ENGG 413 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

Main Topic 2: Natural Resources and Pollution in the Environment

AIR POLLUTION

Introduction
In this lesson you will learn about the various types of air pollution; its impacts,
treatment, prevention and protection.

Learning Outcomes
Intended Learning Outcome 2 (Syllabus)
Identify the various effects of environmental pollution and describe the
engineer's role in the manipulation of materials and resources.
Topic Outcomes:
Identify the sources of pollution and discuss how to control them

Air Pollution
(Discussion is heavily based on Environmental Science (Cunningham & Cunningham, 2015).)

Air Pollution means any alteration of the physical, chemical and biological
properties of the atmospheric air, or any discharge thereto of any liquid, gaseous or
solid substances that will or is likely to create or to render the air resources of the
country harmful, detrimental, or injurious to public health, safety or welfare or which
will adversely affect their utilization for domestic, commercial, industrial, agricultural,
recreational, or other legitimate purposes (RA 8749, 1999).
Smoke, haze, dust, odors, corrosive gases, noise, and toxic compounds are
among our most widespread pollutants.

Source: NASA/Public Domain, 2009

Shown above is a photo of the atmosphere and the setting sun. In this thin line
is where the air pollutants are trapped. Almost all of what we release in the
atmosphere will go back to any point in hi line, h he adage Tapa ko lini ko is
not applicable especially in air pollution.
Globally, air pollution is estimated to contribute to over 3 million deaths per
year. Because these deaths are usually widespread, and in developing areas where

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Main Topic 2: Natural Resources and Pollution in the Environment

government regulation can be weak in the first place, it is more difficult to translate
these risks into new policies.

Air Pollutant

- any matter found in the atmosphere other than oxygen, nitrogen, water vapor,
carbon dioxide, and the inert gases in their natural or normal concentrations,
that is detrimental to health or the environment, which includes but not limited
to smoke, dust, soot, cinders, fly ash, solid particles of any kind, gases, fumes,
chemical mists, steam and radio-active substances.

Ambient air quality

- the general amount of pollution present in a broad area; and refers to the
atmosphere's average purity as distinguished from discharge measurements
taken at the source of pollution

Ambient Air
- The air around us

Primary Pollutants
- released directly from the source into the air in a harmful form.

Secondary Pollutants
- converted to a hazardous form after they enter the air or are formed by
chemical reactions as components of the air mix and interact.

Fugitive Emissions
- those that do not go through a smoke stack.
- By far the most massive example of this category is dust from soil erosion, strip
mining, rock crushing, and building construction (and destruction).
- Fugitive industrial emissions are hard to monitor, but they are extremely
important sources of air pollution.
- Leaks around valves and pipe joints, and evaporation of volatile compounds
from oil-processing facilities, contribute as much as 90% of the hydrocarbons
and volatile organic chemicals emitted from oil refineries and chemical plants.
-
Six Conventional or Criteria Pollutants

1. Sulfur dioxide
2. Nitrogen oxides
3. Carbon monoxide
4. Ozone
5. Lead
6. Particulate Matter
- These six conventional or criteria pollutants were addressed first because they
contributed the largest volume of air quality degradation and also are
considered the most serious threats to human health and welfare

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Main Topic 2: Natural Resources and Pollution in the Environment

Sulfur Dioxide
- Natural sources of sulfur in the atmosphere include evaporation of sea spray,
erosion of sulfate-containing dust from arid soils, fumes from volcanoes and hot
springs, and biogenic emissions of hydrogen sulfide (H 2S) and organic sulfur-
containing compounds.
- Total yearly emissions of sulfur from all sources amount to some 114 million
metric tons.
- Worldwide, anthropogenic sources represent about 2/3 of the all airborne
sulfur, but in most urban areas they contribute as much as 90% of the sulfur
in the air.
- The predominant form of anthropogenic sulfur is sulfur dioxide (SO 2) from
combustion of sulfur-containing fuel (coal and oil), purification of sour (sulfur-
containing) natural gas or oil, and industrial processes, such as smelting of
sulfide ores.
- China and the United States are the largest sources of anthropogenic sulfur,
primarily from coal burning and smelting.
- Colorless corrosive gas, directly damaging to both plants and animals.
- Once in the atmosphere, it can be further oxidized to sulfur trioxide (SO3), which
reacts with water vapor or dissolves in water droplets to form sulfuric acid
(H2SO4), a major component of acid rain.
- Some of the smelliest and most obnoxious air pollutants are sulfur compounds,
such as hydrogen sulfide from pig manure lagoons or mercaptans (organo-
sulfur thiols) from paper mills.

