Cad Cam Cat 1-Merged

CAD/CAM Introduction
• Introduction • With an increase in the need for quality manufacturing along with the
• Product Design factors of short lead times and short product lives, it is very
important to use computers smartly in manufacturing.
• Problem Identification
• Problem Definition • The role of computers in manufacturing may be broadly classified into
two groups:
• Geometric Modelling
Computer monitoring and control of the manufacturing process
• Engineering Analysis
Manufacturing support applications, which deal essentially with the
• Prototype Development
preparations for actual manufacturing and post-manufacture
• Manufacturing Process Development
operations.
Introduction Introduction
• In the first category are such applications where the computer is
directly inter faced with the manufacturing apparatus for monitoring
and control functions in the manufacturing process.
• In the second category, all the support functions that computers can
provide for the successful completion of manufacturing operations. The
types of support that can be envisaged are the following:
 CAD— Computer Aided Design  CAE—Computer Aided Engineering
 CAM— Computer Aided Manufacturing  CATD— Computer Aided Tool Design
 CAQ— Computer Aided Quality Assurance  CAT— Computer Aided Testing
 CAPP— Computer Aided Process Planning
Product Design Stages in Product Design
• Design activities need to be well organised and should take into account all
influencing factors that are responsible for the success of the product.
• Ideally, the designer should consider all these factors while finalising the design.
Product Engineering Manufacturing Engineering

• Product functions and specifications • Process planning– Process sheet, Route
• Conceptual design • Tooling – Cutting tool, jigs & fixtures
• Asethetics • Part Programming- Robot, CNC program,
• Standards • Production planning—BOM, MRP
• Detailed design • Marketing and Distribution– Packaging
• Simulation
• Testing & analysis
Problem Identification Problem Definition & Conceptualisation

Geometric Modelling Engineering Analysis
Prototype Development Manufacturing Process Development

• Before committing the design to manufacture, it is also essential to
carry out some physical tests on the part. This will be in addition to
the computerised analysis carried out using various facilities.
• Rapid prototyping is a means through which the product geometry

as modelled in the earlier stages can be converted into physical
shape of the component.
• A prototype component helps in obtaining the necessary information

for manufacturing.
Product Cycle in a Computerised
Manufacturing Environment
Computer Aided Design/Manufacturing
Main Applications of Computer Aided Main Applications of Computer Aided

Design Manufacturing
• Drafting: It is used to create the 2D drawings of components or assemblies; usually • Plotter/Laser Cutting: Using 2D CAD or graphics software these machines can cut or
directly from a 3D model. engrave a wide variety of materials such as card, plywood, acrylic sheet, textiles, glass.
• Surface Modelling: It is used to create surfaces of desired shape by trimming, • 2.5D Milling/3D Milling: Typically 2.5D machining uses 2D CAD files as the source
stitching and joining different surfaces. and cuts in x and y directions(parallel to the machine bed) while lowering the tool
progressively through several steps.

• Solid Modelling: It is used to create solid components of desired shape by joining
• Turning: CAM software automates traditional turning on a lathe including roughing,
and cutting different solid volumes. The final solid model is a virtual replica of an
grooving, threading and finishing for faster, more accurate results.
actual product but it can be seen and rotated like a real product.
• 3D printing: 3D printing is a process of making a three-dimensional object of virtually
• Assembly: It is used to assemble the models created in solid or surface modelling
any shape from a digital model.
to create a final assembly.
Key benefits of CAD/CAM Application in Mechanical Design
• Increased range of design ideas (More options)
• Ease of modification
• Improved accuracy
• Repeatability of output
• Quality of output
• Reduction of wastage
Visual Reality & Motion Animation Applications in Stress Analysis

Workspace and Sequence Simulation Benefits of CAE and CAD Integration
• The possibility to make corrections early in the engineering

conceptualization and design phases. Time and error reduction
for the design
• Dramatic cost reduction associated with the physical testing of
prototypes.
• Keeping the established deadlines in different phases of the
engineering workflow.
• Radical improvement of product quality and enriching the
customer satisfaction level.
Integrated CAD/CAE Tools Benefits of CAM and CAD Integration
Computer-Aided Engineering (CAE) Software:

• Improved quality
• Fusion 360
• ABAQUS • Elimination of wasted effort
• Autodesk Inventor
• Pre-production iterations
• SolidWorks
• Simulink • Enhanced collaboration
• ANSYS
• Improved handling of design changes
• Altair Optistruct/HyperWorks
Integrated CAD/CAM Tools
MASTERCAM / DELCAM / SURFCAM: System

for generating 2, 3, 5- axis milling, turning, wire
EDM, mold base development and 3D design and
drafting.
Computer Graphics: Display Devices
Rhinoceros: Industrial, marine, and jewelry
designs; cad/cam; rapid prototyping; and reverse
cad/cam; rapid prototyping; and reverse
engineering
Video Display Devices Cathode Ray Tubes
• Cathode Ray Tubes
• Raster-scan displays
• Random-scan displays
• Color CRT displays
• Flat display units
• Digital Mirror Display

Cathode Ray Tubes (CRT) Cathode Ray Tubes (CRT)
• Beam of electrons directed from cathode to phosphor coated (fluorescent) • Horizontal deflection and vertical deflection direct the electron beam to
screen. any point on the screen.
• Directed by magnetic focusing and deflection coils (anodes) in vacuum • Intensity knob: regulates the flow of electrons by controlling the voltage
filled tube. • Refresh CRT: refreshes the display constantly to maintain phosphor glow.
• Phosphor emits photon of light, when hit by an electron, of varied • Resolution: a 2D term that measures the number of scan-lines and the
persistence. number of pixels on each line (maximum number of points that can be
• Refresh rate (50-60 Hz) to avoid flicker / trail displayed without overlap on a CRT)
• Phosphors are organic compounds characterized by their persistence and
their color (blue, red, green)
Raster Display System Framebuffer & Bit-plane
• Frame buffer: stored pixel map of screen • Framebuffer is a portion of random
• Video controller just refreshes the frame buffer on the monitor periodically access memory organised as a two
directional array with (x, y) location
corresponding to one pixel.
• Bit planes is the number of bits
corresponding to each pixel.
• A typical frame buffer resolution
might be: 1280*1024*8,
1280*1024*24
Framebuffer & Bit-plane N-Gray Color Display
Simple Color Buffer True Color Buffer

Color CRT System Bus
• Three electron guns • A bus is a high-speed internal connection. Buses are used to send control
signals and data between the processor and other components.

