to
receive the information without feeling
defensive or hostile in return  
o Negative feedback must also be expressed
but should not be done in a harsh way,
intended at making the person feel guilty and
defensive.  The feedback may be negative but
the purpose of communicating it is always to be
constructive so that the situation and
performance will improve.
1.  Be problem focused and specific
Example:  “You need to be getting into the office
earlier” 
Telling the employee what they need to do
better.  Explain them why one needs to be clear
about the actual problem at hand. 
2. Talk about the situation, not the individual
Example:  “Your presentation put a lot of people to
sleep” 
Constructive feedback focuses on outcomes and
impartial observations rather than the employees
personal attributes . You are just showing that you
are concerned about fixing the problem at hand
not the employees personality 
 3.  Give praise where it is due
EXAMPLE:  “I think you did a great job with this
account. Sales are up 13% since last quarter.”
“However, we've had a few customers still
complaining about product”
Weaving some positive among the negative can be
a good way to reassure employees that you have
not lost perspective.  It tells the employee that you
are not criticizing their overall performance; just
that certain aspect of the job that needs attention.
 4. Be direct but formal
Try not to use technology (Phone, email, SMS) to
relay your feedback, as this can lead to
misinterpretation and make it seem less important
than it really is. Find a quiet room where you can
have an honest and informal one on one chat with
the employee.  no conflict, it might be a sign of a problem. A team
5. Be Sincere
If your tone and manner do not match the context
of the feedback itself, you could send out a mixed
message that confuses the recipient
If feedback is positive, let your emotions indicate
that you appreciate their effort. On the other hand
if providing negative feedback, a more concerned
tone will show that you believe that the problem
should be taken seriously.  Always avoid displaying
negative emotions, such as anger, sarcasm, or
disappointment, as they are likely to be perceived
as personal criticism.   avoid controversy. Team members accept what the
6. Listen
While giving constructive feedback, make sure that
staff is given a chance to respond. You must be
prepared to listen to their concerns and their
interpretation of events; it can also be used as an
opportunity for employees to express their ideas.   polite and trying to understand everyone’s
7.  Make Timely
Always try to give positive feedback when the
employee's praiseworthy achievement is still fresh
in everyone's memory. The same applies to
negative feedback.  When giving constructive
feedback focus on the behavior, not their
personality and it is given in a tone and setting that
conveys support and respect.  
FINALS
Conflict is the process by which people or groups
perceive that others have taken some action that
has a negative effect on their interest. Conflict is a
normal part of a team’s life. Unfortunately, people
have misconceptions about conflict that interfere
with how they deal with it. These misconceptions
include the following: 
o Conflict is bad and should be avoided. 
o Team members misunderstanding one
another causes conflict. 
o All conflicts can be resolved to everyone’s
satisfaction. 
In a dynamic team, conflict is a normal part of the
team’s activity and is a healthy sign. If a team has
without conflict might be suffering from unhealthy
agreement, have a domineering leader who
suppresses all conflict and debate, or be
performingits task in a routine manner and not
trying to improve how it works. 
Teams often do not handle their conflicts very well.
Sometimes, rather than trying to manage their
conflicts, they try to ignore or avoid them. This is
called “defensive avoidance.” To avoid a conflict,
everyone becomes quiet when a controversy
occurs. Decision-making problems such as the
Abilene paradox are in part caused by the desire to
leader says in order to avoid conflict. The
consequences are poor decision making and more
problems later in the group’s life. 
The causes of team conflict change during the
team’s development. During the initial stage, there
is little conflict because team members are being
positions. This gives way to team conflicts about
operating rules and status issues as the team sorts
out its roles and rules. Once the team becomes
task oriented, conflicts arise about how tasks
should be performed. Often, the final stages of a
project have little conflict because team members
are focused on implementing the decisions they
have made earlier. 
It is more appropriate to talk about conflict
management than about conflict resolution.
Conflict is a normal part of a team’s operation, and
some conflicts cannot be fully resolved. 
The resolution of a conflict depends on what type
of conflict it is. If it is about task issues, the solution
is an agreement. Typically, once the agreement is
made, it continues to operate. If the conflict is
about relationship issues, then an agreement,
periodic checks on how well the agreement is
working, and opportunities to redefine the
agreement are needed. This is true because
agreements about relationshipissues can change as
the relationship changes.  Conflict may be due to social factors within the
Sourcesof Conflict:
A.  HEALTHY
o Focus on task issues
o Legitimate differences of opinion about the
task  conflict.
o Differences in values and perspectives 
o Different expectations about the impact of
decisions 
B.  UNHEALTHY
o Competition over power, rewards, and
resources
o Conflict between individual and group goals
o Poorly run team meetings
o Personal grudges from the past  conflicts is an unwillingness to agree. However, it
o Faulty communications  can be difficult to determine whether someone has
Legitimate conflicts are caused by a variety of
factors. Differences in values and objectives of
team members, differing beliefs about the
motives and actions of others, and different
expectations about the results of decisions can all
lead to conflicts about what the team should
do. These differences create conflicts, but from
these conflicts come better team decisions.  as a negative event, conflict in teams is both
Hidden conflicts that are not really about the
team’s task may spring
from organizational, social, and personal
sources. Organizational causes of
conflict include competition over scarce
resources, ambiguity over responsibilities, status
differences among team
members, and competitive reward systems. One
common type of organizational conflict is the
conflict between the team’s goals and the goals of
individual team members. This is especially true for
a cross-functional project team made up of
representativesfrom different parts of an
organization (Franz & Jin, 1995). Hidden agendas
(i.e., the hidden personal goals of team members)
may lead to conflict in the team that can be
difficult to identify and resolve. Gaining agreement
about the overall goals of the team and
renegotiating team roles can help deal with this
type of conflict. 
team. A team with a leader who has poor
facilitation skills can have poorly run meetings with
a lot of conflict. Poor group norms often show up
in poorly managed meet- ings. When meetings are
unproductive, conflict may arise because team
members are dissatisfied with the team process.
Spending time evaluating and developing
appropriate norms helps deal with this type of
 
