Children and Adolescent Development
Theories
Psychosexual Development Theory
Freud believed that all persons passed through a set
series of stages in personality development. Each of
these stages involves a conflict, and how the person
resolves this conflict gives rise to an aspects of his/her
personality.
In psychoanalytic theory, the source of individual
differences lies in how the child comes to resolves
conflicts in each of the stages of development. The end
result, after going through all the stages, is a fully
formed personality.
Because all this happens in childhood, the famous
phrase, “The child is father to the man,” captures a key
Freudian idea.
Freud’s theory of development is called the
Psychosexual Stage Theory, where children seek sexual
gratification at each stage by investing libidinal energy
in a specific body part. Each stage is named after the
body part in which sexual energy is invested.
First stage: Oral stage (0-8 mos)
During this period the main source of pleasure and
tension reduction is the mouth, lips and tongue.
Ex: Whenever they come across something new, such as
a rattle or a toy, they usually put it in their mouth.
The main conflict during this stage is weaning,
withdrawing from the breast or bottle.
Ex. Overeating, smoking, nail biting, thumb sucking,
etc.
If a child fails to fully resolve a conflict at a particular
stage of development, he/she may get stuck in that
stage, a phenomenon known as FIXATION.
Libido - signify the instinctual physiological or psychic
energy associated with sexual urges with all
constructive human activity.
People who are fixated at the oral stage:
• maybe overly dependent;
• they may want to be babied;
• to be nurtured and taken care of; and
• to have others make decisions for them.
Note: Drug addition (because it involves pleasure from
“taking in” is a sign of oral fixation.
Other possible conflicts
They might develop adult personalities that are
hostile, quarrelsome or mocking, verbally aggressive,
etc.
Second Stage: Anal Stage (18 months - 3 years old)
During this stage the child’s attention shifts to the
process of elimination. The child obtains pleasure from
the rectum, expelling feces and then, during toilet
training, from retaining feces.
At first, the id desires immediate tension reduction
whenever there is any pressure in the rectum. This is
achieved by defecating whenever and wherever the
urge arises.
Parents work to instill in the child a degree of self-
control through the process of toilet training.
Many conflicts arise around this issue of the child’s
ability to achieve self-control. Some children achieve
too little control and grow up to be sloppy and dirty.
Freud characterized the anal-retentive (holding-on)
personality as obstinate, stingy, orderly and
compulsively clean. The anal-expulsive
(letting-go) personality is disorderly, destructive, cruel,
or messy.

Third Stage: Phallic Stage (3 - 6 years old
In this stage, the child increases sexual interest
causes him/her to become physically attracted to the
parent of the opposite sex.
In males, this generates the Oedipus Conflict/Complex,
in which the boy feels rivalry with his father for the
affection of the mother. The counterpart is called the
Electra Conflict/Complex, the girl loves her father and
competes with her mother.
Adult characteristics of the phallic personality are
vanity, exhibitionism, sensitive pride and narcissism
(self-love).
Fourth Stage: Latency (6 years old – Puberty)
This is not actually a stage, rather, it is a time during
which psychosexual development is temporarily
interrupted.
Freud’s contention that psychosexual development is
“on hold” at this time is a bit difficult to accept for those
who work with children. Nevertheless, Freud saw
latency as relatively quiet time compared to the stormy
first six years of life.
Fifth Stage: Genital Stage (Puberty - Adolescence)
In this stage, a resurgence of sexual energies activates
all the unresolved conflicts of earlier years. It is the
reason why adolescence can be such a trying time, filled
with emotion and turmoil.
It is marked by a growing capacity for mature and
responsible social sexual relationships. The genital
stage culminates in heterosexual love and the
attainment of full adult sexuality.
Psychosocial Development Theory
Erik Erikson suggests that individual faces a specific
psychosocial dilemma or “crisis” at each stage of life.
Resolving these crisis creates a new balance between a
person and the social world.
An unfavorable outcome throws one off balance
and makes it harder to deal with later crisis. A string of
successes produce healthy development and a
satisfying life. Those who are plagued with unfavorable
outcomes may experience life as a “rocky road.”
Erickson de-emphasized the role of sex as a
motivator for behavior and instead placed a much focus
on the role of social relationships.
His eight-stage theory of psychosocial development
concentrates on a series of developmental conflicts that
occur throughout the lifespan, from birth until death.
Each stage, people face a crisis that must be resolved to
develop certain psychological strengths.
First Stage (1 year old) Trust versus Mistrust
Children are completely dependent on others for safety
and comfort. Erikson believes that a basic attitude of
trust or mistrust is formed at this time.
Trust is established by regular satisfaction of a baby’s
needs. Babies given adequate warmth, touch, love and
physical care learn to view the world as a safe and
dependable place.
Mistrust is caused by inadequate or unpredictable
care and by parents who are cold, indifferent or
rejecting. Basic mistrust may become the core of later
insecurity, suspiciousness or inability to relate to others.
Second Stage (1 - 3 years) Autonomy
versus Shame and Doubt
This stage is the age of exploration, muscular
development allows children to take charge of their
behavior. Growing independence is expressed by
climbing, touching, exploring and a general desire to do
things for themselves.
Parents help their children develop a sense of
autonomy by encouraging them to try new skills and by
reassuring them if they fail. Consistent overprotection
may limit development by denying opportunities for
self-direction.

