the system.
As the number of control loops
Industrial control system (ICS) is a general
term that encompasses several types of control
systems and associated instrumentation used
for industrial process control. Control systems
can range in size from a few modular panel-
mounted controllers to large interconnected and
interactive distributed control systems (DCSs)
with many thousands of field connections.
Control systems receive data from remote
sensors measuring process variables (PVs),
compare the collected data with desired set
points (SPs), and derive command functions that
are used to control a process through the final
control elements (FCEs), such as control valves.
Larger systems are usually implemented
by supervisory control and data
acquisition (SCADA) systems, or DCSs,
and programmable logic controllers (PLCs),
though SCADA and PLC systems are scalable
down to small systems with few control loops.
Such systems are extensively used in industries
such as chemical processing, pulp and paper
manufacture, power generation, oil and gas
processing, and telecommunications.
Discrete controllers
The simplest control systems are based around
small discrete controllers with a single control
loop each. These are usually panel mounted
which allows direct viewing of the front panel
and provides means of manual intervention by
the operator, either to manually control the
process or to change control setpoints.
Originally these would be pneumatic controllers,
a few of which are still in use, but nearly all are
now electronic.
Quite complex systems can be created with
networks of these controllers communicating
using industry-standard protocols. Networking
allow the use of local or remote SCADA operator
interfaces, and enables the cascading and
interlocking of controllers. However, as the
number of control loops increase for a system
design there is a point where the use of
a programmable logic controller (PLC)
or distributed control system (DCS) is more
manageable or cost-effective.
Distributed control systems
A distributed control system (DCS) is a digital
process control system (PCS) for a process or
plant, wherein controller functions and field
connection modules are distributed throughout
grows, DCS becomes more cost effective than
discrete controllers. Additionally, a DCS
provides supervisory viewing and management
over large industrial processes. In a DCS, a
hierarchy of controllers is connected
by communication networks, allowing
centralised control rooms and local on-plant
monitoring and control.
A DCS enables easy configuration of plant
controls such as cascaded loops and interlocks,
and easy interfacing with other computer
systems such as production control. It also
enables more sophisticated alarm handling,
introduces automatic event logging, removes the
need for physical records such as chart
recorders and allows the control equipment to
be networked and thereby located locally to the
equipment being controlled to reduce cabling.
A DCS typically uses custom-designed
processors as controllers and uses either
proprietary interconnections or standard
protocols for communication. Input and output
modules form the peripheral components of the
system.
The processors receive information from input
modules, process the information and decide
control actions to be performed by the output
modules. The input modules receive information
from sensing instruments in the process (or
field) and the output modules transmit
instructions to the final control elements, such
as control valves.
The field inputs and outputs can either be
continuously changing analog
signals e.g. current loop or 2 state signals that
switch either on or off, such as relay contacts or
a semiconductor switch.
SCADA systems
Supervisory control and data acquisition
(SCADA) is a control system architecture that
uses computers, networked data
communications and graphical user
interfaces for high-level process supervisory
management. The operator interfaces which
enable monitoring and the issuing of process
commands, such as controller setpoint changes,
are handled through the SCADA supervisory
computer system. However, the real-time control
logic or controller calculations are performed by
networked modules which connect to other
peripheral devices such as programmable logic
controllers and discrete PID controllers which
interface to the process plant or machinery.
The SCADA concept was developed as a
universal means of remote access to a variety of
local control modules, which could be from
different manufacturers allowing access
through standard automation protocols. In
practice, large SCADA systems have grown to
become very similar to distributed control
systems in function, but using multiple means of
interfacing with the plant. They can control large-
scale processes that can include multiple sites,
and work over large distances. This is a
commonly-used architecture industrial control
systems, however there are concerns about
SCADA systems being vulnerable
to cyberwarfare or cyberterrorism attacks.
The SCADA software operates on a supervisory
level as control actions are performed
automatically by RTUs or PLCs. SCADA control
functions are usually restricted to basic
overriding or supervisory level intervention. A
feedback control loop is directly controlled by the
RTU or PLC, but the SCADA software monitors
the overall performance of the loop. For
example, a PLC may control the flow of cooling
water through part of an industrial process to a
set point level, but the SCADA system software
will allow operators to change the set points for
the flow. The SCADA also enables alarm
conditions, such as loss of flow or high
temperature, to be displayed and recorded.