Conflicts may arise from personality differences or
poor social relations among team members. These
may be due to grudges stemming from past losses,
misinterpretations about another person’s
behavior, or faulty communication, such as
inappropriate criticism or distrust. These are often
called “personality differences,” but typically their
source is interpersonal. Although team members
are disagreeing about issues, the root cause of the
a legitimate disagreement about an issue or is
opposed to agreeing for personal reasons. To deal
with these sources of conflict, team building and
other approaches to improving social relations are
important. 
1.  Benefits of and Problems With Conflict.  
1. Although people often view conflict
inevitable and a sign of health. Healthy teams
are organized to gain the benefits of multiple
perspectives. Team members with these
multiple perspectives will view issues differently
and learn from one another in the process of
resolving their differences. 
2.
Conflict is an integral part of the team process; it
becomes unhealthy for the team when it is avoided
or viewed as an opportunity to dominate an
opponent. 
3.
4.
The benefits of conflict are that it encourages the
team to explore new approaches, motivates
people to understand issues better, and
encourages new ideas (Robbins, 1974)When
opposing views are brought into the open and
discussed, the team makes better decisions and
organizational commitment is enhanced (Cosier&
Dalton, 1990). When conflict is dealt
constructively, it stimulates greater team
creativity. For this to happen, team members must
be willing to participate in the conflict resolution
process.  instead trivial issues are being expressed through
5.
6.
Conflict can have negative effects on a team by
creating strong negative emotions and stress. It
can also interfere with communication and
coordination. Conflicts can destroy team cohesion,
damage social relations, and create winners and
losers who will be a source of conflict in the future.
When the conflict is with an outside group, it can
encourage a shift to authoritarian leadershipand
negative stereotyping of others(Fodor, 1976).
7.
8.
Conflict can have negative effects on a team by
creating strong negative emotions and stress. It
can also interfere with communication and
coordination. Conflicts can destroy team cohesion,
damage social relations, and create winners and
losers who will be a source of conflict in the future.
When the conflict is with an outside group, it can
encourage a shift to authoritarian leadershipand
negative stereotyping of others(Fodor, 1976).
9.
10.
Whether conflicts are productive or unproductive
depends on how the team tries to resolve its
conflicts (Witeman, 1991). Productive
conflicts directly addresses the issues in which
people have differences of opinion or points of
view without devolving into personal attacks. The
debate can be lively and impassioned, but it
remains focused on the issue that needs to be
discussed. Those involved seek to find the right
answer, not just to win the argument or gain
individual glory. At the end, even if disagreement
still exists, people can walk away feeling heard and
respected. In productive conflicts, team members
focus cooperatively on solving the problems.
11.
12.
Unproductive conflicts frequent, repetitive
arguments that are not resolved and that leave
both parties feeling more angry and frustrated. It is
common for unproductive conflict to occur when
the “real” issues are not being communicated, but
provocative communication styles such as jokes,
sarcasm, denial, blame, etc.
13.
2.  Conflict in Work Teams
o Whether conflict has a beneficial or
detrimental effect on a work team depends on
the type of conflict and the team’s task (DeWit,
Greer, & Jehn, 2012). Relationshipconflictsis a
conflict resulting from either personality clashes
or negative emotional interactions between
two or more people. For example, you may
have a conflict with your cube mate because
you keep a very tidy workspace and his is
always messy. This irritates you and causes
tension in the cubicle.
o Task conflict also called “content
conflict”. Task conflict happens due to
disagreements about how to complete work
tasks. It can often arise when employees
interpret the company's policies and
procedures or instructions given for work
assignments differently. For example, a project
team may have arguments over how to allocate
work and which team members should be
responsible for specific tasks. A team of
accountants and financial analysts may also
disagree over how to interpret and report the
results of financial data since each member
brings a unique perspective.Task conflictcan
help make your employees more open with
each other if they address it appropriately and
promptly. It can also hurt your team's
productivity and cause lower morale in the
workplace if left uncontrolled.
o
Relationship conflict is detrimental regardless of
the type of task a team is performing (Jehn, 1995).
Although relationship conflict creates
dissatisfaction for the team, it often does not
overly disrupt the team’s performance. In many
cases, team members try to avoid working with
members with whom they do not get along on a
personal level. Consequently, relationship conflict
hurts performance only when the task requires
interdependent actions.
o on their personalities, their social relations, and
o the particular situation.
This distinction between the effects of task and relationship
conflict does not always hold (DeDreu& Weingart, 2003).
Conflict disrupts performance and reduces satisfaction because
it creates stress and negative feelings and distracts members
from performing the task. Low levels of conflict in decision-
making tasks may improve the quality and creativity of decision
making, but this effect vanishes when the conflict intensifies. A
little conflict may stimulate thinking, but more intense conflict
distracts people because of their emotions.  outcomes of others
o In other words, people in a conflict can be assertive
o The reality is that task and relationship
conflict are often correlated (Choi & Cho, 2011).
Disagreement on a task issue can lead to
personal attacks. It is difficult to say, “I don’t
like your ideas” and not have it heard as, “I
think you are stupid.” Relationship conflicts
often lead to increased task conflicts because of
the negative emotions that are created. One
factor that affects the relationship between
task conflict and performance is trust. When
team members have a high degree of trust in
each other, task-related conflict is less likely to
lead to relationship conflict. Teams with high
levels of trust can tolerate task-related conflict
and use the conflict productively.  agreeable. They are being cooperative, but it costs
o Teams can benefit from task conflict when
they have a high degree of trust and
psychological safety (DeDreu& Weingart, 2003).
To use conflict constructively, teams need to
cultivate an environment that is open and
tol- erantof diverse viewpoints, where team
members feel free to express their opinions and
have the ability to resist pressure to conform to
the group (Ilgen, Hollenbeck, Johnson, & Jundt,
2005). They need to develop coop- erativework
relationships so that disagreements are not
misinterpreted as personal attacks. A
“constructive controversy” uses communication
styles that focus on issues and ideas and not on
personal criticism (Tjosvold, 1995).  others’ positions.
The conflict resolution approaches available to
teams vary, depending on the team members’
desire to be assertive and cooperative. Because
team members have long-term relationships with
one another, they should try to use a collaborative
approach to conflicts whenever possible. 
Two Dimensions of Conflict
There are several ways people and teams can try to
resolve conflicts. The approaches they take depend
o The types of conflict resolution approaches
can be analyzed using the following two
dimensions: 
o Integration - concern about one’s
own outcomes
o Distribution - concern about the
 
