MPYE-001 Logic

Note:

i) Give answer of all five questions.

ii) All five questions carry equal marks.
iii) The answer of questions no. 1 and 2 should be in about 500 words.
iv) If any question has more than one part, attempt all parts.

1. a) What is Boolean algebra? Write a note on AND and OR Boolean Operators.

b) Write an essay on Logical gates, showing their graphical symbols and representation
in Truth table. 10+10= 20

Or

What is dilemma? How we can avoid dilemma? 20

2. What is venn diagram? Proof the validity/invalidity of the following using Venn Diagram
method,
a) Some pens are pencils. Some pencils are blue. Therefore some pens are blue.
b) No scientist is musician. All musicians are poets. Therefore, Some Scientists are
poets.
c) All dogs are animals. Some animals are wild animals. Therefore some dogs are not
wild animals. 5+5+5+5= 20

Or

What is conditional proof method? Write an essay on the significance and the advantage of
conditional proof method. 20

3. Answer any two questions in about 250 words each. (Word limit is only for theory
related questions) 2*10= 20
a) I) What is Quantification Theory? 5+5= 10
II) Apply quantification rules to prove the validity/invalidity of the following syllogistic
arguments.
i) All substances have qualities. All qualities have actions. Therefore, All substances
have actions.

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 ii) Some politicians are doctors. All doctors are good orators. Therefore, Some
Politicians are good orators.

b) Write an essay on the square of opposition. 10

c) What is the relation between validity and truth? Explain. 10
d) Write short notes on, i) fallacy of ambiguous middle, ii) converse fallacy of accident. 10

4. Answer any four questions in about 150 words each. (Word limit is only for theory
related questions) 4*5= 20

a) What is dilemma? Give an example of Complex destructive dilemma. 5

b) State the differences between monadic and dyadic models. 5
c) Differentiate between Inductive and deductive reasoning. 5
d) Write an essay on the fallacy of presumption. 5
e) Symbolize the followings using quantifiers. 1+1+1+1+1=1= 5
i) Some artists are scientists.
ii) Some students of ignou are government employee.
iii) All horses are mammals.
iv) Some pencils are blue.
v) No dogs are cats.

f) List out the nine rules of replacement. 5

5. Write short notes on any five in about 100 words. 5*4= 20

a) Connotation 4
b) Conjunction 4
c) Biconditional 4
d) Digital Logic 4
e) Modus Ponens 4
f) Figure 4
g) Fuzzy-genetic Algorithms 4
h) Tautology 4

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 ASSIGNMENT REFERENCE MATERIAL (2021-22)

MPYE-001

Logic

Q1. a) What is Boolean algebra? Write a note on AND and OR Boolean Operators.

Ans. George Boole urbanized Boolean algebra in 1847 and used it to crack in Mathematical logic or
Symbolic logic. In 1938 Claude Shannon introduced a two-valued Boolean algebra called “Switching
Algebra”, in which he demonstrated that the properties of bitable electrical circuits can be represented
by this algebra. Claude Shannon previously applied Boolean algebra to design of switching network
in 1939. The values used in Boolean algebra are representing the symbols ‘0’ and ‘1’. They have no
numeric values. A binary ‘1’ will represent a High level, and a binary ‘0’ will represent a Low level in
Boolean Equations.

AND Operator: The logical operation of AND can be articulated with symbols as follows. Let one
input variable is A, the other input variable is B and the output variable is C. Subsequently the
Boolean expression of this basic operator function is C= A Λ B (or) C= AB. The table for the Boolean
expression C= A Λ B, is as follows.

b) Write an essay on Logical gates, showing their graphical symbols and representation in
Truth table.

Ans. A logic gate is an electronic circuit, which takes numerous inputs and produces a single output.
Logic gates form the fundamental building blocks for all the digital circuits. AND gate, OR gate and
NOT gate are called “basic gates”. NAND gate and NOR gate are called “Universal Gates”. All the
gates are obtainable in Integrated Circuit (IC) form. The different IC families differ in their speed,
power dissipation, propagation delay, etc. There are eight functions to be considered as candidates for
logic gates: AND, OR, NAND, NOR, XOR, XNOR, INVERTER, BUFFER. The graphic symbols
and truth tables of the eight gates are show in below.