Nitrogen Oxides (NOx)

- Highly reactive gases formed when nitrogen in fuel or in air is heated (during
combustion) to temperatures above 650°C in the presence of oxygen.
- Bacteria can also form NO as they oxidize nitrogen-containing compounds in
soil or water.
- The initial product, nitric oxide (NO), oxidizes further in the atmosphere to
nitrogen dioxide (NO2), a reddish-brown gas that gives photochemical smog its
distinctive color.
- In addition, nitrous oxide (N2O) is an intermediate form that results from soil
denitrification. Nitrous oxide absorbs ultraviolet light and is an important
greenhouse gas.
- Because nitrogen readily changes from one of these forms to another by gaining
or losing O atoms, the general term NOx is used to describe these gases.
- Nitrogen oxides combine with water to make nitric acid (HNO3), a major
component of acid rain.
- Anthropogenic sources account for 60% of the global emissions of about 230
million metric tons of reactive nitrogen compounds each year.
- Because we continue to drive more miles every year, and to consume abundant
electricity, we have had less success in controlling NOx than other pollutants.

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Carbon Monoxide (CO)

- Colorless, odorless, nonirritating, but highly toxic gas.
- Produced mainly by incomplete combustion of fuel (coal, oil, charcoal, or gas),
as in furnaces, incinerators, engines, or fires, as well as in decomposition of
organic matter.
- CO blocks oxygen uptake in blood by binding irreversibly to hemoglobin (the
protein that carries oxygen in our blood), making hemoglobin unable to hold
oxygen and deliver it to cells.
- Human activities produce about half of the 1 billion metric tons of CO released
to the atmosphere each year.
- About 90% of the CO in the air is converted to CO2 in photochemical reactions
that produce ozone.
- Catalytic converters on vehicles are one of the important methods to reduce CO
production by ensuring complete oxidation of carbon to carbon dioxide (CO 2).
- Carbon dioxide is the predominant form of carbon in the air.

Ozone (O3) and Photochemical Oxidants

- Ground level O3 is a product of photochemical reactions (reactions initiated by
sunlight) between other pollutants, such as NOx or volatile organic compounds.
A general term for products of these reactions is photochemical oxidants.
- One of the most important of these reactions involves splitting nitrogen dioxide
(NO2) into nitrous oxide (NO) and Oxygen (O). This single O atom is then
available to combine with a molecule of O2 to make ozone (O3).
- Hydrocarbons in the air contribute to the accumulation of ozone by combining
with NO to form new compounds, leaving single O atoms free to form O 3.
- A general term for organic chemicals that evaporate easily or exist as gases in
the air is Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs).
- Plants are the largest source of VOCs, releasing an estimated 350 million tons
of isoprene (C5H8) and 450 million tons of terpenes (C10H15) each year. Isoprene
is emitted by trees like oaks and eucalyptus and is used as raw material for
polymeric products (Britannica, 2020) while terpene is released by trees in
warm weather (Adam, 2008).
- About 400 million tons of methane (CH4) are produced by natural wetlands and
rice paddies and by bacteria in the guts of termites and ruminant animals.
These volatile hydrocarbons are generally oxidized to CO and CO 2 in the
atmosphere.
- In addition to natural VOCs, a large number of other synthetic organic
chemicals, such as benzene, toluene, formaldehyde, vinyl chloride, phenols,
chloroform, and trichloroethylene, are released into the air by human activities.
These chemicals play an important role in the formation of photochemical
oxidants.

Lead
- Most abundantly produced metal air pollutant.