and try to get the most for themselves, or they can
be cooperative and concerned with how
everyone’s progress. These two dimensions are
independent and lead to the creation of five
different approaches to conflict resolution.    
Five (5) different approaches to conflict resolution
1. Avoidance. This approach tries to ignore the
issues or denies that there is a problem. By not
confronting the conflict, team members hope it
will go away by itself. 
2. Accommodation. Some team members may
decide to give up their position in order to be
the team the value of their opinions and ideas. 
3. Confrontation. Acting aggressively and trying to
win is one way to deal with a conflict. However,
winning can become more important than making
a good decision. 
4. Compromise. One way in which to balance the
goals of each participant and the relations among
the teams is for everyone to “give in” a little. 
5. Collaboration. When both sides of a conflict
have important concerns, the team needs to
search for solutions that satisfy everyone. This
requires both cooperativeness and respect for
 
Comparing Different Approaches to Conflict
Resolution
o Although all these approaches can be used
to resolve conflict, each approach has
problems.  these unresolved conflicts disrupt trust, hurt
o Avoidance, accommodation, and
confrontation all may work to resolve the
conflict, but these approaches create winners
and los- ers. Teams using these styles often
have trouble implementing decisions and find
themselves addressing the same issues later.  conflicts. Preparing for conflicts means developing
o Compromise works somewhat better
because everyone wins a little and loses a little.
A compromise promotes equity or fairness but
usually does not result in optimal decisions.  expressed.
o When possible, teams should use
a collaborative approach to conflict resolution.
In collaboration, team members search for the
alternative solution that allows everyone to
win. Although finding a collaborative solution
may be time consuming and difficult, it has
many benefits. Collaboration encourages
creativity, leads to greater commitment to
decisions, and improves relationships among
team members 
o
Members of work teams have long-term concerns
about their relationships that go beyond specific
situations or conflicts. Teams with shared goals and
long-term commitments are likely to show more
concern for other team members when conflicts
arise. Conflicts arise from different perspectives
and interests, but the shared goals encourage
concern for the perspectivesof others. This is why
work teams tend to use collaboration and
accommodation when resolving internal conflicts 
o trust among team members that dealing with a
o conflict will not damage their relationship within
Although collaboration may be the best approach in theory, it
cannot always be achieved in practice. Occasions arise when
different approaches to conflict resolution are best. For
example, in a conflict with an emotionally upset boss, a good
short-term strategy is to be accommodating. In an emergency
situation, people are more likely to accept a confrontational
style because they value a quick resolution. Collaboration is the
best approach when team members have relatively equal status
and there is time to work through a solution. Other approaches
may be better when there are large differences in power and a
quick resolution is needed.  Teams can engage in other preemptive conflict
o
1. Preparing for Conflicts
Teams often try to ignore or avoid conflicts rather
than addressing them. This strategy allows the
conflict to grow, and sometimes task conflicts
become relationship conflicts because they have
not been resolved. The negative emotions from
communications, and make the conflicts harder to
resolve. 
Teamsshould take a more proactive approach to
conflict manage mentby preparing for
approaches to identify conflicts in early stages and
creating an environmentthat supports constructive
controversy so that disagreements can be
 
