STRATIGRAPHY

Stratigraphy – study of stratified rocks and their relationship with each other

Guiding Principles of Stratigraphy

• Law of Uniformitarianism – present is the key to the past

• Steno’s Law
o Law of Superposition – strata that are younger will be deposited on top of the strata that are older
o Law of Original Horizontality – when strata such as sediments are formed, they are laid down in
horizontal, flat-lying layers.
o Law of Lateral Continuity – strata can be assumed to have continued laterally far from where they
presently end
• Law of Cross-cutting relationship – states that the geological feature that cuts through a rock body, such as
intrusion or a fault, is always younger than the rock body itself
• Principles of Inclusions – inclusions found in rocks must be older than the rock which host them
• Faunal Succession – fossil organisms succeed one another and therefore any time period can be recognized
by its fossil content
• Unconformity – any significant break in time within the stratigraphic column
o Angular Unconformity – unconformity between strata that are not parallel usually when older rocks
have been deformed and eroded prior to deposition of layers above it
o Disconformity – unconformity between parallel layers. It indicates gaps in time and often hard to
discern. Identifying features are:
▪ Irregular surface (wavy)
▪ Inclusions of underlying rocks withing the above rock
▪ Break in sedimentation due to erosion but without deformation
o Nonconformity – consist of stratified rocks overlying unconformably on non-stratified rocks (igneous
and metamorphic)
o Paraconformity – where beds are parallel in which no erosional surface or other physical evidence is
discernable
• Facies
→ suite of sediments with distinct characteristics that is literally equivalent to other distinct suites of sediments
within a particular depositional system.
→ “Sum of all the primary characteristics of sedimentary rock” (Walther)
→ Sensu stricto facies in stratigraphy refers to:
▪ Appearance of a rock body
▪ Composition of a rock body
▪ The rock body itself is identified by its appearance of composition
▪ The environment that is recorded by the rock body
o Facies changes Transgression
→ Old times – limestone is treated generally fine
→ Relatively sea level RISE
→ Facies shifting coastward
→ Fining upward sequence
o Facies changes Regression
→ Old time – limestone is treated generally fine
→ Relatively sea level FALL
→ Facies shifting to deeper sea
→ Coarsening upward sequence
• Walther’s Law
→ Conformable superpositional contacts occur only between laterally adjacent facies
→ lateral changes of depositional environment → vertical changes in succession of facies

/idmc_2021 Source: CWM, CTV lecture, LAJB lecture 1

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→ Implications:
“related” – adjacent based on
▪ IF: given “related” environments appearing adjacent in field
the theory
(having same attitude)
Examples:
THEN: continuous deposition for corresponding facies → - deep marine & shallow marine
conformity - fluvial and delta
▪ IF: “unrelated” environment appearing adjacent in field
Ex: red quartz sandstone overlying marine turbidites
“unrelated” – unadjacent based
THEN: not just deposition → unconformity
on the theory
Examples:
- aeolian and deep marine
Lithostratigraphy – subdivision of rock succession into units on the basis of lithology
or rock type

• Lithostratigraphic unit
→ may consist of sedimentary, igneous- or metamorphic rocks, or of an association of two or more of
these. Defined and distinguished solely by lithologic feature
→ hierarchy (lowest to highest):
▪ Supergroup – assemblage of related or superimposed groups; useful for regional synthesis
▪ Group – two or more formations related lithologically
▪ Formation – fundamental unit of lithostratigraphy; usually tabular; mappable (1:25,000 – PH
Stratigraphic Guide, 2001)
▪ Member – subdivision of formation
▪ Bed – smallest formal lithostratigraphic unit
• Lithodemic Units
→ Applicable to a defined body of predominantly intrusive, highly deformed, and/or highly
metamorphosed rocks
→ Standard units:
▪ Lithodeme – fundamental unit of lithodemic classification. Must possess distinctive lithic
features and some degree of internal homogeneity
▪ Suite – comprises of two or more associated lithodeme
▪ Complex – composed of diverse types of any class or classes of rocks and characterized by
highly complicated structures

Stratigraphic contacts

→ Boundaries of lithostratigraphic unit

o Conformable boundaries – conformable strata form unbroken depositional sequences
▪ Abrupt – sudden distinctive changes in lithology; often local change
▪ Gradational – gradual change in deposition conditions with time progressive gradual contact

Biostratigraphy – discipline involved in subdividing, correlating, and classifying rocks solely on the basis of their
contained fossil

• Biozone – principal unit of biostratigraphy

• biostratigraphic units:
▪ Assemblage zone
▪ Taxon-range zone
▪ Concurrent-range zone
▪ Lineage zone
▪ Acme zone
▪ Interval zone
▪ Barren interzone

/idmc_2021 Source: CWM, CTV lecture, LAJB lecture 2

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▪ Barren intrazone
• Index Fossils – good biostratigraphic indicators
▪ Distinctive appearance / easy to recognize
▪ Short duration (range) between first appearance and extinction
▪ Widespread geographic distribution
▪ Abundant
▪ Independent of facies
▪ Rapidly evolving

