Lecture

STRATIGRAPHY
Introduction

Stratigraphy

Stratigraphy is a branch of geology which studies

rock layers (strata) and layering (stratification).
It is primarily used in the study of sedimentary,
metamorphic and layered volcanic rocks.

Stratigraphy includes two related subfields:

lithologic stratigraphy or lithostratigraphy, and
biologic stratigraphy or biostratigraphy.
Introduction

Stratigraphy

Stratigraphy is the science of description, correlation

and classification of strata in sedimentary rocks. It
also includes the interpretation of the depositional
environment of rock layers (strata).

It is primarily used in the study of sedimentary and

layered volcanic rocks.
Introduction

Stratigraphy

Stratigraphy is the science of description,

correlation and classification of strata in
sedimentary rocks. It also includes the
interpretation of the depositional environment of
rock layers (strata).
Facies: A set of lithological and palaeontological
characteristics of a sedimentary rocks which
indicates its perticular envirmnet of deposition
are called facies.
Introduction

Stratigraphy

Stratigraphy is the science of description,

correlation and classification of strata in
sedimentary rocks. It also includes the
interpretation of the depositional environment of
rock layers (strata).
It is primarily used in the study of sedimentary and
layered volcanic rocks.
Introduction

Facies

A set of lithological and palaeontological

characteristics of a sedimentary rocks which
indicates its particular environment of deposition
are called facies.
A lateral variation in lithology and fossil
assemblage in a formation which result from
change in the enviroment of deposition is called
facies variation.

Metamorphic Facies ?
Introduction

Stratigraphic Classification

Stratigraphic classification helps in grouping the

sedimentary,metamorphic and volcanic rocks into
rock formation on the basis of their lithological
characters.
The chronological sequence of rock formations
established in terms of relative ages is
graphically represented in vertical column.
The older formation are shown below the younger
ones.
Introduction

Stratigraphic Correlation

Stratigraphic correlation of rock formations of

different regions form an important theme of
sratigraphy.
The correlation aims at matching the rock
formations of distant areas deposited at the same
stage of the earth’s evolutionary history.
The formations deposited at the same stage of the
earth’s evolutionary history are referred to as
homotaxial.
STRATIGRAPHY

❖Principles of Stratigraphy

❖There are three major principles which

are used to determine the relative ages
of strata.
1. Law of superposition.
2. Fossil content
3. Lithological Character
STRATIGRAPHY

❖Principles of Stratigraphy

❖There are three major principles which

are used to determine the relative ages
of strata.
1. Law of superposition.
2. Fossil content
3. Lithological Character
 ❖Principles of Stratigraphy
STRATIGRAPHY
 ❖Principles of Stratigraphy
STRATIGRAPHY
 ❖Principles of Stratigraphy
STRATIGRAPHY
 ❖Principles of Stratigraphy
STRATIGRAPHY
 ❖Principles of Stratigraphy
STRATIGRAPHY
 ❖Principles of Stratigraphy
STRATIGRAPHY
 ❖Principles of Stratigraphy
STRATIGRAPHY
 ❖Principles of Stratigraphy
STRATIGRAPHY
STRATIGRAPHY

Principles of Stratigraphy

❖Lithological Characters:
A sedimentary bed may beidentified by its
distinct lithological character. But as similar
beds are known to occur in formations of
widely different geological ages,the lithology
is not of much use for determining relative
ages.
Stratigraphy

Stratigraphic Correlation

Stratigraphic correlation of rock formations of

different regions form an important theme of
sratigraphy.
The correlation aims at matching the rock
formations of distant areas deposited at the same
stage of the earth’s evolutionary history.
The formations deposited at the same stage of the
earth’s evolutionary history are referred to as
homotaxial.
Stratigraphy

Stratigraphic Correlation

The rock formations of widely separated areas area

correlated with the help of the following criteria-
1. Lithology
2. Fossil content
3. Unconformity
4. Metamorphism
5. Igneous intrusion
6. Radiometric dating
 ❖Principles of Correlation
STRATIGRAPHY
 ❖Principles of Correlation
STRATIGRAPHY
 ❖Principles of Correlation
STRATIGRAPHY
 ❖Principles of Correlation
STRATIGRAPHY
 ❖Principles of Correlation
STRATIGRAPHY
 ❖Principles of Correlation
STRATIGRAPHY
 ❖Principles of Correlation
STRATIGRAPHY
Introduction