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Q2. What is conditional proof method? Write an essay on the significance and the advantage of
conditional proof method.

Ans. Any deductive argument, whether valid or invalid, can be expressed in the form of a conditional
proposition. What is more important to know is that the original argument is valid only when the
corresponding conditional statement satisfies a condition known as „tautology‟. Otherwise, the
argument is invalid. Consider this example:

All A are B

All B are C / ∴ All A are C

Its corresponding conditional form is as follows:

“If all A are B and all A are C, then all A are C”. (1)

Let the first premise be symbolized as P 1 and second as P 2 . Conclusion is symbolized as C. Now (1)
becomes:

(P1 Λ P2) => C (2)

(2) is said to be tautologous because its corresponding proposition form is tautologous. A proposition
form is said to be tautologous when it has only true substitution. There are two conditions to be
satisfied if C. P. should be used to show that the argument is valid.

1) Conclusion must be a conditional proposition.

2) It should be possible to deduce a conditional proposition from a conjunction of premises by a

sequence of elementary valid arguments, which satisfy the relevant Rules of Inference. That is, all
premises in C.P. should be supported by these Rules. The additional premise, which is a characteristic
mark of C. P., is always the antecedent of the conclusion and the construction of proof always begins
with antecedent of the conclusion as the premise. This premise itself is called C.P.

In Conditional Proof method, the conclusion depends upon the antecedent of the conclusion. There is
another method, which is called the Strengthened Rule of Conditional Proof. In this method, the

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construction of proof does not necessarily assume the antecedent of the conclusion. The structure of
this method needs some elaboration. An assumption is made initially. There is no need to know the
truth-status of the assumption because an assumption may be false, but the conclusion can still be
true. Further, the assumption can be any component of any premise or conclusion. This method is
called the Strengthened Rule because we enjoy more freedom in making assumption or assumptions
which means that plurality of assumptions is allowed. It strengthens our repertoire of testing
equipments. In this sense, this method is called the Strengthened Rule of C.P. Another feature of this
method is the limit of assumption. The last step is always outside the limits of assumption. If there are
two or more than two assumptions in an argument, then there will be a separate last step for each
assumption. This last step can be regarded as the conclusion relative to that particular assumption. It
shows that the last step is deduced with the help of assumption in conjunction with the previous steps
in such a way that the Rules of Inference permit such conjunction. Before the conclusion is reached
the function of assumption also ceases. Then it will have no role to play. Then, automatically, the
assumption is said to have been discharged. When the Strengthened Rule of C. P. is used adjacent to
the line of assumption, the word assumption is not mentioned unlike as in the case of C.P. Here the
head of the bent arrow points to “assumption”. In case of the Strengthened Rule of C.P., the
conclusion is always a conditional statement which consists of statements from the sequence itself.

Q3. Answer any two questions in about 250 words each. (Word limit is only for theory related
questions)

b) Write an essay on the square of opposition.

Ans. This is one type of immediate inference because in this type of inference conclusion is drawn
from one premise only. Education is another word used for immediate inference Opposition is a kind
of logical relation wherein propositions ‘stand against’ one another in terms of truth-value when they
have the same subject and the same predicate, but differ in quantity or quality or both. Traditional
logic called this relation square of opposition because these relations are represented by a square. Four
such relations are discussed in Aristotelian system.

1. Contradiction: When two propositions differ in both ‘quantity’ and ‘quality’, the relation is called
contradiction, e.g. ‘All men are wise’ (A) – ‘Some men are not wise’ (O). It is the most complete form
of logical opposition because they are neither true nor false together. If one is true, the other is
necessarily false and vice versa. This sort of self - contradiction is due to incompatibility between
respective statements. Similarly, the statements, ‘No men are wise’ (E) – ‘Some men are wise’ (I) are
contradictory.