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- Lead is toxic to our nervous systems and other critical functions. Lead binds to
enzymes and to components of our cell, such as brain cells, which then cannot
function normally.
- Airborne lead is produced by a wide range of industrial and mining processes.
- The main sources are smelting of metal ores, mining, and burning of coal and
municipal waste, in which lead is a trace element and burning of gasoline to
which lead has been added.
- Leaded gasoline was the main source of lead in the United States, but leaded
gas was phased out in the 1980s. Banning leaded gasoline in the US was one of
the most successful pollution-control measures in American history.
- Worldwide atmospheric lead emissions amount to about 2 million metric tons
per year, or 2/3 of all metallic air pollution. Globally, most of this lead is still
from leaded gasoline, as well as metal ore smelting and coal burning.

Particulate Matter
- Includes solid particles or liquid droplets suspended in a gaseous medium.
- Very fine solid or liquid particulates suspended in the atmosphere are aerosols.
These include dust, ash, soot, lint, smoke, pollen, spores, algal cells, and many
other suspended materials.
- Particulates are often the most obvious form of air pollution, because they
reduce visibility and leave dirty deposits on windows, painted surfaces and
textiles.
- Particles smaller than 2.5 micrometers in diameter, such as those found in
smoke and haze, and produced by fires, power plants, or vehicle exhaust, are
among the most dangerous particulates because they can be drawn into the
lungs , where they damage respiratory tissues. Asbestos fibers and cigarette
smoke are among these dangerous fine particles. This fine particulate matter is
referred to as PM2.5, in reference to its size. Reducing sulfur in coal and diesel
fuel, which produces aerosol droplets of sulfuric acid, is one important strategy
for controlling PM2.5 particulates.
- Coarse inhalable particles are larger than 2.5 micrometers but less than 10
micrometers in diameter. These are known as PM10, and they are typically
fo nd nea oad o o he i ible d o ce . The d bo l of he 1930s
involved mainly this kind of particulates. At that time, farmland soils were often
left bare, especially during severe drought, and billions of tons of topsoil blew
away from farmlands. Soil conservation on farmlands is one strategy for
reducing PM10; another strategy is better management of dust at construction
sites.
- Epidemiological studies have shown that cities with chronically high levels of
particulates have higher death rates, mostly from heart and lung disease.
- The dust also carries pollen, bacteria, viruses, fungi, herbicides, acids,
radioactive isotopes, and heavy metals between continents.
- Airborne dust is considered the primary source of allergies worldwide. Saharan
dust storms are suspected of raising asthma rates in Trinidad and Barbados,
where cases have increased 17-fold in 30 years.
- Aspergillus sydowii, a soil fungus from Africa, has been shown to be causing
death of corals and sea fans in remote reefs in the Caribbean.

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- Europe also receives airborne pathogens via dust storms. Outbreaks of foot-
and-mouth disease in Britain have been traced to dust storms from North
Africa.
- In the Philippines, a study of Simpas, et al. (2014) showed that traffic is the
main contributor to PM2.5 at all sites in Metro Manila while biomass burning
appeared to be the highest contributor in the areas outside NCR.

Other Pollutants
- Mercury
- Carbon dioxide
- Halogens
- Hazardous air pollutants(HAPs)