Because people try to avoid conflict, problems
within a team often go unspoken and unaddressed.
Teams need to create a communication climate
where members feel safe to raise issues and voice
disagreement.  Example: 
o Leaders need to facilitate team meetings in
a manner that encourages participation from all
members 
o Teams should regularly conduct group
process evaluations to help identify problems
and periodically set aside time for task and
social reflexivity sessions to identify unresolved
issues and team process problems 
The most important aspect of preparing for
conflicts is to create a psychologicallysafe
communication environment that allows for
constructive controversy to occur. The goal is to
make it safe for team members to address task
conflicts without creating unwanted emotional
problems within the team. This requires a sense of
the team. 
Psychological safety encourages teams to address
conflicts in a collaborative fashion rather than to
avoid them.It allows dealing with task conflicts to
have a positive impact on team performance
without creating relationship conflicts that hurt
performance. 
management strategies to help avoid
conflicts. Preemptive conflict management
strategies include The development of cooperation
and trust-building among members, team
contracts that identify how to handle difficult
situations, and the development of norms for
managing communication within a team. These
actions help the team effectively address conflicts
and reduce the destructive impact of conflicts
when they occur.  House). When the stakes are high, it may be
2. Facilitating Conflicts
Successful conflict management requires
developing trust among participants (Ross & Ward,
1995). If members on one side trust members on
the other side and believe everyone wants a fair
solution, they are better able to negotiate a
solution. 
Outside mediators or facilitators can sometimes
be helpful for managing team conflicts when the
issues have become too emotional. Mediators
operateby gaining trust among participants,
managing hostilities, developing solutions to
conflicts, and gaining commitment to the solutions
from participants(Carnevale, 1986). They use a
variety of tactics to do this. Some tactics focus on
the emotional or relationship aspects of situations,
whereas others are oriented more toward
problem-solving aspects.  beneficial to both sides. Integrative
In highly emotionally charged situations, direct
communication can lead to threats and aggressive
language. Mediators help control the
communicationsbetween people on both sides of
the conflict to ensure courtesy and respectful
communication. They create controlled
opportunities for each side to express their views
and listen to and acknowledge the other side’s
perspective. This helps reduce the impact of
miscommunication and confusion about the other
side’s position. Mediators search for small areas of
agreement in order to build trust and demonstrate
that there is common ground
3. Negotiating Conflicts
Negotiation or bargaining is the process by which
two sides engaged in a conflict exchange offers and
counteroffers in an effort to find a mutually
acceptable agreement. One of the most important
dimensions in understanding how negotiation
works in conflict resolution is whether participants
have a win-win or a win-lose perspective 
o A win-lose perspective is based on the
belief that what is good for one side is
incompatible with what is good for the
other.   It is also known as “Distributive
Bargaining” usually used for negotiating the
price of goods or services (Ex. Car,
appropriate to use legitimate  “Gamesmanship”
(pushing the rules to their limits) to gain
advantage.  But, when you want to have an
ongoing, productive relationship with the
person you're negotiating with, these
techniques can have serious drawbacks:
o One person "playing hardball" puts
the other person at a disadvantage. This may
lead to reprisals later.
o If the losing party needs to fulfill
some part of a deal, they may decide to become
uncooperative and awkward.
o Using tricks and manipulation during
a negotiation can undermine trust and damage
teamwork.
o Win-win perspective, participants believe a
solution that satisfies both sides is possible. The
goal of managing team conflicts is to develop
integrative, win-win agreements that are
agreements are more rewarding than
compromises and improve ongoing
relationships among parties (Pruitt, 1986). The
keys to developing integrative agreements are
focusing attention on interests rather than
positions and developing trust and rapport
between the conflicted parties. 
The search for an integrative solution can be
difficult. It is often useful for a team to either use
an outside facilitator for a difficult conflict or
receive training in facilitating conflicts.
The following (adapted from Fisher, Ury, &
Patton, 1991) is the structure for negotiation of a
conflict: 
1. Separate the people from the problem. 
o Negotiations must deal with both the issues
and the relationship, but these two factors
should be separated. 
o Diagnose the cause of the conflict. What
goals are in conflict? Identify what each side in
a conflict wants; make sure each side clearly
understands the issues. 
o Encourage both sides to recognize and o Establish monitoring criteria to ensure that
understand their emotions. Ask them to view agreements are kept. 
the conflict from the perspective of the other o Discussways in which the team can deal
side and practiceactive listening.  with similar issues in the future. How can the
team improve its ability to manage conflicts?
2. Focus on the shared interests of all parties.  (Fisher, Ury, & Patton, 1991) 
EXPATRIATES  a migrant worker who is a
o Focus on the issues, not on positions. 
professional or skilled worker in his or her
o Identify how each side can get what it
profession. The worker takes a position outside
wants. Determine the issues that are
his/her home country, either independently or as a
incompatible between the two sides. Recognize
work assignment scheduled by the employer,
that both sides have legitimatemultiple
which can be a company, university, government,
interests. 
or non-governmental organization.
o Have each side identify and rank its goals in
the conflict. This often showsthat the important
EXPATS  usually earn more than they would at
goals of each side are different, thereby
home, and more than local employees. In addition
helpingeach side see how to trade off
to salary, businesses sometimes give their
unimportant goals to get what it really wants. 
expatriate employees benefits such as relocation
3. Develop many options that can be used to assistance and housing allowance. Living as an
solve the problem.  expatriate can be exciting and present an excellent
opportunity for career advancement and global
o Creatively try to generate alternatives that business exposure, but it can also be an
provide mutual gains for both sides. Separate emotionally difficult transition that involves
generation of ideas from selection of separation from friends and family while adjusting
alternatives.  to an unfamiliar culture and work environment.
