Stratigraphic sequence

Stratigraphy

• Stratigraphy, is a branch of geology, studies rock layers and layering (stratification

).

• It is primarily used in the study of sedimentary and layered volcanic rocks.

• Stratigraphy includes two related subfields: lithologic or litho-stratigraphy and

biologic stratigraphy or bio-stratigraphy.
Stratigraphy and its Evolution
• Rock layers have been studied since 1027, when a Muslim scholar stated:
• "It is also possible that the sea may have happened to flow little by
little over the land consisting of both plain and mountain, and then
have ebbed away from it. ...
• It is possible that each time the land was exposed by the ebbing of the
sea a layer was left, since we see that some mountains appear to have
been piled up layer by layer,
• and it is therefore likely that the clay from which they were formed
was itself at one time arranged in layers.
• One layer was formed first, and then at a different period, a further
was formed and piled, upon the first, and so on.
• Over each layer there spread a substance of different material, which
formed a partition between it and the next layer…… “
• The theoretical basis for the subject was established in a 1669 work on
the fossilization of organic remains in layers of sediment.
• The first practical large scale application of stratigraphy was by an
Englishman (William Smith) in 1790s and early 1800s.
• He created the first geologic map of England, and first recognized the
significance of strata or rock layering, and the importance of fossil
markers for correlating strata.
• Sequence stratigraphy is a recent methodology for stratigraphic
interpretation, pioneered by Peter Vail in the mid 70's (Vail et al 1977).

• This discipline is built on a solid foundation of five geological

paradigms that include:
• The dating of the sedimentary rocks using bio-stratigraphic (recognized in the
late 1800's but better defined and used in the post 1950's) and radioactive
minerals (intensively used in the post 1950's).
• Recognition that some global changes in base level are glacial eustatic
 (identified in the late 1800's but greatly refined in the 1970's onwards).
• Continental drift and plate tectonics cause local and some global changes in 
base level (identified in the late 1800's but greatly refined in the 1960's onwards).
• Sedimentary depositional systems, and their geometries are the products of well-
defined physical processes (recognized in the late 1800's but greatly refined in
the post 1950's).
• Unconformities are a response to drops in base level (recognized in the late
1800's but better defined in the late 1970's and 80's when marine and land based
seismic, coupled with bio-stratigraphic data collected at wells, became widely used).
 Litho-stratigraphy
• Litho-stratigraphy is a sub-discipline of stratigraphy, the geological science associated with the study of
strata or rock layers.

• Major focuses include geochronology, comparative geology, and petrology.

• In general a stratum will be primarily igneous or sedimentary relating to how the rock was formed.

• There are a number of principles that are used to explain the appearance of stratum:

• When an igneous rock cuts across a formation of sedimentary rock, then we can say that the igneous intrusion
is younger than the sedimentary rock.
• The principle of superposition states that a sedimentary rock layer in
a tectonically undisturbed stratum is younger than the one beneath and
older than the one above it.

• The principle of original horizontality states that the deposition of

sediments occurs as essentially horizontal beds.
• The principle of original lateral continuity - strata originally
extended in all directions until they thinned to zero or terminated
against the edges of their original Basin of deposition.
• Litho-stratigraphy deals with the physical:
• lithology, (rock type),

• Vertically change in layering or bedding of varying rock type

• Lateral change reflecting changing environments of deposition, known as facies change.

• Key elements of stratigraphy involve understanding:

• how certain geometric relationships between rock layers arise

• what these geometries mean in terms of depositional environment.

• One of stratigraphy's basic concepts is codified in the Law of Superposition:

• It states that, in an undeformed stratigraphic sequence, the oldest strata occur at the base
of the sequence.
Types of litho-stratigraphic units
• A litho-stratigraphic unit conforms to the law of superposition and the law of
horizontal continuity.

• Lithostratigraphic units are recognized and defined on the basis of observable rock
characteristics.

• The descriptions of strata based on physical appearance define facies.