Index fossils (USGS)

Chronostratigraphy – element of stratigraphy that deals with the age of strata and their time relations

▪ Chronostratigraphic unit – defined as a body of rock strata that is unified by being the rocks formed during a
specific geologic time interval

PHILIPPINE STRATIGRAPHY

▪ Land area: 119, 268 sq. miles (298, 170 sq. km)
▪ Borders: South China Sea to the west and north; Pacific Ocean to the east and south
▪ Coastline: 207, 749 miles (334, 539 km)
▪ Major islands:
▪ Luzon ▪ Palawan
▪ Mindanao ▪ Panay
▪ Samar ▪ Mindoro
▪ Four physiographic provinces:
▪ Eastern Physiographic Province ▪ Western Physiographic Province
▪ Central Physiographic Province ▪ Palawan Physiographic Province

D’yami – northernmost island

/idmc_2021 Source: CWM, CTV lecture, LAJB lecture 3

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Sibutu/salaug – southernmost island

Trench

→ strongly assymetrical, bounded on one side by abyssal plains and on the other by steep narrow ridges usually
emerging to over 2 km above sea level
→ five trenches in the Philippines are:
▪ Philippine Trench ▪ Sulu Trench
▪ East Luzon Trench ▪ Cotabato Trench
▪ Manila Trench
→ Philippine Troughs
▪ Antique trough
▪ Palawan trough
▪ West Luzon trough

Ophiolite

→ remnant of oceanic lithosphere exposed on surface

→ obduction of subducting plates
→ sometimes dismembered
→ Layers: (bottom to top)

Amphibolite Isotropic high-level gabbro

Residual Peridotite (Harzburgite) Sheeted dikes/sills
Transition zone dunite Pillow basalt
Layered Ultramafics accumulate Pelagic sedimentary rocks
Layered gabbro
→ Complete Ophiolite sequence in the Philippines
▪ Zambales Ophiolite ▪ Pujada Peninsula
▪ Isabela ▪ South Palawan
Mélange
→ Mass of chaotically mixed brecciated rocks in a highly sheared matrix
o Tectonic Mélange
→ variety of rocks on a fine-grained matrix
→ associated with subduction
→ Characteristics:
▪ mappable (1:50,000) ▪ shearing fracture (esp. the
▪ exotic inclusion (from matrix)
different source)
→ Example: Dos Hermanos Mélange
o Olistostrome (Sedimentary Mélange)
→ mass transportation deposit
→ associated with slope failure
→ Characteristics:
▪ pelitic matrix ▪ no exotic inclusion

→ Example: Codon Olistostrome

Sedimentary Basins

→ A depression formed by tectonic processes, flanked by topographically high areas that shed thin detritus
into thin depression
→ Areas where petroleum can be found

Types of Basins in the Philippines

/idmc_2021 Source: CWM, CTV lecture, LAJB lecture 4

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• Fore arc basin

▪ Limited hydrocarbon potential
▪ Low geothermal gradient
▪ Scarcity of good clastic reservoir
• Back arc basin
▪ Moderate to high geothermal gradient
▪ Typified by volcano-clastic reservoir
• Rift basin
▪ Insufficient trap size
▪ High geothermal gradient
▪ Inadequate development of source rock

Generalized Stratigraphic Summary of the Philippines (J.R Huth Jr., 1962)

• Pre-Tertiary
→ Basement Complex
▪ Igneous, metamorphic, and metasedimentary rocks
• Oligocene-Eocene
→ Mindanao Group
▪ Davao Limestone – massive, partially recrystallized limestone
▪ Dumatata Formation – indurated tuff, agglomerate, and lava flows interbedded with volcanic
derived sedimentary rocks
• Lower Miocene – Upper Oligocene
→ Argao Group
▪ Calasagan Formation – sandstone, conglomerate with limestone and mudstone
▪ Cebu Limestone – limestone with conglomerate
▪ Malubog formation – claystone, mudstone, and siltstone with limestone and sandstone in the
middle and volcanic unit at the top
• Middle Miocene
→ Talavera Group
▪ Toledo Formation – mudstone, claystone, and siltstone with sandstone and local limestone
and conglomerate near the base
▪ Maingit Formation - conglomerate and sandstone with mudstone, limestone interval and local
volcanic units near top
• Pliocene – Upper Miocene
→ Barili Group
▪ Dingle Limestone - limestone with conglomerate
▪ Bolok Formation - mudstone and claystone with local development of sandstone, siltstone
and limestone
• Pleistocene – Pliocene
→ Hubay Group
▪ Carcar limestone - limestone and marl with conglomeratic lenses
▪ Ilagan Formation - sandstone, mudstone, with local lenses of conglomerate and limestone
▪ Guadalupe Formation - tuff, agglomerate and lava flows with varying amounts of sandstone,
conglomerate, and mudstone derived from volcanic materials

/idmc_2021 Source: CWM, CTV lecture, LAJB lecture 5