Programmable logic controllers
PLCs can range from small modular devices
with tens of inputs and outputs (I/O) in a housing
integral with the processor, to large rack-
mounted modular devices with a count of
thousands of I/O, and which are often networked
to other PLC and SCADA systems. They can be
designed for multiple arrangements of digital
and analog inputs and outputs, extended
temperature ranges, immunity to electrical noise,
and resistance to vibration and impact.
Programs to control machine operation are
typically stored in battery-backed-up or non-
volatile memory.
History
Process control of large industrial plants has
evolved through many stages. Initially, control
was from panels local to the process plant.
However this required personnel to attend to
these dispersed panels, and there was no
overall view of the process. The next logical
development was the transmission of all plant
measurements to a permanently-manned central
control room. Often the controllers were behind
the control room panels, and all automatic and
manual control outputs were individually
transmitted back to plant in the form of
pneumatic or electrical signals. Effectively this
was the centralisation of all the localised panels,
with the advantages of reduced manpower
requirements and consolidated overview of the
process.
However, whilst providing a central control
focus, this arrangement was inflexible as each
control loop had its own controller hardware so
system changes required reconfiguration of
signals by re-piping or re-wiring. It also required
continual operator movement within a large
control room in order to monitor the whole
process. With the coming of electronic
processors, high-speed electronic signalling
networks and electronic graphic displays it
became possible to replace these discrete
controllers with computer-based algorithms,
hosted on a network of input/output racks with
their own control processors. These could be
distributed around the plant and would
communicate with the graphic displays in the
control room. The concept of distributed
control was realised.
The introduction of distributed control allowed
flexible interconnection and re-configuration of
plant controls such as cascaded loops and
interlocks, and interfacing with other production
computer systems. It enabled sophisticated
alarm handling, introduced automatic event
logging, removed the need for physical records
such as chart recorders, allowed the control
racks to be networked and thereby located
locally to plant to reduce cabling runs, and
provided high-level overviews of plant status and
production levels. For large control systems, the
general commercial name distributed control
system (DCS) was coined to refer to proprietary
modular systems from many manufacturers
which integrated high-speed networking and a
full suite of displays and control racks.
While the DCS was tailored to meet the needs of
large continuous industrial processes, in
industries where combinatorial and sequential
logic was the primary requirement, the PLC
evolved out of a need to replace racks of relays
and timers used for event-driven control. The old
controls were difficult to re-configure and debug,
and PLC control enabled networking of signals
to a central control area with electronic displays.
PLCs were first developed for the automotive
industry on vehicle production lines, where
sequential logic was becoming very complex. It
was soon adopted in a large number of other
event-driven applications as varied as printing
presses and water treatment plants.
SCADA's history is rooted in distribution
applications, such as power, natural gas, and
water pipelines, where there is a need to gather
remote data through potentially unreliable or
intermittent low-bandwidth and high-latency
links. SCADA systems use open-loop
control with sites that are widely separated
geographically. A SCADA system uses remote
terminal units (RTUs) to send supervisory data
back to a control centre. Most RTU systems
always had some capacity to handle local
control while the master station is not available.
However, over the years RTU systems have
grown more and more capable of handling local
control.
The boundaries between DCS and SCADA/PLC
systems are blurring as time goes on. The technical
limits that drove the designs of these various
systems are no longer as much of an issue.
Many PLC platforms can now perform quite well
as a small DCS, using remote I/O and are
sufficiently reliable that some SCADA systems
actually manage closed-loop control over long
distances. With the increasing speed of today's
processors, many DCS products have a full line
of PLC-like subsystems that weren't offered
when they were initially developed.
In 1993, with the release of IEC-1131, later to
become IEC-61131-3, the industry moved
towards increased code standardization with
reusable, hardware-independent control
software. For the first time, object-oriented
programming (OOP) became possible within
industrial control systems. This led to the
development of both programmable automation
controllers (PAC) and industrial PCs (IPC).