• A metal shadow mask to differentiate the beams
• Three types of bus are used.
• Address bus - carries memory addresses from the processor to other
components such as primary storage and input/output devices. The address bus
is unidirectional.
• Data bus - carries the data between the processor and other components. The
data bus is bidirectional.
• Control bus - carries control signals from the processor to other components.
Raster-scan Displays Raster-scan Displays
• The image is stored in a frame buffer containing the total screen area and where • Screen is a regular grid of samples called pixels (picture element)
each memory location corresponds to a pixel. • Screen is refreshed line by line
Examples: Television panels, PC monitors (99% of raster-scan)...
• Raster Display
• Raster: Array of points or dots
• Pixel: one dot or picture element
• Scan line: a row of pixles
• Rasterize: set of pixels corresponding to a 2D shape

Raster-scan Displays Random-scan Displays
• Current raster-scan displays have a refresh rate of at least 60 • Random scan systems are also called vector, or stroke writing
frames (60 Hz) per second, up to 120 (120 Hz). displays.
• Retrace procedure: • The electron beam directly draws the picture in any specified order.
– Horizontal retrace – beam returns to left of screen • A pen plotter is an example of such a system.
– Vertical retrace – bean returns to top left corner of screen • Picture is stored in a refresh display file or vector file as a set of
line drawing commands.
• Refreshes by scanning the list 30 to 60 times per second.
Random-scan Displays Flat Display Units
• Random scan systems are also called vector, or stroke writing • Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) has liquid crystal material sandwiched between
two sheets of glass. Without any voltage applied between transparent
displays.
electrodes, liquid crystal molecules are arranged randomly with the glass
• The electron beam directly draws the picture in any specified order.
surface.
• A pen plotter is an example of such a system.
• Liquid Crystals do not emit light directly, but uses the backlight to produce
• Picture is stored in a refresh display file or vector file as a set of
the images. It is a flat panel display unit.
line drawing commands. • Overwhelmingly all modern laptop screens are LCD – Liquid Crystal Display. ...
• Refreshes by scanning the list 30 to 60 times per second. Whenever you see or hear “LED screen”, it usually means an LCD panel with a
backlighting provided by an array of LEDs (Light Emitting Diodes).

Liquid Crystal Display Liquid Crystal Display
Liquid Crystal Display Digital Mirror Device
• The DMD is an array of several lakhs of aluminium mirrors, each of
which acts as a light switch.

Digital Mirror Device
Geometric Transformation
Geometric Transformation Basic Geometric Transformation
• It can change the orientation, size and shape of the objects in the database • The basic geometric transformations used in modelling are:
as well as on the graphics image. 1. Translation
• The geometric transformations are used for the following purposes: 2. Rotation
1. Construction of a model 3. Scaling
2. Editing the model using the command like: translate. rotate, zoom, 4. Reflection
mirror, array etc 5. Shear
3. Obtaining orthographic isometric and perspective views of the model 6. Composite Transformation
4. Viewing model from different directions
5. In animations
Basic Geometric Transformation Geometric Transformation: Translation
• Reflections: These are like mirror images as seen across a line or a point. • Translation is a transformation that slides a figure across a plane or through
• Translations: This moves the figure to a new location with no change to the space.
looks of the figure. • With translation all points of a figure moves the same distance and the same
• Rotations: this turns the figure clockwise or anticlockwise but doesn’t direction.
change the figure. • If a point is moves “a” units to the right and “b” units up, then the translated
points will be a (x+a, y+b)
• If a point moves “a” units to the left and “b” units down, then the translated
points will be a (x-a, y-b)
Geometric Transformation: Translation Geometric Transformation: Rotation

A
• Example: Image A translates to
image B by moving to the right
3 units and down 5 units.
A(2,3)  B (2+3, 3-5)  B (5,-
2) 1 2 3 4 5 6
B
Geometric Transformation: Rotation Geometric Transformation: Rotation
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
R=
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑃1 = 𝑅 ∗ 𝑃
𝑥1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑥
=
𝑦1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑦
Geometric Transformation: Scaling Geometric Transformation: Reflections
• Reflection across the x-axis: the x value stays same and the sign of the y
value will change
• Reflection across the y-axis: the y value stays same and the sign of the x
value changes
• Example: In the figure, line l:
• reflects across the y axis to line n
(2,1)  (-2,1) & (5,4)  (-5,4)
• reflects across the x axis to line m
(2,1)  (2,-1) & (5,4)  (5,-4)

Geometric Transformation: Shear Geometric Transformation: Shear
Shear deformation Parallel to x-axis (x, y) will become (x + fy, y)
y y
1 𝑓
0 1
x x
Before deformation Shear deformation Shear deformation

Parallel to x-axis Parallel to y-axis
Shear deformation Parallel to y-axis (x, y) will become (x, y+fx)
y y
1 0
𝑓 1
x x
Geometric Transformation: Shear

Shear deformation Parallel to x-axis (x, y) will become (x + fy, y)
y y 𝑥′ 1 0.5 0
(1,2) =
(0,2) (2,2) (3,2) 𝑦′ 0 1 2
1 0.5
0 1 𝑥′ 1 0.5 2
=
x x 𝑦′ 0 1 2 Transformation Matrix
Shear deformation Parallel to y-axis (x, y) will become (x, y+fx)
y y
𝑥′ 1 0 2
(2,2) =
1 0 𝑦′ −1 1 2
−1 1 (2,0)
(2,0) x x 𝑥′ 1 0 2
=
𝑦′ −1 1 0
(2,-2)
Homogeneous Coordinates Transformation Matrix
• Most of the time when working with 3D, we are thinking in terms of Euclidean
geometry – that is, coordinates in three-dimensional space (X, Y and Z).
• However, there are certain situations where it is useful to think in terms of projective
geometry instead.
• Projective geometry has an extra dimension, called W, in addition to the X, Y,
and Z dimensions.
• This four-dimensional space is called “projective space,” and coordinates in
projective space are called “homogeneous coordinates.”
(X,Y,Z,W)
Transformation Matrix Transformation Matrix

Let’s say that the projector is 3 meters away from the screen, and there is a dot on the 2D image at the coordinate (15,21)
. This gives us the projective coordinate vector (X,Y,W)=(15,21,3)
𝑃′ = 𝑃 + 𝑇
𝑃′ = 𝑃𝑀1 + 𝑀2
𝑀1 = 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑀𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥 (𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 & 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔)
𝑀2 = 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥 (𝐴𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)
Translation.
–P′=T + P
•Scale
–P′=S⋅P
•Rotation
–P′=R ⋅P

Translation matrix:
𝑥′ 𝑥 ∆𝑥 Translation matrix:
= 𝑦 +
𝑦′ ∆𝑦
𝑥′ 𝑥 + ∆𝑥 𝑥′ 1 0 𝑡𝑥 𝑥 1 ∗ 𝑥 + 0 ∗ 𝑦 + 𝑡𝑥 ∗ 1 𝑥 + 𝑡𝑥
= 𝑦 ′ = 0 1 𝑡𝑦 𝑦 = 0 ∗ 𝑥 + 1 ∗ 𝑦 + 𝑡𝑦 ∗ 1 = 𝑦 + 𝑡𝑦
𝑦′ 𝑦 + ∆𝑦
1 0 0 1 1 0∗𝑥+0∗𝑦+1∗1 1
Rotation matrix:
𝑥′ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑥 𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝑦𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
= 𝑦 = 𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 𝑦𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑦′ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
Scaling matrix:
𝑥′ 𝑆𝑥 0 𝑥 𝑥𝑆𝑥
= 𝑦 = 𝑦𝑆𝑦
𝑦′ 0 𝑆𝑦
Rotation matrix:
𝑥′ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 0 𝑥 𝑥 ∗ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ∗ 𝑦 + 0 ∗ 1 𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝑦𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