o Look for areas of shared interest. Invent Hence, the reason behind the higher compensation
multiple solutions as well as solutionsto parts of offered to these migrant workers.
the problem. 
o Practice viewing the problem from
alternative perspectives.  Expatriates help their companies establish
operations in other countries, enter overseas
4. Evaluate the options using objective criteria.  markets or transfer skills and knowledge to their
companies’ business partners. The experience
o Develop objective criteria to use as a basis
helps organizations develop their management
for decisions. Define what fair standards and
skills base and their ability to succeed in a global
fair procedures to use to resolve the conflict.
marketplace.
Agree on these principles before agreeing on a
solution.  Improve Local Market Knowledge. By living and
o Talk through the issues in order to working in export territories, expatriates gain a
eliminate unimportant issues. Discuss deeper understanding of local market conditions,
important differences, searching for the business practices and cultural factors than
common points on each side.  employees who try to conduct overseas business
o Focus on solutions to which both sides can from headquarters. This local understanding and
agree. Do not give in to pressure.  awareness help organizations reduce risk and avoid
mistakes that could limit market success.
5. Try again. 
Instill Company Culture. Expatriates work closely
o Creative solutions are difficult to develop.
with overseas subsidiaries, distributors, agents and
Practice brings about success. 
joint venture partners to ensure they understand
o Teams do not always resolve their conflicts,
the parent companies’ culture, standards and
but they do try to manage conflictswhile
values. They also use their understanding of
working through their various tasks. 
cultural differences to modify any of those factors
in line with local business practices. By instilling
parent company culture and practices, expatriates
ensure customers receive a consistent standard of
service in all export territories.
Transfer Knowledge. Expatriates transfer
knowledge and skills to overseas partners. If they
are setting up manufacturing operations, for
example, expatriates can help partners implement
corporate working practices and quality standards
or use techniques and technologies developed in
the parent company. Expatriates working with
local distributors or agents can provide partners
with product and market knowledge and develop
joint programs to improve market penetration.
Increase Local Control. By appointing expatriates
to manage business in export territories,
organizations can increase business and financial
control over local operations. They establish
financial and operational targets with business
partners, work with them to achieve targets and
monitor performance. They provide headquarters
with accurate reports and are in a position to take
remedial action if partners are not able to meet
targets. Expatriates also ensure that local partners
comply with policies and procedures and quality
and customer service standards.
Develop Management Talent. Appointing
employees to overseas assignments helps
organizations develop their management skills and
competencies. Expatriates learn to recognize and
understand the diversity of local market conditions
in different territories, giving them a broader
perspective on marketing. They also develop the
leadership and interpersonal skills to manage or
collaborate with multicultural teams. Developing
management talent through expatriate
assignments helps organizations develop the skills
to succeed in global markets.
In today`s globalizedbusiness environment, in
order to improve business results, more and more
companies decide to internationalizetheir
operations. According to the United Nations, the
estimations in 2010 were more than 82,000 large
multinational companies with more than 81,000
affiliatesworldwide, in which more than 77 million
people were employed (World Investment Report,
2010). These numbers changeevery day since more
and more companies expand their operations
abroad. The main factors which contribute to the
increasing internationalization of business are
seeking new markets, rapid and extensive global
communication, rapid development and transfer of
new technology, increased migration, knowledge
sharing, e-commerce, homogenization of culture
and consumer demands, etc. (Briscoe et al., 2012). 
The internationalizationof business influencesmany
aspects of the companies` functioning. It also has
significanteffects on the HRM (Human Resource
Management) department and its practices. Many
traditional HRM practices in the international
context have to be redesigned and adapted to the
specific features of the foreign environment in
which the companies have operations or entities.
Geographic dispersion, multiculturalism, different
legal and social systems, cross-border movement
of the employees, etc. (Briscoe et al., 2012), are
some of the challenges that the HRM department
in internationalizedcompanies has to face. 
One of the biggest challenges that the HRM
department faces in the internationalbusiness
environment is the effective management of
international assignments. since it requires many
specificpractices in each phase of the international
assignment process. In addition, every phase has
its own specificchallenges (potential culture shock,
reverse culture shock, premature returning to
parent country, etc.), which the HRM department
has to prevent or deal with effectively. 
The importance of effectively managing
international assignments could be seen from the
fact that in the case of international assignment
failure companies may lose significant financial
resources. According to Reynolds (1997),
expatriates are very costly employees who may
cost employers, on average, 2-5 times more that
home country counterpart workers. In addition, if
the expatriates leave the company after they
return to the parent company, that companies will
lose not only the financialresources but valuable
human capital as well. 
In the companies which are internationalized their
activities, international assignments are a usual
form for performing some activities abroad.
Although there are many forms of international
assignments, long-term temporary assignments are
the most complex ones. This type of international
assignment typically last from one to three years
(though it may extend to five years or more). In
addition, this type of assignments might require
reallocation of the entire family (Crown World
Mobility, January 2013). 
When it comes to the motives of sending
employees abroad, the authors agree that these
motives could be different. According to Baruch et
al. (2002), the objectives of international
assignments are threefold. The firstis the transfer
of knowledge in subsidiaries, the second is the
career development of employees by gaining
international experience and the third is gaining
control over the operations abroad as well as
keepingthe subsidiaries in line with the company’s
directions.  expatriates will operate usually differs from the