Index Fossil

❖Widely distributed fossil, of narrow range in time,

regarded as characteristic of a given geological
formation and used
especially in determining the age of related formations.
❖Index fossils are commonly found, widely distributed
fossils that are limited in time span. They help in dating
other fossils found in the same sedimentary layer. For
example, if you find a fossil from an unknown era near a
fossil from a known time, you can assume that the two
species were from about the same time.
Introduction

Index Fossil

❖ Examples of index fossils include:

Ammonites were common during the Mesozoic Era (245 to 65 mya), They were not found
after the Cretaceous period, as they went extinct during the K-T extinction (65 mya).
❖ Brachiopods (mollusk-like marine animals) appeared during the Cambrian (540 to 500 mya);
some examples still survive.
❖ Graptolites (widespread colonial marine hemichordates) that lived from the Cambrian period
(roughly 540 to 505 million years ago) to the early to mid-Carboniferous (360 to 320 million
years ago).
❖ Nanofossils are microscopic fossils (the remains of calcareous nannoplankton,
coccolithophores) from various eras. Nanofossils are very abundant, widely distributed
geographically, and time-specific, because of their high evolutionary rates. There are
enormous numbers of useful nanofossils, including radiolarians and foraminifera. Nanofossils
are the primary method of dating marine sediments.
❖ Trilobites were common during the Paleozoic Era (540 to 245 mya); about half of the
Paleozoic fossils are trilobites. They evolved at the beginning of the Paleozoic Era and went
extinct during the late Permian period (248 million years ago).
Index Fossil ?
Introduction

Physiographic Divisions of India

India Can be divided into three main divisions-

On the basis of –
❖ Physiography
❖ Structure and
❖ Stratigraphy
Physiographic Divisions of India
1. Peninsular India
2. Indo-gangetic Plain
3. Extra-Peninsular India
Stratigraphy Physiographic Divisions of India

Peninsular India

Peninsular India lies to the south of the plains of

Indus and Ganga River System–
❖Physiography- Plateaus, ancient fold mountains,
massif , And costal plain
❖Structure-The peninsular India is nealry stabel plateau
which has remained unaffeted by the orogenic
movement of post cambrian age. The normal block
faulting is however common.
The Narmada,Son and Damodar rivers flows in the
graben like valles which trend E-W direction.
Stratigraphy Physiographic Divisions of India

Indo-Gangetic Plain

❖The Indo-GnageticPlain is a deep crustal

trough filled with Quaternary Sediments.
❖Its origion and structure is intimately related
to the rise of Hiamlaya
❖This Plain extends from Assam in the East,
through Bengal,Bihar and UP upto Punjab in
the West.
Stratigraphy Physiographic Divisions of India

Indo-Gangetic Plain

❖Physiography-The Indo-Gnagetic Plain is very

extensive alluvium plain which is sloping with
a very small gradiebt towards the sea.
❖Structure- It is made of undisturbed layers of
quarternary sediments which have been
deposited by rivers of Himalayan region.
❖The bottom of Indo-Gnagetic basin id
asymmetrical.
Stratigraphy Physiographic Divisions of India

Indo-Gangetic Plain

❖In the Indo-Gnagetic Plain three transverse

high have been recognised-
❖Delhi-Haridwar ridge
❖Faizabad Ridge
❖Monghyr-Saharsa Ridge
The high divided the Indo-Gnagetic into four
shelf areas-
Punjab, west UP shelf and Bengal shelf
Stratigraphy Physiographic Divisions of India

Indo-Gangetic Plain

Stratigraphy- The Indo-Gnagetic Plain is chiefly

made up of sands and claya of Pleisttocene
and Recent age.
Stratigraphy Physiographic Divisions of India

Extra-Peninsular India

The Extra-Peninsular India lies at the Nothern

extremity of the country. It made up of the
Himalayan montains ranges in the north and
Arakan-Yoma ranges in the East.
The upper reaches of Indus and Brahmaputra rivers
mark its nothern boundary.
❖ Physiography- It is made up of the tectonic
mountains and the frontal foredeep folded belt of
tertiary age.
Stratigraphy Physiographic Divisions of India

Extra-Peninsular India

Structutre- The rock formations of the Extra-

Peninsular India have been disturbed greatly by the
complex folding, faulting and overthrusting.