𝑦 ′ = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 0 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ∗ 𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 ∗ 𝑦 + 0 ∗ 1 = 𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 𝑦𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 Scaling matrix:
1 0 0 1 1 0∗𝑥+0∗𝑦+1∗1 1 𝑥′ 𝑆𝑥 0 0 𝑥 𝑥𝑆𝑥
𝑦′ = 0 𝑆𝑦 0 𝑦 = 𝑦𝑆𝑦
1 0 0 1 1 1
2 Successive Rotation: Additive in nature
Composite matrix:
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 0 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅ −𝑠𝑖𝑛∅ 0
2 Successive translations: Additive in nature = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 0 ∗ 𝑠𝑖𝑛∅ 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅ 0
0 0 1 0 0 1
1 0 𝑡𝑥1 1 0 𝑡𝑥2 1 0 𝑡𝑥1 + 𝑡𝑥2

0 1 𝑡𝑦1 ∗ 0 1 𝑡𝑦2 = 0 1 𝑡𝑦1 + 𝑡𝑦2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 ∗ 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅ − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ∗ 𝑠𝑖𝑛∅ −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 ∗ 𝑠𝑖𝑛∅ − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ∗ 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅ 0
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛∅ ∗ 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅ + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 ∗ 𝑠𝑖𝑛∅ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 ∗ 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅ − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ∗ 𝑠𝑖𝑛∅ 0
0 0 1
cos(𝜃 + ∅) −sin(𝜃 + ∅) 0
= sin(𝜃 + ∅) cos(𝜃 + ∅) 0
0 0 1
Composite Transformation Transformation Matrix
Transformation Matrix
3D Transformation
3D Transformation 3D Transformation
Translation Matrix: Scaling Matrix:
𝑥′ 1 0 0 𝑡𝑥 𝑥 𝑥′ 𝑆𝑥 0 0 0 𝑥
𝑦 ′ = 0 1 0 𝑡𝑦 𝑦 𝑦′ = 0 𝑆𝑦 0 0 𝑦
𝑧′ 0 0 1 𝑡𝑧 𝑧 𝑧′ 0 0 𝑆𝑧 0 𝑧
1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1
𝑥′ 1 ∗ 𝑥 + 0 ∗ 𝑦 + 0 ∗ 𝑧 + 𝑡𝑥 ∗ 1 𝑥 + 𝑡𝑥 𝑥′ 𝑆𝑥 ∗ 𝑥 + 0 ∗ 𝑦 + 0 ∗ 𝑧 + 0 ∗ 1 𝑥𝑆𝑥
𝑦 ′ = 0 ∗ 𝑥 + 1 ∗ 𝑦 + 0 ∗ 𝑧 + 𝑡𝑦 ∗ 1 = 𝑦 + 𝑡𝑦 𝑦 ′ = 0 ∗ 𝑥 + 𝑆𝑦 ∗ 𝑦 + 0 ∗ 𝑧 + 0 ∗ 1 = 𝑦𝑆𝑦
𝑧′ 0 ∗ 𝑥 + 0 ∗ 𝑦 + 1 ∗ 𝑧 + 𝑡𝑧 ∗ 1 𝑧 + 𝑡𝑧 𝑧′ 0 ∗ 𝑥 + 0 ∗ 𝑦 + 𝑆𝑧 ∗ 𝑧 + 0 ∗ 1 𝑧𝑆𝑧
1 0∗𝑥+0∗𝑦+0∗𝑧+1∗1 1 1 0∗𝑥+0∗𝑦+0∗𝑧+1∗1 1
Rotation Matrix:
o Case-1: rotation about Z axis Case-2
o Case-2: rotation about X axis
About X axis
o Case-3: rotation about Y axis
𝑥′ 1 0 0 0 𝑥 1∗𝑥+0∗𝑦+0∗𝑧+0∗1
Case-1 𝑦 ′ = 0 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 0 𝑦 0 ∗ 𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 ∗ 𝑦 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ∗ 𝑧 + 0 ∗ 1
0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 =
𝑧′ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 0 𝑧 0 ∗ 𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ∗ 𝑦 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 ∗ 𝑧 + 0 ∗ 1
1 0 0 0 1 1 0∗𝑥+0∗𝑦+0∗𝑧+1∗1
About Z axis
𝑥′ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 0 0 𝑥 𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝑦𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 0 ∗ 𝑧 + 0 ∗ 1
𝑦 ′ = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 0 0 𝑦 𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 𝑦𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 0 ∗ 𝑧 + 0 ∗ 1 𝑥′ 𝑥
𝑧′ 0 0 1 0 𝑧 = 0∗𝑥+0∗𝑦+1∗𝑧+0∗1 𝑦 ′ = 𝑦𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝑧𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
1 0 0 0 1 1 0∗𝑥+0∗𝑦+0∗𝑧+1∗1 𝑧 ′ 𝑦𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 𝑧𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
1 1
𝑥 ′ 𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝑦𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑦 ′ = 𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 𝑦𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑧′ 𝑧
1 1
The cosine is an even function, which means exactly that cos(x)=cos(−x) , while the
sine is odd, which means that sin(x)=−sin(−x)
Case-3
About Y axis in clockwise direction
𝑥′ cos(−𝜃) 0 −sin(−𝜃) 0 𝑥 cos 𝜃 0 sin 𝜃 0
𝑦′ = 0 1 0 0 𝑦 = 0 1 0 0
𝑧′ sin(−𝜃) 0 cos(−𝜃) 0 𝑧 −sin 𝜃 0 cos 𝜃 0
1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1
𝑥′ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 + 0 ∗ 𝑦 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ∗ 𝑧 + 0 ∗ 1 𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑧𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