According to Edström and Galbraith (1977), there
are also three motives why the international
transfer of expatriates occurs. The firstis fillingthe
positions, the second is management development
and the third motive is
organizationaldevelopment.Fillingthe positions is
the motive for the international transfer of
expatriates in the situationwherequalifiedlocal
citizens are not available. Therefore, companies
expect that through expatriates the subsidiaries
will get the necessary technical and managerial
knowledge.  success or failure of expatriates and, accordingly,
Usually, this motive is the primary one when
subsidiaries are located in developing countries,
but, as some authors pointed out, specific
knowledge transfer might be necessary for
subsidiaries in developed countries as well
(Rieche, Harzing2008). Management development
is the second motive why international transfers
occur. In this case, it is expected that managers will
develop their competencies by gaining the
international experience and become willing to
take important tasks in the future in subsidiaries
abroad or in the parent company. It is important to
note that this type of transfer will occur even if the
qualified host country citizens are available. The
third motive for international assignments,
according to Edströmand Galbraith (1977), is
organizational development. The international
transfer in this case occurs when the organization`s
aim is to make both expatriates and local managers
integrate into the corporate culture, as well as
when the aim of the transfer is the creation or
improvement  communication channels between
subsidiaries and headquarters (Edströmand
Galbraith, 1977). 
1) Pre-Assignment Phase
The first phase of the international
assignment.  The crucial activities in this phase that
the HRM department has to perform are the
selection of employees to whom the international
tasks will be assigned, and the employees`
preparation for these assignments. 
The selection of expatriates is a multidimensional
issue. Since the cultural environment in which
cultural environment in their parent country,
besides technical competencies, the expatriates
need to possess many cross-cultural
abilities. Cross-cultural abilities could be seen as a
specific cluster which constitutes competencies
such as: cultural empathy, adaptability, diplomacy,
knowledge of the foreign language, positive
attitudes, emotional stability, etc. 
One of the firststudies conducted in this field is the
study by Tung (1981). Accordingto her, there are
four groups of variables that contribute to the
these variables should be used in the selection
process. The variables are as follows (Tung, 1981): 
o Technical competencies for the
job.  Expatriates should be technically
competent. Technicalcompetencies are even
more important for international assignees
because expatriates are located at some
distance from headquarters and cannot consult
their superiors or co-workers when they have a
dilemma or problem related to the job.  
o Personal traits of relational abilities. Refers
to the ability of the individual to establish good
relations with his/her superiors, peers,
subordinates, clients, etc. These abilities are
very important for expatriates` success since
they reflect, not just their knowledge about the
foreign culture, but also the ability to “live and
work with people whose value systems, beliefs,
customs, manners and ways of conducting
business may greatly differ from one’s own” 
o
Ability to cope with environmental
variables. Since the political, legal and
socioeconomic systems which constitute the macro
environment in the host country may differ
significantly from such systems in the parent
country, this ability is also important for the
success of an international assignment.  informal briefings, look-see visits, computer-based
o
o Cross-cultural preparation is vital for building up
Family situation. This criterion is very important because in
many cases the inability of family to adjust to the foreign
environment was the crucial factor which caused the failure of
the expatriate in the form of premature returning to the parent
country. This problem is particularly complex if the partner has
had to give up his/ her job (Rieche, Harzing2008). 
o the international task is accomplished.
During the pre-assignment phase the second
important issue is expatriates’ preparation for an
international assignment. The preparation of
expatriatesis very important, since it may
significantly influence the success of the overall
international assignment. Generally
speaking, organizingthe training programsfor
employees is the traditional activity of the HRM
department. However, when international
assignments are on the line, this activity is
especially important and has many specific
features (Ehnert, Brewster 2008):  expatriates; they are intrigued and curious about
o The employees who are going abroad have
to adjust not only to a new job and workrole,
but to a new culture as well.  2. Some expatriates may experience negative
o Before going overseas, many cultural and
behavioral norms could not be predictedand
therefore, the employees might need additional
help.
o If an employee`s family also travels, it is
desirable to include them in training programs
as well.
o Since the employees’ adjustment after they
return to the parent country is often a problem,
the preparation for their return is also needed. 
During the phase of preparation for the
assignment, the aim of the training is to provide
employees with the basic language knowledge (if it
is necessary), as well as to introduce them the
cultural and behavioral norms of the host country.
However, the scope and nature of preparation is
influenced by many factors, such as (Rieche, Har-
zing 2008): the individual`s cultural background,
culture-specific features of the host country
environment, the individual`s degree of contact
with the host environment, the assignment length,
the individual`s family situation, and the
individual`s language skills. In this phase, the
following training methods could be implemented:
training, etc. (Ehnert, Brewster 2008). 
realistic expectations and is the foundation for the
international assignment success. 
2)  Actual Assignment
The actual assignment phase is the phase in which
International assignments could create many
possibilities for the employees, such as
careerdevelopment, developing global
competencies, higher wages,etc., they also bring
many difficultiesin the form of stress and
uncertainty (Rieche, Harzing2008). Employees also
need a period of adaptation, which could be more
or less complex. 
1. Honeymoon is the firstphase of this process and
usually lasts from several days to several weeks. In
this phase, expatriates,feel more like tourist than
everything that is different from what they are
used to in their parent country. 
emotions, since everything they find interesting,
can become irritating. This phase is called culture
shock. There are six main emotions the individuals
experience due to culture shock: stress, a sense of
loss, a sense of becoming an outcast, confusion,
feelings of surprise and anxiety and a sense of
powerlessness. 
 