2. Contrariety: When two universal propositions differ only in ‘quality’, the opposition is called
contrary; e.g. ‘All men are wise’ (A) – ‘No men are wise’ (E). By definition, both contraries can be
false – precisely as in the example given – but they cannot be true at the same time. If one of them is
true, the other must necessarily be false, but if one is false, the other may be true or false. One kind of
proposition called singular proposition (also called simple), whose S is proper name, has no contrary
and its contradiction differs only in quality. One example is ‘Jo is bad – Jo is not bad’. Another
example is ‘The author of Hamlet, is an Englishman and ‘The author of Hamlet’ is not an
Englishman.

c) What is the relation between validity and truth? Explain.

Ans. Truth and falsity are properties of propositions whereas validity and invalidity are properties of
arguments. This leads us to an important question; what is the relation between the validity or
invalidity of an argument and the truth or falsity of its premises and the conclusion? The answer to
this question has two parts.

A) Valid arguments with true propositions:

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Here is an example.

All mammals have lungs.

All bats are mammals.

∴ All bats have lungs.

An argument may contain only false propositions and be still valid.

All mammals have wings.

All trout are mammals.

∴ All trout have wings.

This is valid. For, what it affirms is; if the premises are true, then the conclusion must be true, even
though, as a matter of fact, they are all false.

Note: These two examples of arguments show that valid arguments may or may not have true
conclusions. Therefore the validity of an argument does not guarantee the truth of its conclusion.
However, the truth of the conclusion does guarantee the validity.

B) Invalid arguments with true propositions:

If I am the prime minister of India, then I am famous.

I am not the prime minister of India.

∴ I am not famous.

Q4. Answer any four questions in about 150 words each. (Word limit is only for theory related
questions)

a) What is dilemma? Give an example of Complex destructive dilemma.

Ans. The dilemma consists of three propositions of which two constitute premises and third one is the
conclusion. One of the premises is a conjunction of two hypothetical propositions and the other one is
disjunctive. The conclusion is either disjunctive or simple. Since the dilemma consists of two
hypothetical propositions conjoined by the word ‘and’, it is possible that two different propositions
are found in place of antecedents and two different propositions are found in place of consequents.
But it is not necessary that it should be so. It is likely that both propositions have a common
consequent. If such consequent becomes the conclusion, then, the conclusion is a simple proposition.

c) Differentiate between Inductive and deductive reasoning.

Ans. Reasoning in artificial intelligence has two important forms, Inductive reasoning, and Deductive
reasoning. Both reasoning forms have premises and conclusions, but both reasoning are contradictory
to each other. Following is a list for comparison between inductive and deductive reasoning:

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 • Deductive reasoning uses available facts, information, or knowledge to deduce a valid
conclusion, whereas inductive reasoning involves making a generalization from specific facts,
and observations.
• Deductive reasoning uses a top-down approach, whereas inductive reasoning uses a bottom-
up approach.
• Deductive reasoning moves from generalized statement to a valid conclusion, whereas
Inductive reasoning moves from specific observation to a generalization.

d) Write an essay on the fallacy of presumption.

Ans. These are fallacies that assume the truth of some unproved propositions. Such presumption often
goes unnoticed. It is, therefore, usually sufficient to call attention to the smuggled assumption and to
its doubtfulness or its falsity to expose such a fallacy. There are three common fallacies of this kind.

P1. ACCIDENT arises due to a lack of clarity regarding the meaning of terms used. It has two forms:

(i) direct or simple fallacy of accident consists in arguing that what is true of a thing under normal
circumstance is also true of it under special circumstances.

(ii) The Converse fallacy of Accident is the opposite of the direct fallacy of accident. It occurs when
we argue that what is true of a thing under special circumstances is also true under normal
circumstance.