𝑦′ = 0∗𝑥+1∗𝑦+0∗𝑧+0∗1 𝑦
= •Initial coordinates of the object O = (Xold, Yold, Zold)
𝑧 ′ −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ∗ 𝑥 + 0 ∗ 𝑦 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 ∗ 𝑧 + 0 ∗ 1 𝑧𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
1 0∗𝑥+0∗𝑦+0∗𝑧+1∗1 1 •Shearing parameter towards X direction = Shx
•Shearing parameter towards Y direction = Shy
•Shearing parameter towards Z direction = Shz
•New coordinates of the object O after shearing = (Xnew, Ynew, Znew)
Shearing in X Axis- Shearing in Y Axis-
Shearing in X axis is achieved by using the following shearing equations- Shearing in Y axis is achieved by using the following shearing equations-
•Xnew = Xold •Xnew = Xold + Shx x Yold
•Ynew = Yold + Shy x Xold •Ynew = Yold
•Znew = Zold + Shz x Xold •Znew = Zold + Shz x Yold
In Matrix form, the above shearing equations may be represented as- In Matrix form, the above shearing equations may be represented as-
Shearing in Z Axis- Problem; Given a 3D triangle with points (0, 0, 0), (1, 1, 2) and (1, 1, 3). Apply shear
Shearing in Z axis is achieved by using the following shearing equations- transformation in x-axis, and the given parameters are 2 on Y axis and 3 on Z axis and find out
•Xnew = Xold + Shx x Zold the new coordinates of the object.
•Ynew = Yold + Shy x Zold
•Znew = Zold
Given-
In Matrix form, the above shearing equations may be represented as- •Old corner coordinates of the triangle = A (0, 0, 0), B(1, 1, 2), C(1, 1, 3)
•Shearing parameter towards Y direction (Shy) = 2
•Shearing parameter towards Y direction (Shz) = 3
For Coordinates A(0, 0, 0) For Coordinates B(1, 1, 2)
Let the new coordinates of corner A after shearing = (Xnew, Ynew, Znew). Let the new coordinates of corner B after shearing = (Xnew, Ynew, Znew).
Applying the shearing equations, we have- Applying the shearing equations, we have-
•Xnew = Xold = 0 •Xnew = Xold = 1
•Ynew = Yold + Shy x Xold = 0 + 2 x 0 = 0 •Ynew = Yold + Shy x Xold = 1 + 2 x 1 = 3
•Znew = Zold + Shz x Xold = 0 + 3 x 0 = 0 •Znew = Zold + Shz x Xold = 2 + 3 x 1 = 5
Thus, New coordinates of corner A after shearing = (0, 0, 0). Thus, New coordinates of corner B after shearing = (1, 3, 5).
For Coordinates C(1, 1, 3) A point P (3,2,1) is rotated by 60° about X axis, and then translated in X, Y, & Z directions by
-2, -2, -2 unit respectively. Find the final position of the P.
Let the new coordinates of corner C after shearing = (Xnew, Ynew, Znew).
𝑥′ 1 0 0 𝑡𝑥 1 0 0 0 𝑥
𝑦′ = 0 1 0 𝑡𝑦 0 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 0 𝑦
Applying the shearing equations, we have- 𝑧′ 0 0 1 𝑡𝑧 0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 0 𝑧
1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1
•Xnew = Xold = 1
•Ynew = Yold + Shy x Xold = 1 + 2 x 1 = 3
𝑥′ 1 0 0 −2 1 0 0 0 𝑥
•Znew = Zold + Shz x Xold = 3 + 3 x 1 = 6 𝑦′ = 0 1 0 −2 0 𝑐𝑜𝑠60 −𝑠𝑖𝑛60 0 𝑦
𝑧′ 0 0 1 −2 0 𝑠𝑖𝑛60 𝑐𝑜𝑠60 0 𝑧
1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1
Thus, New coordinates of corner C after shearing = (1, 3, 6).
Thus, New coordinates of the triangle after shearing in X axis = A (0, 0, 0), B(1, 3, 5), C(1, 3, 6).
𝑥′ 1 0 0 −2 1 0 0 0 𝑥 𝑥′ 1 0 0 −2 1 0 0 0 𝑥
𝑦′ = 0 1 0 −2 0 𝑐𝑜𝑠60 −𝑠𝑖𝑛60 0 𝑦 𝑦′ = 0 1 0 −2 0 1/2 − 3/2 0 𝑦
𝑧′ 0 0 1 −2 0 𝑠𝑖𝑛60 𝑐𝑜𝑠60 0 𝑧 𝑧′ 0 0 1 −2 0 3/2 1/2 0 𝑧
1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1
𝑥′ 𝑥′ 1 0 0 −2 𝑥
1 0 0 −2 1 0 0 0 𝑥 1/2 − 3/2 −2 𝑦
𝑦′ = 0 1 0 −2 0 𝑐𝑜𝑠60 −𝑠𝑖𝑛60 0 𝑦 𝑦′ = 0
0 0 1 −2 0 𝑠𝑖𝑛60 𝑐𝑜𝑠60 0 𝑧 𝑧′ 0 3/2 1/2 −2 𝑧
𝑧′
1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1
1∗𝑥+0∗𝑦+0∗𝑧−2∗1 𝑥−2
𝑥′ 1 0 0 −2 1 0 0 0 𝑥 𝑥′ 1 3 1 3 1
𝑦′ = 0 1 0 −2 0 1/2 − 3/2 0 𝑦 0∗𝑥+𝑦 2 +𝑧 − 2 −2∗1 𝑦 −𝑧 −2
𝑦′ = =
2 2
== −1.866
𝑧′ 0 0 1 −2 0 3/2 1/2 0 𝑧 𝑧′ 3 1 3 1 0.230
0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0∗𝑥+𝑦 2 +𝑧 2 −2∗1 𝑦 +𝑧 −2
1 0 0 1 2 2 1
1 1
Drawing Line with Pixels Line Drawing Algorithm
DDA Algorithm DDA Algorithm

DDA Algorithm Bresenham’s Line Algorithm
Bresenham’s Line Algorithm Bresenham’s Line Algorithm

Bresenham’s Line Algorithm Bresenham’s Line Algorithm
Bresenham’s Line Algorithm Mid Point Circle Algorithm

Q4 Q1
(-X,Y) (X,Y)
O8 O1
O7 O2
O6 O3
O5 O4
(-X,-Y) (X,-Y)
Q3 Q2
Mid Point Circle Algorithm Mid Point Circle Algorithm
The next point will be Equation of circle

(0,r) P1 𝑥≥𝑦
𝑥𝑘+1 = 𝑥𝑘 + 1 𝑥 2 + 𝑦2 = 𝑟2
𝑦𝑘+1 = 𝑦𝑘 − 1 𝑜𝑟 𝑦𝑘
The final point will become either Insert the mid point into the circle equation
2
P2 1
𝑥𝑘 + 1, 𝑦𝑘 𝑜𝑟 𝑥𝑘 + 1, 𝑦𝑘 − 1 𝑃𝑘 = (𝑥𝑘 + 1)2 + 𝑦𝑘 − − 𝑟2
(0,0) (r,0) 2
Calculate the mid point
2
1
𝑃𝑘+1 = (𝑥𝑘+1 + 1)2 + 𝑦𝑘+1 − − 𝑟2
𝑥𝑘 + 1 + 𝑥𝑘 + 1 𝑦𝑘 + 𝑦𝑘 − 1 2
,
2 2
2 2
1 1
𝑃𝑘+1 − 𝑃𝑘 = (𝑥𝑘+1 + 1)2 + 𝑦𝑘+1 − − ቌ𝑥𝑘 + 1)2 + 𝑦𝑘 −
1 2 2
𝑥𝑘 + 1, 𝑦𝑘 −
2
Mid Point Circle Algorithm Mid Point Circle Algorithm

2 2 𝐶𝑎𝑠𝑒 − 1
1 1
𝑃𝑘+1 − 𝑃𝑘 = (𝑥𝑘+1 + 1)2 + 𝑦𝑘+1 − − ቌ(𝑥𝑘 +1)2 + 𝑦𝑘 − 𝑃𝑘 ≥ 0, 𝑦𝑘+1 = 𝑦𝑘 − 1
2 2
Case-2
1 1 𝑃𝑘 < 0, 𝑦𝑘+1 = 𝑦𝑘
𝑃𝑘+1 − 𝑃𝑘 = (𝑥𝑘 + 1)2 + 1 + 2 𝑥𝑘 + 1 + 𝑦𝑘+1 2 + − 𝑦𝑘+1 − 𝑥𝑘 + 1 2 − 𝑦𝑘 2 − + 𝑦𝑘
4 4
K (𝑥𝑘 , 𝑦𝑘 ) 𝑝𝑘 (𝑥𝑘+1 , 𝑦𝑘+1 )
Radius= 8,
𝑃𝑘+1 − 𝑃𝑘 = 2 𝑥𝑘 + 1 +[ 𝑦𝑘+1 2 −𝑦𝑘 2] − [ 𝑦𝑘+1 − 𝑦𝑘 ] + 1 0 (0,8) -7 (1,8)
Find out all the points
1 (1,8) -4 (2,8)
Initial decision parameter 2 (2,8) 1 (3,7)
𝑃𝑘 = 1 − 𝑟 = -7
2
1
𝑃𝑘 = (𝑥𝑘 + 1)2 + 𝑦𝑘 − − 𝑟2 3 (3,7) -6 (4,7)
2 4 (4,7) 3 (5,6)
2
1 5 (5,6) 2 (6,5)
𝑃𝑘 = (0 + 1)2 + r − − 𝑟2
2 2
5 𝑃𝑘+1 = 𝑃𝑘 + 2 𝑥𝑘 + 1 +[ 𝑦𝑘+1 −𝑦𝑘 2 ] − [ 𝑦𝑘+1 − 𝑦𝑘 ] + 1
𝑃𝑘 = 4 − 𝑟
𝑃𝑘+1 = −7 + 3 = −4
𝑃𝑘 = 1 − 𝑟
𝑃𝑘+1 = −4 + 2 1 + 1 + 1=1
Mid Point Circle Algorithm
Raster representation of circle
(𝑥𝑘+1 , 𝑦𝑘+1 ) (𝑥𝑘+1 , 𝑦𝑘+1 ) (𝑥𝑘+1 , 𝑦𝑘+1 ) (𝑥𝑘+1 , 𝑦𝑘+1 )