3. Recovery is the next phase of expatriates`
adaptation and starts when employees begin
dealing with their emotions and try to create a
positive attitude towards people and the general
environment of the host country. They accept that
they have problems with the adaptation and start
asking for help from their co-workers.
4. The final phase is Adjustment. This phase is a
natural consequence of the fact that expatriates
started accepting and adapting to the new experience they gained is underestimated
environment. In this phase, expatriates are ready (Inksonet al., 1997). In addition, if they face
to demonstrate their full potential and justify the significant changes in their environment after
expectations the company has.  returning to the parent company and countries,
they may experience the so-called reverse culture
“Is culture shock unavoidable?” The answer is no. shock
In other words, culture shock in some cases does
not even occur. Those cases are connected with at The concept of reverse culture shock is introduced
least two situations: (a) cross-cultural preparation by Gullahorn and Gullahorn(1963). Their work is
was done well, and (b) cultural distance between based on the concept of the culture shock
the parent and host country is small. Sincethe introduced by Organ (1960). Somehow, the reverse
process of adaptation influences the performance culture shock is the extension of the culture shock
of expatriates (during culture shock they are (Figure 3). 
usually significantlybelow the required level), it is
important to identify the main factors that Reverse Cultural Shock can be even severer than
influencethe flow of this process.Knowing and cultural shock. The reason is that expatriates are
managingthose factors could prevent numerous somewhat prepared for the fact that the foreign
problems during the process.  environment will be different and that they will
face many unfamiliar situations.On the contrary,
3)  Post Assignment Phase when they return to the parent company, they
expect a familiar environment and familiar
The post-assignment phase is the phase in which situations. However, in some cases, the company
expatriates return to the parent country and try to can change significantly (strategy, leadership,
readjust to the environment they left due to the culture, etc.), which requires from them to readjust
international assignment. This phase is also known to the changed environment. 
as repatriationand the employees who return to
the parent company and country are called If employees cannot readjust after returning to the
repatriates. Many believe that this phase of the parent company, one of the consequences is that
international assignment process involves no they may leave the company. A great deal of
difficulties,since the repatriates return to the evidence shows a substantial turnover of
familiar environment. In that sense, Hurn(1999) expatriates when returning to the home country.
listed the most common expectations that The surveys suggest that 10-25% of expatriates
repatriates have:  leave their company within one year after they
return to the home country,and from a quarter to
o I do not need professional help with a third of repatriates leave their firmswithin two
repatriation. I am going home, therefore no years of returning (Suutari, Brewster 2000). 
problems. 
o Everythingwill be basically the same as The repatriate turnover, however, has negative in
when I left.  consequence on companies. As said previously,
o I will be better off financially  when I return they may lose substantial financialresources. There
home.  is also the risk of their investment being
o I expect some form of promotion on transferred to direct competitors.In addition, the
returning home as I will be able to apply what I company loses its human capital. Finally, the
have learned abroad.  turnover is likely to have negative implications for
o My organization will value my new skills, the willingness of other workers to accept an
experiences and contacts.  international assignment,since their colleagues
have problems in readjustment. 
However, in many cases, the return of employees
back to the parent company and country causes Having in mind that difficulties in the repatriation
negative feelings, such as: anxiety, uncertainty and phase could have negative effects for the
disappointment. After returning, repatriates may companies (and employees), many authors tried to
experience the loss of status, autonomy, the loss of identify the most important factors which in
careerdirection or a feeling that international influencethe success of the process of
readjustment. In this regard, Vidal et al. (2007), contract will be broken and many negative
based on the work of many authors, identified consequences may arise (decreased motivation,
several factors that influence the adjustment performance, leaving the company, etc.). 
process and, among them, the most important are
o
(Vidal et al., 2007): 
In order to reduce the risk of the repatriate
o Timespent abroad. When it deals with the
turnover, the companies should create and
duration of the assignment, it has been
implement adequate short-term and long-term
arguedthat the longer expatriates are abroad,
Human Resource practices. The aim of these
the greater the difficultiesthey will face when
programsis to prepare employees for any changes
they return to the parent company. However,
that have taken place in the company in the
some research indicated that expatriates with
meantime. In addition, repatriation programs
better international experience adjust better
should contain counseling about career
after returning to the parent company due to
development in order to achieve win-win situation
the familiarity to the experience they previously
in which both employees and organizations will be
gained. 
o satisfied. 