Second Stage (1 - 3 years) Autonomy
versus Shame and Doubt
Parents can foster a sense of autonomy by encouraging
children to try new skills. However, the child’s first
efforts can be crude. Often, they result in spilling,
falling, wetting and other “accidents.” Thus, parents
who ridicule or overprotect their children, may cause
them to doubt their abilities and feel shameful about
their actions.
Erikson feels that parents who made fun of their
children cause them to feel ashamed of their actions
and to doubt their abilities. Thus, feelings of shame
and doubt are the unfavorable outcome of this stage.
Third Stage (3 - 5 years) Initiative
versus Guilt
Children move beyond simple self-control and begin
to take initiatives. Through play, children learn to make
plans and carry their tasks.
Parents reinforce initiative by giving children freedom
to play, ask questions, use imagination and choose
activities.
Feelings of guilt about initiating activities are
formed if parents criticize severely, prevent play or
discourage a child’s question.
Fourth Stage (6 - 12 years) Industry
versus Inferiority
Erikson describes the elementary school years as the
child’s “entrance into life.” In school, children begin to
learn skills valued by society and success or failure can
affect a child’s feelings of adequacy.
Children learn a sense of industry if they win praise for
productive activities such as building, painting, cooking
reading and studying.
If a child’s efforts are regarded as messy, childish or
inadequate, feelings of inferiority result. For the first
time, teachers, classmates and adults outside the home
become as important as parents in shaping attitudes
toward oneself.
Fifth Stage (Adolescence) Identity
versus Role Confusion
Adolescence is often a turbulent time. Caught between
childhood and adulthood, the adolescent faces some
unique problems.
Erikson considers a need to answer the question
“Who am I?” the primary task during this stage of life.
Mental and physical maturation bring new feelings, a
new body and new attitudes. Adolescent must build a
consistent identity out of their talents, values, life
history, relationships and the demands of their culture.
Conflicting experiences as a student, friend, son or
daughter, and so forth, must be integrated into a
unified sense of self. Persons who fail to develop a
sense of identity suffer from role confusion, an
uncertainty about who they are and where they are
going.
Sixth Stage (Young Adulthood) Intimacy versus
Isolation
In this stage, the individual feels a need for
intimacy in his or her life. After establishing a stable
identity, a person is prepared to share meaningful love
or deep friendship with others.
By intimacy, Erikson means an ability to care about
others and to share experiences with them. People who
fail to develop intimacy during this stage face emotional
isolation. They may pass through many superficial
relationships without finding the satisfaction of
closeness promised by genuine relationship. Indeed,
they may avoid emotional commitment.
The single-person’s lifestyle has its advantages and may
be pleasant for a while, but failure to move beyond this
lifestyle can seriously inhibit emotional growth and
happiness.
 Cognitive Development Theory

Jean Piaget’s theory focused on cognitive development,

Seventh Stage (Middle Adulthood) Generativity versus
Stagnation
According to Erikson, an interest in guiding the next
generation is the main source of balance in mature
adulthood and he called this quality generativity.
Helping others as teacher, coach, public servant,
among others and productivity or creative works can
also express generativity. In any case, a person’s
concerns and energies must broaden to include the
welfare of others and society as a whole.
how thinking changes.
His theory began with naturalistic observation of
children including his own, in real life situations. On
the basis of his observation Piaget hypothesized that
young children’s thinking processes might differ from
that of adults.
According to Piaget, all of us have mental framework or
structure for understanding and thinking about the
world and he called this framework schemata.

Failure to do this is marked by a stagnant concern with

Schemata or scheme according to Piaget refers to the
one’s own needs and comforts. Life loses meaning and
cognitive structures (pervasive thought patterns) that
the person feels bitter, dreary, and trapped.
first appear during childhood and help children organize
knowledge.