(0,8) (0,8) (0,-8) (0,-8)
(1,8) (-1,8) (-1,-8) (1,-8)
(2,8) (-2,8) (-2,-8) (2,-8)
(3,7)
(4,7)
(-3,7)
(-4,7)
(-3,-7)
(-4,-7)
(3,-7)
(4,-7)
Line Clipping Algorithm
(5,6) (-5,6) (-5,-6) (5,-6)
(6,5) (-6,5) (-6,-5) (6,-5)
(7,4) (-7,4) (-7,-4) (7,-4)
(7,3) (-7,3) (-7,-3) (7,-3)
(8,2) (-8,2) (-8,-2) (8,-2)
(8,1) (-8,1) (-8,-1) (8,-1)
(8,0) (-8,0) (-8,0) (8,0)
Line Clipping Algorithm Line Clipping Algorithm

Line Clipping: The part of the line inside the defined window will be Line Clipping:
P5
kept and the part of the line outside the window will be removed. • Line 𝑃1 &𝑃2 (Reject)
(50,50)
P5
• Line 𝑃3 &𝑃4 (Accept)
(50,50) P1 P3
• Line 𝑃5 &𝑃6 (Clipping required) P6 P7
P1 P3
P6 P7
• Line 𝑃7 &𝑃8 (Clipping required)
• Condition 1 P2
P4
P2 • 𝑥𝑚𝑖𝑛 < 𝑥 < 𝑥𝑚𝑎𝑥 (0,0)

P4 P8
• Condition 2
(0,0)
P8
𝑦𝑚𝑖𝑛 < 𝑦 < 𝑦𝑚𝑎𝑥
Cohen Sutherland Line Clipping Cohen Sutherland Line Clipping
algorithm algorithm
Region Code 1001 1000 1010 𝑃5 &𝑃6 : Clipping required P5 1000 Non Zero
A B R L P6 0000 Zero
0001 0000 0010 AND 0000 Zero
Above Below Right Left 0101 0100 0110
𝑃7 &𝑃8 : Clipping required P7 0010 Non Zero
𝑃1 &𝑃2 : Reject 𝑃1 0001 Non Zero P8 0100 Non Zero
𝑃2 0001 Non Zero
AND 0000 Zero
AND 0001 Non Zero
𝑃3 &𝑃4 : Accept 𝑃3 0000 Zero

𝑃4 0000 Zero
AND 0000 Zero
Line Clipping Algorithm Line Clipping Algorithm

(80,90)
𝑃5 𝑃6 : Clipping required P7 m= (90-30)/(80-10)= 6/7=0.857 P7
(20,70) (90,70) (50,50)
P7 1000 Non Zero P’7(?,70) 𝑦 = 𝑚(𝑥𝑚𝑖𝑛 − 𝑥1) + 𝑦1
P8 0001 Non Zero y= 0.857(20-10)+30= 38.57=39
AND 0000 Zero
𝑥 = (1/𝑚) (𝑦𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑦1) + 𝑥1
(60,30)
P’8(20,?)
As it is 0000, clipping required P8
x= (1/0.857)(70-30)+10= 40/0.857 P8
𝑦 = 𝑚(𝑥𝑚𝑖𝑛 − 𝑥1) + 𝑦1 (10,30) +10 (5,20)
(20,20) (90,20) x = 56.67= 57 (10,10)

1
𝑥= 𝑦𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑦1 + 𝑥1
𝑚
𝑦2 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚 𝑥2 − 𝑥1
Liang Barsky Line Clipping Algo. Liang Barsky Line Clipping Algo.
𝑥 = 𝑥1 + 𝑡∆𝑥 … … … … … (1) (x2,y2) • Condition 1 𝑥𝑚𝑖𝑛 ≤ 𝑥1 + 𝑡∆𝑥

𝑡2 =1
𝑡∆𝑥 ≥ 𝑥𝑚𝑖𝑛 − 𝑥1 … …(3)
𝑦 = 𝑦1 + 𝑡∆𝑦 … … … … … (2) (x, y) at t 𝑥𝑚𝑖𝑛 ≤ 𝑥1 + 𝑡∆𝑥 ≤ 𝑥𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑡∆𝑥 ≤ 𝑥𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑥1 … (4)
• Condition 2 𝑡∆𝑦 ≥ 𝑦𝑚𝑖𝑛 − 𝑦1 … . (5)
• Condition 1 (x1,y1)
𝑡1 = 0 𝑦𝑚𝑖𝑛 ≤ 𝑦1 + 𝑡∆𝑦 ≤ 𝑦𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑡∆𝑦 ≤ 𝑦𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑦1 … . (6)
𝑥𝑚𝑖𝑛 < 𝑥 < 𝑥𝑚𝑎𝑥
• Condition 2 −𝑡∆𝑥 ≤ 𝑥1 − 𝑥𝑚𝑖𝑛
Eq. (3)& (5) Multiplied with (-1) 𝑡∆𝑥 ≤ 𝑥𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑥1
𝑦𝑚𝑖𝑛 < 𝑦 < 𝑦𝑚𝑎𝑥
−𝑡∆𝑦 ≤ 𝑦1 − 𝑦𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑡∆𝑦 ≤ 𝑦𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑦1
𝑡𝑃𝑘 ≤ 𝑄𝑘
𝑄𝑘
𝐼𝑓 𝑃𝑘 < 0, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑡1 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥 0,
𝑃𝑘 = −∆𝑥 𝑄𝑘 = 𝑥1 − 𝑥𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑃𝑘
−𝑡∆𝑥 ≤ 𝑥1 − 𝑥𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝐼𝑓 𝑛𝑜 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡1 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑜𝑤
𝑡∆𝑥 ≤ 𝑥𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑥1 𝑃𝑘 = +∆𝑥 𝑄𝑘 = 𝑥𝑚𝑎𝑥 −𝑥1
𝑃𝑘 = −∆𝑦 𝑄𝑘 = 𝑦1 − 𝑦𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝐼𝑓 𝑡1 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑠, 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑜𝑤
−𝑡∆𝑦 ≤ 𝑦1 − 𝑦𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑃𝑘 = +∆𝑦 𝑄𝑘 = 𝑦𝑚𝑎𝑥 −𝑦1
𝑥 = 𝑥1 + 𝑡1 ∆𝑥
𝑡∆𝑦 ≤ 𝑦𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑦1
𝑦 = 𝑦1 + 𝑡1 ∆𝑦
𝑡𝑃𝑘 ≤ 𝑄𝑘
𝑄𝑘
𝐼𝑓 𝑃𝑘 > 0, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑡2 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛 1,
𝑃𝑘
𝐼𝑓 𝑛𝑜 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡2 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑜𝑤
𝐼𝑓 𝑃𝑘 = 0, 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 𝑡𝑜 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑜𝑤
𝑄𝑘 < 0, 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑜𝑤 𝐼𝑓 𝑡2 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑠, 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑜𝑤
𝑄𝑘 > 0, 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑜𝑤
𝑥 = 𝑥1 + 𝑡2 ∆𝑥
𝑄𝑘 = 0, 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑜𝑤 𝑦 = 𝑦1 + 𝑡2 ∆𝑦
𝑃1 = −∆𝑥 = −4 𝑄1 = 𝑥1 − 𝑥𝑚𝑖𝑛 = −1 (4,12) 𝑃1 = −∆𝑥 = −6 𝑄1 = 𝑥1 − 𝑥𝑚𝑖𝑛 (4,12)
= −1
𝑃2 = +∆𝑥 = 4 𝑄2 = 𝑥𝑚𝑎𝑥 −𝑥1 = 5 𝑃2 = +∆𝑥 = +6 𝑄2 = 𝑥𝑚𝑎𝑥 −𝑥1