• Stratotype : A type of unit consisting of accessible rocks that contain clear-cut

characteristics that are characteristic for a particular lithostratigraphic unit.
• Lithosome: Masses of rock of essentially uniform character and
having interchanging relationships with adjacent masses of different
lithology. E.g.: Shale lithosome, limestone lithosome…

• The fundamental Lithostratigraphic unit is the Formation. The

formation is a lithologically distinctive stratigraphic unit that is large
enough to be mappable and traceable.
 Stratigraphic relationship

• Two types of contact: Conformable and Unconformable.

• Conformable: Unbroken deposition, no break or hiatus (break or interruption in the continuity of the
geological record). The surface strata resulting is called a conformity.

• Two types of contact between conformable strata: Abrupt contacts ( Directly separate beds of distinctly
different lithology, minor depositional break, called Diastems) Gradational contact (Gradual change in
deposition, mixing zone).

• Unconformable: Period of erosion/non-deposition. The surface stratum resulting is called an unconformity.

 Types of unconformity

• Angular unconformity Younger sediment lies upon an eroded surface of tilted or folded older rocks. The
older rock dips at a different angle than the younger.

• Disconformity The contact between younger and older beds is marked by visible, irregular erosional
surfaces. Paleosol might develop right above the disconformity surface because of the non-deposition setting.

• Paraconformity The bedding plains below and above the unconformity are parallel. A time gap is present but
there is no erosion, just a non-deposition period.

• Nonconformity Relatively young sediments are deposited right above older Igneous or metamorphic rocks.

•
 
 Disconformity Nonconformity

Angular unconformity Paraconformity

 Bio-stratigraphy

• Bio-stratigraphy or paleontologic stratigraphy is based on fossil evidence in the

rock layers.
• Strata from widespread locations containing the same fossil fauna and flora are
correlatable in time.
• Biologic stratigraphy was based on William Smith's
principle of faunal succession,
• The Principle was one of the first and most powerful lines of evidence for,
biological evolution.
• It provides strong evidence for formation of and the extinction of species.

• Geographic time shows the relationship between time and rocks.

• The stratigraphic column is the base of the geologic time scale.

• The geologic time scale was developed during the 1800s based on the
evidence of biologic stratigraphy and faunal succession.

• Radiometric dating, gave geologic time scale and the stratigraphy an

absolute time framework, leading to the development of chrono-
stratigraphy.
• There are four eras in a geologic time scale.

• Three of these eras are named for fossils found in the related strata.

• These eras are the Paleozoic, the Mesozoic, and the Cenozoic.

• They refer to ancient life, medieval life and modern life. The oldest and fourth era
normally lack diagnostic fossils, It’s called the Precambrian era.

• Geologists divide these eras into periods of time. Rock deposits formed during a
particular time period make up a system of rock.  

• The periods are branched into epochs. Each rock system is branched into a series.
 Chrono-stratigraphy

• Chronostratigraphy is the branch of stratigraphy that studies the age of rock strata in relation to 
time.

• Chrono-stratigraphy is based upon deriving geochronological data for rock units

• Geochronology—The science of dating and determining the time sequence of events in the history
of the Earth.

• Chrono-stratigraphy seeks to understand the geologic history of rocks and regions.

• The ultimate aim of chrono-stratigraphy is to arrange:

• the sequence of deposition and

• the time of deposition of all rocks within a geological region

Stratigraphic Column
• A stratigraphic column is a drawing by a geologist.

• The drawing depicts underground rocks or cliff wall rocks, showing their vertical
sequence.

• This is used to interpret the relative sequence of geological past events.

• Simplified stratigraphic columns are used to find oil deposits to drill.

• Drawings of stratigraphic columns can also be used for engineering purposes.

• The drawing of a specific area shows:
• major units of rock.

• type of rocks the units.

• It depicts this information by:

• naming each unit

• the symbols used to tell the rock type.

• The density of the rock types.