Eight Stage (Late Adulthood) Integrity versus Despair This in turn helps them learn ways to view,
According to Erikson, a person must be able to understand and interpret the world around them, and
look back over life with acceptance and satisfaction. to adapt to the demands of the world.

The person who has lived richly and responsibly Schemas are a way of organizing knowledge, a way
develops a sense of integrity (self- of learning, we use them to understand and respond to
respect). This allows the person to face aging and death situations and they are stored and apply when needed.
with dignity.

If previous life events are viewed with regret, the

elderly person experience despair (heartache and
remorse). In this case, life seems like a series of missed
opportunities, the person feels like a failure and knows
it’s too late to reverse what has been done. Aging and
the threat of death then become source of fear and
depression.
Sensorimotor Stage (birth to 2 years) Formal Operational Stage (12 years - onward)

Piaget believed that through the senses and motor
abilities the infant or child can gain a basic
understanding of the world around them. With their
sight, hearing, smell, taste and touch - combined with
physical capabilities that continue to develop including
touching, grasping, and tasting - allows him/her to
interact and build awareness of themselves and what is
around them
Until the child learns to develop symbols to represent
events or objects in the world and he/she begins to
move towards understanding the world through mental
operations rather than purely through actions.
At this point in development, thinking becomes
much more sophisticated and advanced. They can think
about abstract and theoretical concepts and use logic to
come up with creative solutions to problems. Skills such
as logical thoughts, deductive reasoning and systematic
planning also emerge during this stage.
In deductive reasoning, they develop the ability to use a
general principle to determine a particular outcome.
Science and mathematics often require this type of
thinking about hypothetical situations and concepts. In
abstract thought, instead of relying solely on previous
experiences, they begin to consider possible outcomes
and consequences of actions.

Preoperational Stage (2 - 7 years)

During this stage, children begin to engage in symbolic

play and learn to manipulate symbols. However, Piaget
noted that they do not yet understand concrete
logic, cannot mentally manipulate information, and
are unable to take the point of view of other people,
which he termed egocentrism.

Children are increasingly adept at using symbols, as

evidenced by the increase in playing and pretending.
For example, a child is able to use an object to
represent something else, such as pretending a broom
is a horse.

Concrete Operational Stage (7 -11 years)

During this stage, children demonstrate the ability to

think about ideas. They start to talk authoritatively
about complex relationship, such as cause and effect
and categorization.

They can take other’s perspectives and reverse

operations. Children at this stage show a mastery of
real-world relationship. This mastery is limited,
however, to ideas that have real-world counterparts,
such as brothers and sisters and other family members,
categories of plants or animals, or causes of weather
conditions, etc.
Moral Development Theory Stage 4 - Maintaining the Social Order

The individual becomes more aware of the rules of

Laurence Kolhberg was a student of Jean Piaget and he
society on a broader scale. As a result, they become
expanded upon Piaget’s ideas and developed a method
concerned with obeying laws and maintaining the social
to evaluate the moral reasoning processes of children.
order.
He presented them with stories about moral
dilemmas, such as the story of Heinz and asked them to
say what the main character in the story should do and Level 3: Postconventional Morality
why.
If individual reach the highest level of moral
Kolhberg developed a stage theory of moral development, they start to question if what they see
development and its focus is moral reasoning, how around them is good, In this case, morality stems from
children come to their decision about what is right and self-defined principles.
wrong rather than on the particular decisions that they
make. Stage 5 - Social Contract and Individual Rights.

Level 1: Preconventional Morality
At the lowest level of moral development,
individuals haven’t yet internalized a sense of morality.
Moral standards are dictated by adults and the
consequences of breaking the rules.
Society should function as a social contract where the
goal of each individual is to improve society as a whole.
In this context, morality and individual rights like life
and liberty may take precedence over specific laws.
Stage 6 - Universal Principles

Stage 1 - Punishment and Obedience Orientation People develop their own principles of morality
even if they conflict with society’s laws. These
Children believe the rules are fixed and must be principles must be applied to every individual equally.
obeyed and morality is external to the self.

Stage 2 - Individualism and Exchange

Children begin to realize that the rules are not absolute.

Different people have different perspectives and
therefore there isn’t just one correct point of view.

Level 2: Conventional Morality

A majority of adolescents and adults fall into the

middle level of conventional morality. At this level,
people start to internalize moral standards but not
necessarily to question them. These standards are
based on the social norms of the groups a person is a
part of.

Stage 3 - Good Interpersonal Relationship

Morality arises from living up to the standards of a

given group, such as one’s family or community and
being a good group member.