(5,9) (7,9) (9,9) =5 (5,9) (8,9) (9,9)
𝑃3 = −∆𝑦 = 4 𝑄3 = 𝑦1 − 𝑦𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 7 𝑃3 = −∆𝑦 = 5 𝑄3 = 𝑦1 − 𝑦𝑚𝑖𝑛
=7
(8,8)
𝑃4 = +∆𝑦 = −4 𝑄4 = 𝑦𝑚𝑎𝑥 −𝑦1 = −3 𝑃4 = +∆𝑦 = −5 𝑄4 = 𝑦𝑚𝑎𝑥 −𝑦1
= −3 (9,8)
(10,7)
(5,5) (9,5) (5,5) (9,5)
𝑃𝑘 < 0(𝑃1 , 𝑃4 ) 𝑃𝑘 > 0 (𝑃2 , 𝑃3 ) 𝑃𝑘 > 0 (𝑃2 , 𝑃3 ) 𝑃𝑘 < 0(𝑃1 , 𝑃4 )
𝑄1 𝑄4 𝑄2 𝑄3 𝑄2 𝑄3 𝑄1 𝑄4 𝑥 = 4 + (3/5) 6 = 7.6=8
𝑡1 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥 0, , 𝑡2 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛 1, , 𝑡2 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛 1, , 𝑡1 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥 0, ,
𝑃1 𝑃4 𝑃2 𝑃3 𝐼𝑓 𝑛𝑜 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡2 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑃2 𝑃3 𝑃1 𝑃4 y= 12 + (3/5) −5 = 9
1 3 5 7 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑜𝑤 5 7 −1 −3
𝑡1 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥 0, , 𝑡2 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛 1, , 𝑡2 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛 1, , 𝑡1 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥 0, ,
4 4 4 4 6 5 −6 −5 𝑥 = 4 + (5/6) 6 = 9
3 𝑡2 = 1 𝑡2 = 0.833 3 y= 12 + (5/6) −5 = 7.84 = 8
𝑡1 = 𝑡1 = = 0.6
4 5
Data Exchange Standards

• Nowadays CAD/CAM systems are 3D solid modelling tool which allow for complete
definitions of product geometry in digital form. This data can be used as a basis for
numerous other applications.
• Typically the geometry of the CAD model is shared with applications for strength analysis
Data Exchange Standards such as FEM programs, CFD, Heat Transfer, rapid prototyping systems, or used to
make up the instructions to guide NC-machine tools for the manufacturing process.
• The CAD-geometry can also be used as a basis for simulation processes, or is simply
exported to visualisation applications.
• Smooth and reliable exchange of product data between different CAx applications is
therefore of utmost importance to ensure coherent product definitions and avoid
duplication of design work.

Data Exchange Standards Data Exchange Standards
Four types of modelling data is used in product description
• Shape data: both geometric and topological information, part or form features.
Fonts, color, are considered part of the geometric information.
• Non-shape data: graphics data such as shaded images, and model global data as
measuring units of the database.
• Design data: information that designers generate from geometric models for
analysis purposes. Mass property and finite element mesh data belong to this type
of data.
• Manufacturing data: information as tooling, NC tool paths, tolerance, process
planning, tool design, and bill of materials (BOM).

Graphical Kernel System: It was the first ISO standard for low-level computer graphics,
introduced in 1977.
• GKS is basically a set of procedure which can be called by user programs to carry
out certain generalized function such as arc, circle, ellipse etc.
• It is a standard system of graphical functions for processing graphical data to
create and process 2D images.
• GKS implementations have been made by many hardware manufactures in
different languages.
Graphical Primitives in IBM GKS
Standard Neutral Data Formats:
• Initial Graphics Exchange Specification (IGES): The most popular format of the
neutral file, supported by all CAD/CAE/CAM systems and defined by the
international standard origination (ISO).
• Drawing Interchange Format (DXF): A format originated by AutoDesk and used
mainly for the exchange of drawing data.
• Standard for the Exchange of Product Model Data (STEP): the standard data
format used to store all the data relevant to the entire life cycle of the product,
including design, analysis, manufacturing, quality and testing.

IGES (Initial Graphics Exchange Specification): Drawing Interchange Format:
• First developed by National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) in 1980. • This format was originally developed to give users flexibility in managing data and
Then adopted by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) in the same year. translating AutoCAD drawings into file formats that could be read and used by
• It exchanges primarily shape (both geometric and topological) and non-shape data, other CAD/CAM/CAE systems.
which is referred as CAD-to-CAD exchange.
• Because of the popularity of AutoCAD at that time, DXF became the de-facto
• IGES Version 1.0- CAD Drawing
standard of interchanging CAD drawing files for almost all CAD/CAM/CAE system.
• IGES Version 2.0- Finite Element Data and Printed Circuit board data
• The IGES and DXF files were developed to exchange product definition data
• IGES Version 3.0- User defined Macros with the standard part libraries.
instead of product data.
• IGES Version 4.0- CSG tree of Solid
• Product data means, the data relevant to the entire life cycle of a product (e.g.
• IGES Version 5.0- Handles the B-Rep data Solids
Design, Manufacturing, Quality, and testing).
STEP (Standard for the Transfer and Exchange of Product Model Data): PDES (Product Data Exchange Standard)
• STEP, provides a representation of product information along with the necessary • To support any industrial application such as mechanical, electric, plant
mechanisms and definitions to enable product data to be exchanged between different

design, and architecture and engineering construction.
applications and processes.
• To include all four types of data which is relevant to the entire life-cycle
• STEP addresses different computer applications associated with the complete
of a product: design, analysis, manufacturing, quality assurance,
product lifecycle including design, manufacture, utilization, maintenance, and
disposal.
testing, support, etc.
• STEP is thus not only targeting CAD/CAM applications, but includes processes related to • Both PDES and STEP had the identical goal, as a result the Acronym
the organisation of the product data such as definition of materials, formal contracts PDES has been changed to stand for Product Data Exchange using
and specifications which are valid across organisations.
STEP.