P2. COMPLEX QUESTION is also called fallacy of many questions. It is a deceitful device. This
fallacy consists in asking a question in such a way as to presuppose the truth of some proposition
buried in the question. This is a favorite device of layers. For instance, a lawyer asks a defendant:
‘have you stopped beating your wife.’ It assumes that you are married, and that your wife is alive, and
that you used to beat your wife, and so on. But none of these may be the case. The truth may be that
you are a bachelor. The best way to face this fallacy is to refute all the presuppositions hidden in the
question one by one, instead of giving a straight yes or no answer which might land you in trouble.

f) List out the nine rules of replacement.

Ans. Now let us list Rules of Replacement.

1. De Morgan’s Law (De.M.) ¬ (p Λ q) ≡ ¬ p v ¬q ¬

(p v q) ≡ ¬ p Λ ¬q

2. Commutation Law for addition (Com.) pvq≡qvp

Commutation Law for multiplication pΛq≡qvp≡pΛp

3. Double Negation (D.N.) ¬ (¬ p) ≡ p

4. Transposition (Trans.) (p => q) ≡ (¬q => ¬ p)

5. Material Implication (Impl.) (p => q) ≡ ¬ p v q

6. Material Equivalence (Equiv.) (p ≡ q) ≡ (p => q) Λ (q => p)

{(p ≡ q) ≡ {(p Λ q) v (¬ p Λ ¬q)}

Q5. Write short notes on any five in about 100 words.

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b) Conjunction

Ans. In conjunction sentences are joined by ‘and’. The sentences so combined are called conjuncts.
Sometimes propositions are misleading. The statement given below illustrates the point.

5. Shasi is intelligent and a hardworking student.

You may be tempted to think that 5 is a simple sentence. In reality, it is a compound sentence. The
break-up is as follows.

5a. Shasi is intelligent.

5b. Shashi is a hardworking student.

The symbol we use for conjunction in this module is ‘Λ’ (and), and not the dot ‘.’ as is customary.
There are many other words besides ‘and’ for which the symbol ‘Λ’ is used. Some of these words are;
but, yet, both, although, however, moreover, as well as, while, etc.

c) Biconditional

Ans. A biconditional is a compound statement which is a combination of two sentences. The

connective used to obtain this proposition is if and only if. For example, ‘you will catch the train if
and only if you reach the station on time.’ is a biconditional statement. This is symbolized as C <=>
R. Such sentences are true when both the components have the same truth-value. A biconditional is
true in two cases only. Both the components must be either true or false, as is clear from the following
truth-table:

Table 1:

p q p <=> q
1 1 1
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1

It must be noted that bi-conditional is a conjunction of two implicative propositions.

p if and only if q is logically equivalent to (p => q) Λ (q => p). Truth-table assists us to find out how it
is so.

Table 2:

p q p <=> q p => q › q => p

1 1 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 0 1
0 1 0 1 0 0
0 0 1 1 1 1

d) Digital Logic

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Ans. The word ‘digit’ is resultant from the Latin term “digitus” which means finger or toe. The fact
that this system has ten digits is commonly attributed to the ten fingers of a human being. The most
commonly used number system is the decimal number system; it is composed of digits ‘0’ to ‘9’.
Digital logic is concerned with the interconnection among digital components and modulus. Digital
computer has made possible many scientific industrial and commercial advances that would not be
attainable otherwise. Our space program would have been unfeasible without real-time, continuous
computer monitoring and many business enterprises functions efficiently only with the aid of
automatic data processing.

f) Figure

Ans. It is easy to understand the meaning and significance of figure. The ‘figure’ of a syllogism is
determined by the position of ‘middle term’. We have said that the ‘middle term’ appears both in the
major and in the minor premises. Therefore its possible positions in premises result in four different
configurations. A schematic representation is preferable to verbal description.

h) Tautology

Ans. It is a sentence form having only true substitution instance.

Example: p v ¬p

p ¬p p v ¬p
1 0 1
0 1 1

This can be known to be true without empirical investigation. That is, it is necessarily true. Any
sentence, which is a substitution instance of a tautologous sentence form, is formally true; and is itself
said to be a tautology. Example: Balboa discovered the Pacific Ocean (B). In this case, B is to be
known empirical, whereas the truth of ‘B v ¬ B’ is necessarily known.

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