Mercury (Hg)
- Many toxic metals are released into the air by burning coal and oil,
mining, smelting of metal ores, or manufacturing. Lead, mercury, cadmium,
nickel, arsenic (highly toxic metalloid), and others are released in the form of
metal fumes or suspended particulates by fuel combustion, ore smelting, and
disposal of wastes. Among these, lead and mercury are the most abundantly
produced toxic metals.
- Mercury has become regulated relatively recently (in Philippines, DAO 1997-38)
- Like Lead, toxic in minute doses, causing nerve damage and other impairments,
especially in young children and developing fetuses.
- Volcanoes and rock weathering can produce mercury, but 70% of airborne
mercury derives from coal-burning power plants, metal processing (smelting),
waste incineration, and other industrial combustion.
- About 75% of human exposure to mercury comes from eating fish. This is
because aquatic bacteria are mainly responsible for converting airborne
mercury into methyl mercury, a form that accumulates in living animal tissues.
- Swordfish, shrimp, and other seafood are also significant sources of mercury in
our diet.
- Global air circulation also deposits airborne mercury on land. Half or more of
the mercury that falls on North America may come from abroad, much of it
from Asian coal-burning power plants.
- Increased burning coal burning in China, which for years built new coal-
burning power plants at the rate of one or two per week, is understood to be the
main cause of growing mercury emissions in the Pacific.
- Much of our understanding of mercury poisoning comes from a
disastrous case in Minamata, Japan, in the 1950s, where a chemical factory
regularly discharged mercury-laden waste into Minamata Bay. Babies whose
mothers ate mercury-contaminated fish suffered profound neurological
disabilities, including deafness, blindness, mental retardation, and cerebral
palsy. In adults, mercury poisoning caused numbness, loss of muscle control,
and demen ia. The connec ion be een Minama a di ea e and me c a
e abli hed in he 1950 , b a e d mping didn end for another ten years.
-
Carbon Dioxide

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- Some 370 billion tons of CO2 are emitted each year from respiration
(oxidation of organic compounds by plant and animal cells). These releases
are usually balanced by an equal uptake by photosynthesis in green plants.
- At normal concentrations, CO2 is nontoxic and innocuous, but
atmospheric levels are steadily increasing (about 0.5 percent per year) due
to human activities and are now causing global climate change, with
serious implications for both human and natural communities.

Carbon Dioxide
- Some 370 billion tons of CO2 are emitted each year from respiration (oxidation
of organic compounds by plant and animal cells). These releases are usually
balanced by an equal uptake by photosynthesis in green plants.
- At normal concentrations, CO2 is nontoxic and innocuous, but atmospheric
levels are steadily increasing (about 0.5 percent per year) due to human
activities and are now causing global climate change, with serious implications
for both human and natural communities.

Halogens
- The EPA is charged with regulating six greenhouse gases: carbon dioxide,
methane, nitrous oxide, hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons, and sulfur
hexafluoride. These are gases whose emissions have grown dramatically in
recent decades.
- Three of these six greenhouse gases contain halogens, a group of lightweight,
highly reactive elements (fluorine, chlorine, bromine and iodine). Because they
are generally toxic in their elemental form, they are commonly used as
fumigants and disinfectants, but they also have hundreds of uses in industrial
and commercial products.
- Halogen compounds are also powerful greenhouse gases: They trap more energy
per molecule than does CO2, and they persist in the atmosphere for decades to
centuries.
- Perfluorocarbons will persist in the atmosphere for thousands of years.
- The global warming potential (per molecule, over time) of some CFCs is
thousands of times greater than that of CO2.
- Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) have been banned for most uses in
industrialized countries, but about 600 million tons of these compounds are
used annually worldwide in spray propellants and refrigeration compressors
and for foam blowing. They diffuse into the stratosphere, where they release
chlorine and fluorine atoms that destroy ozone molecules that protect the earth
from ultraviolet radiation.
-
-
-
-
-

Hazardous Air Pollutants (HAPs)

- A special category of toxins monitored by the U.S. EPA because they are
particularly dangerous.

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- These chemicals include carcinogens, neurotoxins, mutagens, teratogens,

endocrine system disrupters, and other highly toxic compounds.
- The most persistent compounds require special reporting and management
because they remain in ecosystem for long periods of time and accumulate in
animal and human tissues.
- The tendency to bioaccumulate makes many of these hazardous air pollutants
especially dangerous.
- Most of these chemicals are either metal compounds, chlorinated hydrocarbons,
or volatile organic compounds.
- Gasoline vapors, solvents, and components of plastics are all HAPs that you
may encounter on a daily basis.

Aesthetic Degradation
- Any undesirable change in the physical characteristics or chemistry of the
atmosphere, such as noise, odors, and light pollution.
- These factors rarely threaten life or health directly, but they can strongly impact
our quality of life.
- They also increase stress, which affects health.
- Fac o ie ha emi no io chemical ome ime p a odo ma kan o
perfumes into smokestacks to cover up objectionable odors.
- Light pollution also is a concern in most urban areas, where ambient light
confuses birds and hides the stars.