Standard File Formats
• VRML is a standard file format for representing 3-dimensional interactive vector
Graphics exchange formats
graphics illusions. VRML is a text file format where, e.g., vertices and edges for a 3D
Format Comment polygon can be specified along with the surface color, textures, shininess, &
VRML (Virtual Reality Modelling Standard for viewing 3D object transparency.
Language) in Virtual environment • OBJ is a geometry definition file format first developed by Wavefront Technologies for its
OBJ 3D graphics de-facto standard Advanced Visualizer animation package. This format supports definition of the geometry
formats for Facetted B-rep for object surfaces using polygonal meshes or using freeform curves and surfaces.
models • The central concept in an OBJ model is the "element." The specification lists the following as
STL Triangular facets used for Rapid elements: point (p), line (l), face (f), 2D curve (curv2), and surface (surf).
Prototyping • Elements are constructed from vertices; the vertices must be listed first in the file, so that the
HPGL Images used for plotters elements can refer to them by number, using the order in which they occur in the file.

• HPGL file extension is an HP Graphics Language file that sends printing instructions to
plotter printers. Unlike other printers that use dots to create images, symbols, text, etc.,
a plotter printer uses the information from the HPGL file to draw lines on the paper.
• Standard Triangle Language" and "Standard Tessellation Language." The STL file format
is an openly documented format for describing the surface of an object as a triangular
mesh, that is, as a representation of a 3-dimensional surface in triangular facets. Coarse Fine
Since an STL file approximates the part’s surface geometry using tessellated
triangles, there is a tradeoff between accurate representation of curves and the
number of triangles used. The larger the number of triangles, the larger the file
size.
It is the maximum deviation between the designed part and the STL
representation of the part. It is represented by a parameter called chord
height or deviation tolerance. The chord height is the maximum distance
from the surface of the original design and the STL mesh.
It is recommended to set the tolerance between 0.01mm to 0.001 mm. This

usually results in good quality prints.
solid <name>
facet normal ni nj nk
outer loop
vertex v1x v1y v1z
vertex v2x v2y v2z
vertex v3x v3y v3z
endloop
endfacet
Data Exchange Standards
SYLLABUS CONTENT
CAD/CAM-MEE2007
Module I-Introduction
Dr.B.Muralidharan
Associate Professor
Department of Manufacturing
School of Mechanical Engineering (SMEC)
VIT UNIVERSITY, Vellore
E mail- muralidharan.b@vit.ac.in
Mobile- +919965287810.
9/10/2021 2
9/10/2021 CAD/ CAM MEE2007 1 CAD/ CAM MEE2007
SYLLABUS CONTENT BOOKS TO REFER
9/10/2021 CAD/ CAM MEE2007 3 9/10/2021 CAD/ CAM MEE2007 4

Definition and scope of CAD/CAM Definition of CAD
CAD/CAM = Computer Aided Design and Computer CAD
• Use of computer systems to assist in the
Aided Manufacturing. creation, modification, analysis, and
optimization of a design
It is the technology concerned with the use of • Typical tools:
• Tolerance analysis
computers to perform design and manufacturing • Mass property calculations
• Finite-element modeling and visualization
operations. • Defines the geometry of the design
Application and Scope of CAD process Application and Scope of CAD process

Stages in design process Product Life-Cycle
Product life cycle (PLC): the course of a product’s
sales and profits over its life

TYPICAL PRODUCT CYCLE
CAD Tools Required to Support the product cycle CAM Tools Required to Support the product cycle
Design phase Required CAD tools Manufacturing phase Required CAM tools
Design conceptualization Geometric modeling techniques; Graphics
aids; manipulations; and visualization Process planning CAPP techniques; cost
analysis; material and
Design modeling and simulation Same as above; animation; assemblies; tooling specification.
special modeling packages.
Part programming NC programming
Design analysis Analysis packages; customized programs
and packages.
Inspection CAQ; and Inspection
Design optimization Customized applications; structural
optimization. software
Design evaluation Dimensioning; tolerances; BOM; NC. Assembly Robotics simulation and
Design communication and Drafting and detailing… programming
documentation

From CAM definition, 2. Manufacturing support application .
the application of CAM falls into two broad categories:
1. Computer monitoring and control .
Process data
Process data
Computer Process Computer Mfg
operations
Control signals
Process data
Computer Process
Control signals
CAD/CAM TOOLS Typical Utilization of CAD/CAM Systems in an Industrial Environment

Geometric modeling and graphics package
Process planning
Geometric modeling
of conceptual design CAPP package
Is design evaluation
Yes Are there manufacturing
No discrepancies in CAD
Possible with available
Standard software? databases?
Design
package Yes
Develop customized No
Design testing
programs and packages
And evaluation NC programming NC
package
Programming
No Is final design package
Applicable? Machining
Yes
Inspection
Drafting Inspection
And Robotics
Assembly package
9/10/2021 Documentation CAD/ CAM MEE2007 20
9/10/2021 CAD/ CAM MEE2007 19
Advantages of CAD/CAM systems
Application of CAD/CAM
• Greater flexibility. • Better product design.
• Aerospace • Medical & Pharma • Reduced lead times. • Greater manufacturing
• Automotive • Military & Defence • Reduced inventories. control.
• Chemical & Process • Rail & Marine • Increased Productivity. • Supported integration.
• Communications • Improved customer service. • Reduced costs.
• Structural & Civil
• Improved quality. • Increased utilization.
• Computers & IT • Apparel and Textile
• Improved communications • Reduction of machine
• Electrical & Electronics Examples with suppliers. tools.
• Less floor space.
CIM –COMPUTER INTEGRATED MANUFACTURING

CIM basically involves the integration of advanced technologies
“CIM is the integration of the total manufacturing enterprise such as
through the use of integrated systems and data ✓ computer aided design (CAD)
communications coupled with new managerial philosophies ✓ computer aided manufacturing (CAM)
that improve organizational and personnel efficiency.” ✓ computer numerical control (CNC)
- Shrensker, Computer Automated Systems Association of the ✓ Robots
Society of Manufacturing Engineers (CASA/SME) ✓ Automated material handling systems
✓ integrating the business improvement activities
✓ customer satisfaction
✓ total quality
✓ continuous improvement
I/O devices of a CAD system

Input Output Schematic diagram of a CRT
Keyboard Printer
Keypad Plotter
Digitizer
Disk
Trackball Computer
Tape
Joystick
Computer output
microfilm
Tablet
Mouse CRT display with

light pen Play
The graphics display can be divided into two types based on the
•The electron gun generates the electrons. scan technology used to control the electron beam when
•The focusing unit focuses the electrons into beam.
•The deflection system controls x and y, or the horizontal and generating graphics on the screen:
vertical positions of the graphics information through the
display controller, which typically sits between the computer 1. Random scan
and CRT.
2. Raster scan
1. Random scan: the screen is not scanned in particular order.