Stratigraphy- Paleozoic and Mesozoic age rocks

Stratigraphy Stratigraphy of India

Archaean of India

The Arechean system is made up of very

ancient rocks such as gneisses,schist and
granite.
The rocks form a basement on which all
younger sedimentary rock formation rest.
Stratigraphy Stratigraphy of India

Archaean of India

Characteristics of Arechaean rocks-

1. Unfossilifereous
2. Highly metamorphoshed
3. Intense folding and faulting
4. Intruded by igneous rocks of acid to ultra-
basic composition.
Stratigraphy Stratigraphy of India

Archaean of India

Distribution of Arechaean rocks-

1. South India,M.P.Chhattisgarh,Bihar and
Orissa
2. Gujarat and Rajasthan
3. Assam Plateau
4. Central Himalayan region.
Stratigraphy Stratigraphy of India

Archaean of India
The arechean rocks are believed-
Extend below the deccan trap
Beneath Alluvium of the Ganga river.
Arechean rocks of Peninsular India have been divided
into five zone--
1. Archaean of South India
2. Archaean of M.P.and Maharashtra
3. Archaean of India Bihar and Orissa
4. Archaean of Eastern Ghat.
5. Archaean of Rajasthan
Stratigraphy Archaean of India

Factors causes
difficulties in correlation
Archaean rocks
?
Stratigraphy Archaean of India

Correlation

Factors causes difficulties in correlation Archaean

rocks are as follows-

1. Unfossilifereous. Hence it is difficult to determine

the geological age.
2. Highly metamorphosed. Original Character have
been change completely. The degree of
metamorphism also varies at different places. As
a result same original rock appears dissimilar at
two places.
Stratigraphy Archaean of India

Correlation

Characteristics of Arechaean rocks-

1. Intense folding and faulting- Hence it is difficult to
determine their order of superposition.
2. Intruded by igneous rocks of acid to ultra- basic
composition. Magmatic activity, assimilation and
hybridism have produces a wide variety rock with
complex characters.
Stratigraphy

❖Correlation criteria

❖Stratigraphic Sequence-
The stratigraphic sequencenestablished in
one area may prove very helpful in the
neighbouring areas where the lithological
units and grade of metamorphism area
similar
Stratigraphy

❖Correlation criteria

❖Structure relationship-
The stratigraphic sequence established in
one area may prove very helpful in the
neighbouring areas where the lithological
units and grade of metamorphism area
similar
Stratigraphy

❖Correlation criteria

❖Lithological Composition-
The lithological character of individual beds of
a succession area valuable criteria of
correlation.
Stratigraphy

❖Correlation criteria

❖Structural Relationship-
Unconformity.
Stratigraphy

❖Correlation criteria

❖Igneous Intrusion-
Stratigraphy

❖Correlation criteria

❖Associated ore deposits-

Stratigraphy

❖Correlation criteria

❖Grade of Metamorphism-
Stratigraphy

❖Correlation criteria

❖Radiometric Dating-
Stratigraphy

❖Correlation criteria

❖Radiometric Dating-
Stratigraphy

❖DARWAR SUPERGROUP

❖Archean rock of South India is known as

Dharwar Supergroup.
❖Best developed in Karnatka and adjoining
states.
❖The sediments of the Dharwar supergrouop
were deposited over a basement of the
Gneissic complex.
Stratigraphy DARWAR SUPERGROUP

❖Lithology and Structure

❖ The chief rock type of the Dharwar Supergroup are-

• Gneiss and Granite.
• They cover major part of the south India
• Many elongated belts of Schistose rocks are found
enclosed within these rocks.
• The schistose rocks have been folded isoclinally and
exhibit steep dip towards east.
• The regional strike of these rock NNW-SSE.
• In south Karnatka this strike become N-S and even
NE-SW.
Stratigraphy DARWAR SUPERGROUP

❖Startigraphic Succession

❖W.F.Smith(1915)
❖On the basis of difference in Chemical
composition this is classified in to two
groups-
❖Lower- Hornblendic Division
❖Upper-Chloritic Division
Stratigraphy DARWAR SUPERGROUP

❖Startigraphic Succession

❖B.Ramarao(1915) found manay sedimentary

structure such as current bedding ,ripple
marks in the Dharwar rocks.
❖this is classified in to three groups-
Stratigraphy DARWAR SUPERGROUP