These are platforms programmed in the five
standardized IEC languages: ladder logic,
structured text, function block, instruction list and
sequential function chart. They can also be
programmed in modern high-level languages
such as C or C++. Additionally, they accept
models developed in analytical tools such
as MATLAB and Simulink. Unlike traditional
PLCs, which use proprietary operating systems,
IPCs utilize Windows IoT. IPC's have the
advantage of powerful multi-core processors
with much lower hardware costs than traditional
PLCs and fit well into multiple form factors such
as DIN rail mount, combined with a touch-screen
as a panel PC, or as an embedded PC. New
hardware platforms and technology have
contributed significantly to the evolution of DCS
and SCADA systems, further blurring the
boundaries and changing definitions.
Security
SCADA and PLCs are vulnerable to cyber
attack. The U.S. Government Joint Capability
Technology Demonstration (JCTD) known as
MOSAICS (More Situational Awareness for
Industrial Control Systems) is the initial
demonstration of cybersecurity defensive
capability for critical infrastructure control
systems. MOSAICS addresses the Department
of Defense (DOD) operational need for cyber
defense capabilities to defend critical
infrastructure control systems from cyber attack,
such as power, water and wastewater, and
safety controls, affect the physical environment.
The MOSAICS JCTD prototype will be shared
with commercial industry through Industry Days
for further research and development, an
approach intended to lead to an innovative,
game-changing capabilities for cybersecurity for
critical infrastructure control systems.
Types of Industrial Control Systems
Distributed Control System (DCS)
Plant distributed control system (DCS) – While
the term DCS applies in general to any system
in which controllers are distributed rather than
centralized, in the power generation and
petrochemical process industries it has come to
refer to a specific type of control system able to
execute complex analog process control
algorithms at high speed, as well as provide
routine monitoring, reporting and data logging
functions. In most applications, the input and
output modules of the system are distributed
throughout the facility, but the control processors
themselves are centrally located in proximity to
the control room.
These systems typically use proprietary
hardware, software and communication
protocols, requiring that both replacement parts
and technical support be obtained from the
original vendor.
Direct digital control (DDC)
The DDC directly interfaces to the process for
data acquisition and control purpose.
• That is, it has necessary hardware for
directly interfacing (optoisolator, signal
conditioner, ADC, etc.) and reading data
from process.
• It should also have memory and
arithmetic capability to execute required
P, P+I, P+I+D control strategy.
• At the same time, the interface to control
vale should also be part of DDC.
The microprocessor performs the following
tasks.
1. It reads the various process variables
from different transmitters through
multiplexer and ADC.
2. It determines the error for each control
loop and executes control strategy for
each loop.
3. It outputs the correction value to control
vale through DAC.
Direct digital control (DDC) systems are used
in the commercial building heating, ventilation
and air conditioning (HVAC) industry to monitor
and maintain environmental conditions. They
consist of local controllers connected to a
network with a personal computer (PC) based
central station which provides monitoring,
reporting, data storage and programming
capabilities. The controllers are optimized for
economical HVAC system control, which
generally does not require fast execution
speeds. Their hardware and control software are
proprietary, with either proprietary or open
protocols used for network communication.
Remote terminal unit (RTU)
Remote terminal unit (RTU) based SCADA:
RTU-based systems are common in the electric,
gas and water distribution industries where
monitoring and control must take place across
large geographical distances. The RTUs were
developed primarily to provide monitoring and
control capability at unattended sites such as
substations, metering stations, pump stations,
and water towers. They communicate with a
central station over telephone lines, fiber-optics,
radio or microwave transmission.
Monitored sites tend to be relatively small, with
the RTU typically used mainly for monitoring and
only limited control. Hardware and software are
proprietary, with either proprietary or open
protocols used for data transmission to the
central station.
Programmable logic controller (PLC)
Programmable logic controller (PLC) based
systems: PLCs, which are described in greater
detail in the next section, can be networked
together to share data as well as provide
centralized monitoring and control capability.
Control systems consisting of networked PLCs
are supplanting both the plant DCS and the
RTU-based systems in many industries. They
were developed for factory automation and have
traditionally excelled at high speed discrete
control, but have now been provided with analog
control capability as well.
Hardware for these systems is proprietary, but
both control software and network
communication protocols are open, allowing
system configuration, programming and
technical support for a particular manufacturer’s
equipment to be obtained from many sources.