2. Raster scan: the screen is scanned from left to right, top to
bottom, all the times to generate graphics.

Modern monitor displays are raster scan display monitors. Each display dot is called
The three existing CRT displays that are based on a pixel. A pixel is the smallest addressable area on a screen.
these techniques are: A M * N resolution defines a screen with M rows and N columns. Each row defines
a scan line.
•The refresh display The resolution of the monitor is determined by the number of pixels displayable on
(based on random scan technology) the screen.
•Direct view storage tube (DVST) i.e. 640 X 480 and 1024 X 1024.
(based on random scan technology)
•Raster display
(based on raster scan technology).
For color displays, each pixel is represented by three closely dots with Color Raster Display With Eight Planes
red, green and blue colors.
The electron beam selects the color elements and the intensity of each
color elements.
A rasterization process is needed in order to display either a shaded area

or graphics entities. The area or entities are converted into their
corresponding pixels whose intensity and color are controlled by the
image display system.

The value of a pixel in the bit map memory is translated to a
• A rasterizer is mainly a set of scan-conversion algorithms which are used to draw
an entity by generating pixels to approximate an entity. Gray level or a colour through a look up table ( colour table,
• Bit map stores the scan conversion process. (each pixel value determines its or color map).
brightness (grey level) or most often its colour on the screen). Every cell in the bit
map is related to every pixel in the screen.
• The bit map memory is arranged conceptually as a series of planes, one for each The pixel values is used as an index for this look up table to
bit in the pixel value. For example, an eight-plane memory provides 8 bits/pixel, find the corresponding table entry value which is then used
this provides different gray levels or different colours by the display system (processor and beam deflection
• The display process maps every cell into its corresponding screen pixel
brightness or colour. system) to control the gray level or colour.
• In order to maintain a flicker-free image the screen must be refreshed at the rate
30 or 60 Hz.
Relationship between pixel value and look up table

The colour or grey-scale resolution is determined by the number of different colours or
grey scales displayable at each pixel, usually measured in bits.
Usually, displays are 4 bits (16 colours)

8 bits (256 colours)
16 bits (thousands of colours)
24 bits (millions of colours).
Typically 4 to 8 bit/pixel are adequate for both monochrome and colour displays utilised
in most engineering applications.
If cell P in the bit map corresponds to pixel P at the location P(x,y) on the
screen, then the grey level of this pixel is 50 (00110010) or its corresponding
9/10/2021 CAD/ CAM MEE2007 39 9/10/2021 is 50.
colour CAD/ CAM MEE2007 40
Example-1:
Relationship between pixel value and look up table An eight-plane raster display has a resolution of 1280 horizontal * 1024 vertical and refresh rate of 60 Hz.
Find:
1. The buffer memory size & memory read rate.
2. The time required to display the scan line and a pixel.
3. The active display area of the screen if the resolution is 78 pixels per inch.
Solution:
1.Buffer memory size = 1280 * 1024 = 1 310 720 bytes =1.25 Mbytes.
Memory read rate = 60 * 1.25 = 75 MB/s
2.The time required to display a scan line = (1/60)/1024= 16 microseconds.
The time required to display a pixel = 16/1280 = 12 nanoseconds.
3.The active display area = 1280/75 horizontal * 1024/75 vertical = 17 * 13.6 inch.
. 1 byte (B) = 8 bits (b)
1 Kilobyte (K / KB) = 2^10 bytes = 1,024 bytes
1 Megabyte (M / MB) = 2^20 bytes = 1,048,576 bytes
1 Gigabyte (G / GB) = 2^30 bytes = 1,073,741,824 bytes
1 Terabyte (T / TB) = 2^40 bytes = 1,099,511,627,776 bytes
9/10/2021 CAD/ CAM MEE2007 43

COORDINATE SYSTEM COORDINATE SYSTEM
A coordinate system is needed to input, store and display model geometry
2.Working Coordinate System (WCS)
and graphics. Four different types of coordinate systems are used in a CAD
1. a) An auxiliary coordinate system for conveniently entering graphical
1. Model (or World, Database) Coordinate System (MCS) data into a CAD system.
a) MCS - the reference space of the model with respect to which all of 2. b) WCS is normally attached to the modelled object (local coordinate
the geometrical data is stored. system of a part)
b) It is a Cartesian system which forms the default coordinate system
used by a software system.

COORDINATE SYSTEM COORDINATE SYSTEM
3. Screen Coordinate System (SCS)
a) A 2-D device dependent coordinate system whose origin is usually located at the
lower left corner of the graphics display.
b) The coordinate range of SCS can be either the resolution of the screen, or simply a
scale from 0 to 1.
c) SCS is on the projection plane where projections of the modeled object are
displayed.
TYPICAL COMPONENT WITH MCS AND WCS
COORDINATE SYSTEM
TYPICAL COMPONENT WITH MCS AND WCS
9/10/2021 CAD/ CAM MEE2007 55

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CAD/CAM Introduction

Product Engineering Manufacturing Engineering

Problem Identification Problem Definition & Conceptualisation

Prototype Development Manufacturing Process Development

• Rapid prototyping is a means through which the product geometry

• A prototype component helps in obtaining the necessary information

Computer Aided Design/Manufacturing

Main Applications of Computer Aided Main Applications of Computer Aided

progressively through several steps.

• Increased range of design ideas (More options)

Visual Reality & Motion Animation Applications in Stress Analysis

• The possibility to make corrections early in the engineering

Integrated CAD/CAE Tools Benefits of CAM and CAD Integration

Computer-Aided Engineering (CAE) Software:

MASTERCAM / DELCAM / SURFCAM: System

Video Display Devices Cathode Ray Tubes

• Cathode Ray Tubes

• Color CRT displays

• Flat display units

• Digital Mirror Display

screen. any point on the screen.

• Phosphors are organic compounds characterized by their persistence and

their color (blue, red, green)

Raster Display System Framebuffer & Bit-plane

• Frame buffer: stored pixel map of screen • Framebuffer is a portion of random

directional array with (x, y) location

corresponding to one pixel.

• Bit planes is the number of bits

corresponding to each pixel.

• A typical frame buffer resolution

might be: 1280*1024*8,

Simple Color Buffer True Color Buffer

signals and data between the processor and other components.

• Address bus - carries memory addresses from the processor to other

data bus is bidirectional.

Raster-scan Displays Raster-scan Displays

each memory location corresponds to a pixel. • Screen is refreshed line by line

Examples: Television panels, PC monitors (99% of raster-scan)...

• Raster: Array of points or dots

• Pixel: one dot or picture element

• Scan line: a row of pixles

• Rasterize: set of pixels corresponding to a 2D shape

frames (60 Hz) per second, up to 120 (120 Hz). displays.

line drawing commands.

• Refreshes by scanning the list 30 to 60 times per second.

Random-scan Displays Flat Display Units

backlighting provided by an array of LEDs (Light Emitting Diodes).

Liquid Crystal Display Digital Mirror Device

• The DMD is an array of several lakhs of aluminium mirrors, each of

which acts as a light switch.

Geometric Transformation Basic Geometric Transformation

as well as on the graphics image. 1. Translation

1. Construction of a model 3. Scaling

mirror, array etc 5. Shear

4. Viewing model from different directions

points will be a (x+a, y+b)

points will be a (x-a, y-b)

Geometric Transformation: Translation Geometric Transformation: Rotation

image B by moving to the right

3 units and down 5 units.

A(2,3)  B (2+3, 3-5)  B (5,-

Geometric Transformation: Scaling Geometric Transformation: Reflections

value will change

• Example: In the figure, line l:

might be: 128010248,