The self-efficacy. One of the factors which some

authors identified as a factor which can
influencethe readjustment process. According to QUIZ
them, self-efficacy refersto the attitude that
employees bring to the process of attempting to The International Assignment program is a circular
overcome problems related to the repatriation process that consist of 3 main phases   
process. Therefore, it is likely that expatriates with PRE ASSIGNMENT
higher self-efficacywill adjust easier after ASSIGNMENT
repatriation than the individuals with lower levels.  POST ASSIGNMENT

o The most crucial phase the Human Resource

o
Management Department has to perform is
Expectations. The important factor which may influence the the selection of employees to whom the
success of the repatriation process is the expectation with
regard to the work and the company after returning to the
International assignment task will be
parent company. It is expected that if expatriates have accurate assigned.  ASSIGNMENT
expectations, the uncertainty with regard to their work and
status is reduced, and it is likely that the readjustment process
will be more successful. These expectations are usually The phase in which expatriates return to the
developed long before expatriates come back home.   home country to readjust to the environment
o
they left due to the International
assignment.  POST ASSIGNMENT
Sometimes these expectations are developed even
before expatriates leave the home country due to The Post Assignment Phase is also known as
the foreign assignment. All these expectations REPATRIATION
could also be seen as part of their psychological
contract, since they represent what expatriates Employees who return to the parent company and
believe they will get from the employer in home country are called 
exchange for their international engagement. If
these expectations are met, meaning that their REPATRIATES
psychological contract is fulfilled, it can be
expected that these expatriates will be committed Expatriates may experience significant changes in
after returning to the parent country, the turnover their environment after returning to the parent
rate will decrease, their performance will be at the company and their home country and it is called
proper level, etc. If the aforementioned REVERSE CULTURE SHOCK
expectations are not met, their psychological
Cultural Empathy, adaptability, diplomacy
and knowledge of foreign language are some
of the cross-cultural abilities that expatriate
needs to posses.
True
Expatriate Adaptation to the foreign Environment
consist of the following phases: HONEYMOON
CULTURE SHOCK RECOVERY ADJUSTMENT
Pride, joy, and excitement are some of the
emotions the individual may experience due
to culture shock.  False
Expatriates may experience negative
emotions, since everything they find
interesting can become irritating.  CULTURE
SHOCK
The phase of the adaptation process when
expatriate feel more like a tourist. This is the
stage they are fascinated about everything
that is different from what they are used to
in their home country HONEYMOON
repatriation than individuals with lower
levels False
Repatriate turnover has negative effect on
companies as they may lose substantial
financial resources, risk of their investments
being transferred to direct competitors and
Workers may not accept international
assignments since colleagues have problems
with readjustments. True
Cross Cultural preparation is fundamental for
building up realistic expectations and is the
foundation for the International assignment
success
True
Which of the following is a Healthy Source of
Conflict?  Differences in values and perspectives
Legitimate Conflicts may arise from
organizational, social and personal
sources. False

This is the stage when expatriate started Task Issues Personal grudges from the past
accepting and adapting to the new
environment ADJUSTMENT
One of the causes of Hidden conflict is
differences in values and objectives of team
Phase of the Adaptation process when members
employees start dealing with their emotions
and try to create a positive attitude towards True
people and the overall environment of the
host country. RECOVERY
False
Time spends Abroad; Self-Efficacy and
Which of the following causes organizational
Expectations are factors that influence the
conflict?
success of the process of readjustments True

Expectations refer to the attitudes that Competition over scarce resources

employees bring to the process of attempting
to overcome problems related to the All of the above
repatriation process.  Expatriates with higher
expectations will adjust easier after
Status differences among team members between two or more peopleRelationship
Conflict
Ambiguity over responsibilities

This conflict happens due to

One of the benefits of conflict it encourages the
team to explore new approaches, motivates
people to understand issues better and inspires
new ideas.  
True
disagreement about how to complete
work assignment.  It can often arise when
employees interpret the company
policies and procedure or instruction
given for work projects differentlyTask
Conflicts

This Approach involves finding an acceptable

Task Conflict can help make employees more
resolution that will partly, but not entirely,
open with each other if they address the issue
satisfy the concerns of all parties involved
appropriately and promptly.  However, it can
also hurt teams productivity and cause lower COMPROMISING
morale in the workplace if left uncontrolled

True
Relationship Conflict is also known as “Content
Conflict”.  
Productive Conflict occur when the “real” issue
are not being communicated, but instead
unimportant issues are being expressed through True
provocative communication styles such as jokes,
sarcasm, denial and blame False

True Collaboration is the best conflict resolution

approach when team members have relatively
False equal status and there is time to work through a
solution.  
Unproductive Conflicts are frequent, repetitive
arguments that are not resolved and that leave True
both parties feeling more angry and frustrated.  
False
True

Accommodation involves taking step to satisfy

the other party’s concerns or demand at the
Task Conflict is also known as “Distributive expense of your own needs or desire.  
Bargaining” 
True
True

False
False

Conflict that results from either personality

clashes or negative emotional interaction
 Collaboration Conflict Resolution approach tries
to satisfy own desire at the expense of the other
parties involved
True
 Mediators help teams to manage their conflicts
by controlling communication and building trust
when issues become too emotional. Managing
conflicts requires using negotiating tactics to find
solution acceptable to all sides of the issue

True
False

False

The Win-Win perspective is usually used for

negotiating the price of goods and services. 

True

False

This Conflict Resolution Approach tries to

ignore or sidestep the conflict hoping it
will resolve itself or disappear   
AVOIDANCE

Compromise works somewhat better because

everyone wins a little and loses a little. A
compromise promotes fairness but usually does
not result in the best decision.  

True

False

Confrontation Conflict Resolution Approach

involves finding a solution that entirely satisfies
the concern of all involved parties

True

False

The 2 dimension in conflict resolution

approach
Integration & Distribution