❖Startigraphic Succession
Stratigraphy

❖Economic Minerals

❖ Gold-
Kolar and Hatti gold field in Karnatka.
The gold occurs
❖ Iron ore
❖ Manganese
❖ Copper
❖ Lead & Zinc
❖ Chromite
❖ Mica
Stratigraphy VINDHYAN SUPERGROUP

❖INTRODUCTION

❖The vindhyan supergroup has been named

after the great” Vindhya Montains” of Madhya
Pradesh where it is well developed.
❖The vindhyan succession rest unconformably
the older formation such as Bijawar and
Archeans and are overlain by the Deccan
Traps.
Stratigraphy VINDHYAN SUPERGROUP

❖ Distribution

❖The total area of Vindhyan Basin is about

100,000 square km.
❖Central India
❖Cuddapah district, Andhra Pradesh (Kurnool
group)
❖Bhima and Godavari river valley
❖And NW side of the Aravalli ranges in
Rajasthan
Stratigraphy VINDHYAN SUPERGROUP
Stratigraphy VINDHYAN SUPERGROUP
Stratigraphy VINDHYAN SUPERGROUP

❖ Lithology

❖The chief types are-

❖Sanstone
❖Shale
❖Limestone
The Vindhyan rocks contain ripple marks, current
bedding and other sedimentary structures
which suggest that they are of shallow water
origin.
Stratigraphy VINDHYAN SUPERGROUP

❖ Fossil

❖Vindhyan are generally unfossilifeorous.

However presence of some very primitive type
of life indicated by some traces of fossil
impression fond in the Fawn limestone(Lowe
Vindhyan and Suket shale(Upper Vindhyan).
❖Fawn limestone contains “Stramatolites”
Stratigraphy VINDHYAN SUPERGROUP

❖ Stromatolites

❖ A lamiated rock formed by the growth of blue-green

algae. Stromatolites are layered mounds, columns, and
sheet-like sedimentary rocks.
❖ They were originally formed by the growth of layer
upon layer of cyanobacteria, a single-celled
photosynthesizing microbe that lives today in a wide
range of environments ranging from the shallow shelf
to lakes, rivers, and even soils.
❖ Bacteria, including the photosynthetic cyanobacteria,
were the only form of life on Earth for the first 2 billion
years that life existed on Earth.
Stratigraphy VINDHYAN SUPERGROUP

❖ Stromatolites

❖ Stromatolites formed by the growth of blue-green

algae. Stromatolites are layered mounds, columns, and
sheet-like structure.
❖ They were originally formed by the growth of layer
upon layer of cyanobacteria, a single-celled
photosynthesizing microbe that lives today in a wide
range of environments ranging from the shallow shelf
to lakes, rivers, and even soils.
❖ Bacteria, including the photosynthetic cyanobacteria,
were the only form of life on Earth for the first 2 billion
years that life existed on Earth.
VINDHYAN SUPERGROUP
Stratigraphy VINDHYAN SUPERGROUP

❖ Structures

❖Vindhyan are generally undisturbed. ONLY

slightly tilted.
❖Great Boundary Fault at Rajasthan is
characterised by a faulted boundary between
Pre-Aravallis(Archeans) and Vindhyans having
NE – SW trend(800 KM). It represents a zone
of disruption constituted by a number of
parallel and oblique faults resulting in a step
like feature.
Stratigraphy VINDHYAN SUPERGROUP

❖ Stratigraphic Classification

❖On the basis of lithology Vindhyan

Supergroup has been classified into two
division-
❖Lower Vindhyan-Largely made up of
marine origin. Mainly calcareous rocks.
❖Upper Vindhyan- Fluviatile origin. Mainly
arenaceous rocks
Stratigraphy VINDHYAN SUPERGROUP

❖ Vindhyan of South India

❖The group named after the Kurnool

district in Andhra Pradesh.
❖The rocks of the Kurnool group rest
unconformably over the Cuddapah
supergroup.
Stratigraphy VINDHYAN SUPERGROUP

❖ Vindhyan of South India

Formation Lthology

Kundair Formation Shale and Limestone

Pnaniam Formation Quartzite

Jamalamadugu Shale and Limestone

Formation

Bebganpalle Formation Sst. And diamond bearing

conglomerate
Stratigraphy VINDHYAN SUPERGROUP

Economic Minerals

❖Diamonds
❖Limestone
❖Pyrite
❖Building stone
❖Glass sand