VERTEBRATE ZOOLOGY

Vertebrate Characteristics, Similarities, and Diversity

In particular we will be examining:

1) similarities among vertebrates

2) diversity among vertebrates (i.e. variation or differences)

Vertebrates
General definition: animals with backbones
(backbone = vertebral column surrounding a dorsal nerve cord)
Examples of vertebrates:
Using the traditional classification system, there are five
general groups of vertebrates:
Fishes, Amphibians, Reptiles, Birds, Mammals

Definitions of terms we will be using:

“lower vertebrate” or “primitive” vertebrate (e.g. fishes)
“higher vertebrate” or “advanced” vertebrate(e.g.mammals)

Using the traditional classification system all vertebrates are members of:
Kingdom Animalia,
Phylum Chordata (i.e. the chordates)
Subphylum Vertebrata (i.e. the vertebrates)
Chordates: four basic characteristics (i.e. similarities) that distinguish them
from other phyla of animals:

a) Notochord
the term “chordate” refers to notochord
notochord is a rod-like structure

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 semi-rigid group of cells surrounded by fibrous and elastic sheaths

acts as a rigid axis on which muscles can act

allows for undulating body movements (e.g. fish
swimming)
lies just ventral to the “dorsal nerve cord”
present during embryonic development in all vertebrates
remains throughout life in some primitive vertebrates
e.g. hagfish and lamprey
in most vertebrates
notochord replaced by vertebral column which forms around it
vertebral column forms from connective tissue that surrounds
notochord
slight remnants of notochord are found in intervertebral
disks in the human vertebral column

b) Dorsal nerve cord

forms dorsal to the notochord
tubular
anterior end becomes brain in vertebrates
normally protected by bone or cartilage
surrounded by neural arch of vertebral column
brain surrounded by "cranium" of bone or cartilage
Dorsal nerve cord in vertebrates contrasts with many
“invertebrates”: that have a ventral nerve cord

c) Pharyngeal Gill Slits or Gill Pouches

Gill slits (in blue) in an acorn worm (left) and tunicate (right)

slits that lead from “pharyngeal cavity” to the outside of

the body
Pharyngeal refers to pharynx, which is the area between
nasal and mouth cavities, and the esophagus.
gill pouches form in embryos of advanced vertebrates as
grooves and do not open up

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used for respiration in lower vertebrates
gills and blood vessels attached to margins of slits
also used for feeding in some lower vertebrates
e.g. filter feeding

d) Post-anal tail
used for locomotion in many lower vertebrates
occurs only during embryonic development some vertebrates
(e.g. humans)
Other characteristics common to chordates
segmented muscle masses (referred to as myotomes or myomeres )
endoskeleton of cartilage or bone
bilateral symmetry
“closed” circulatory system with ventrally located heart
blood is circulated in vessels

We have just discussed similarities, now we will discuss diversity.

Diversity Among Vertebrates

Vertebrates vary widely (including within specific groups of vertebrates)
Approximately 50,000 living species of vertebrates have been identified

Fishes (approximately 24,600 species)

Birds (approximately 9000 species)
Reptiles (approximately 7000 species)
Mammals (approximately 4600 species)
Amphibians (approximately 4200 species, but many new species of
amphibians are being identified)

A) Structural Diversity
example of a “primitive” vertebrate
hagfish
most primitive living vertebrate
characteristics
notochord persistent throughout life
fibrous and cartilaginous skeleton (no bones)
no jaws
no paired appendages
poorly developed brain and reproductive system

example of an advanced vertebrate

human (opposite of hagfish characteristics listed above)

Diversity Among Vertebrates (Continued)

B) Ecological Diversity in Vertebrates

Terrestrial Environments
Temperature range from tropical to arctic

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 Humidity ranges from humid to xeric (xeric = dry environment)
(e.g. tropical rain forests to deserts)

Aquatic environments
marine, freshwater, brackish
(brackish = combination of freshwater and saltwater)
Some organisms are capable of changing environments
examples

some fishes migrate from marine to freshwater to breed

(e.g. salmon)

other fishes migrate from freshwater to the ocean to breed.

(e.g.American eel)

many vertebrates inhabit both aquatic and terrestrial environments

(e.g. many amphibians, turtles, marine iguana, sea birds, seals, sea lions, etc.)

C) Physiological Diversity
example: Reproduction
a) gonochorism (two separate sexes)
most vertebrates have two separate sexes

b) hermaphroditic
simultaneous (i.e. at the same time)
examples: some fishes
sequential (i.e change sex during life)
examples: some fishes (and possibly one amphibian)
including many coral reef fishes

c) unisexual vertebrates
egg develops into female without fertilization
examples: some species of fishes, amphibians, reptiles

D) Temporal Diversity in Vertebrates (i.e. diversity over time)

“fossil record” indicates that vertebrates have been on earth for

approximately 500 million years

(i.e. oldest vertebrate fossils are approximately 500 million years old)
the diversity of vertebrates living today is distinctly different from
other time periods.
Examples based on “fossil record”:
1) 550 million years ago
only aquatic invertebrates are in fossil record, no vertebrates

2) 410 million years ago

fishes are abundant in fossil record, but no terrestrial vertebrates

3) 280 million years ago, amphibians and reptiles were dominant terrestrial vertebrate
but there were no birds or mammals found in fossil record

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4) 150 million years ago (i.e. the Jurassic Period),
dinosaurs were dominant terrestrial animals
only small mammals exist in fossil record
no birds exist in fossil record

5) 40 million years ago

birds and mammals abundant in fossil record
6) The oldest known human-like fossils (genus Homo) in the
fossil record are approximately 2 million years old