Indoor Air sometimes worse than Outdoor Air

- The EPA has found that concentrations of toxic air pollutants are often higher
indoors than outdoors.
- People generally spend more time inside than out, so they are exposed to higher
doses of pollutants.
- Indoor air in homes has concentrations of chemicals that would be illegal
outside or in the workplace. The EPA has found that concentrations of such
compounds as chloroform, benzene, carbon tetrachloride, formaldehyde, and
styrene can be 70 times higher in indoor air than in outdoor air, as plastics,
carpets, paints, and other common materials off-gas these materials.
- Finding less-toxic paints and fabrics can make indoor spaces both healthier
and more pleasant.
-

Temperature Inversions
- Can greatly concentrate air pollutants.
- Inversions occur when a stable layer of warmer air lies above cooler air.
- The normal conditions, where temperatures decline with increasing height, are
inverted, and these stable conditions prevent convection currents from
dispersing pollutants.
- Inversions might last from a few hours to a few days.
- The most stable inversion conditions are usually created by rapid nighttime
cooling in a valley or basin where air movement is restricted.
-

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Stratospheric Ozone

- In 1985 the British Antarctic Atmospheric Survey announced a startling

and disturbing discovery: Stratospheric ozone concentrations over the South
Pole were dropping precipitously during September and October every year as
the sun reappeared at the end of the long polar winter. This ozone depletion has
been occurring at least since the 1960s but was not recognized because earlier
researchers programmed their instruments to ignore changes in ozone levels
that were presumed to be erroneous.
- Chlorine-based aerosols, especially CFCs and other halon gases, are the
principal agents of ozone depletion.
- In 1985 the British Antarctic Atmospheric Survey announced a startling
and disturbing discovery: Stratospheric ozone concentrations over the South
Pole were dropping precipitously during September and October every year as
the sun reappeared at the end of the long polar winter. This ozone depletion has
been occurring at least since the 1960s but was not recognized because earlier
researchers programmed their instruments to ignore changes in ozone levels
that were presumed to be erroneous.
- Chlorine-based aerosols, especially CFCs and other halon gases, are the
principal agents of ozone depletion.
-
-

Important Chronic Health Effects of Air Pollutants

- Bronchitis a persistent inflammation of bronchi and bronchioles (large and
small airways in the lung) that causes mucus buildup, a painful cough, and
involuntary muscle spasms that constrict airways.
- Emphysema severe bronchitis, an irreversible chronic obstructive lung
disease in which airways become permanently constricted and alveoli are
damaged or even destroyed.

Acid Precipitation

- The deposition of wet acidic solutions or dry acidic particles from the air.
- Engli h Scien i Robe Ang Smi h coined he e m acid ain in hi die
of air chemistry in Manchester, England, in the 1850s.
- By the 1940s it was known that pollutants, including atmospheric acids, could
be transported long distances by wind currents. This was thought to be only an
academic curiosity until it was shown that precipitation of these acids can have
far reaching ecological effects.
- Unpolluted rain generally has a pH of about 5.6 due to carbonic acid created by
CO2 in air. Sulfur, chlorine, and other elements also form acidic compounds as
they are released in sea spray, volcanic emissions, and biological
decomposition. These sources can lower the pH of rain well below 5.6. Other
factors, such as alkaline dust can raise it above 7.

Pollutant Removal and Reduction

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Air Pollution Control Facilities (APCF)

- General term for structure or installation controlling the quality of emissions of
air pollution source equipment (APSE).
- Examples are filters, scrubbers and dust collectors

Particulate Removal
- Involves filtering air emissions. Filters trap particulates in a mesh of cotton
cloth, spun glass fibers, or asbestos-cellulose. Industrial air filters are generally
giant bags 10 to 15 m long and 2 to 3 m wide. Effluent gas is blown through the
bag, much like the bag on a vacuum cleaner. Every few days or weeks the bags
are opened to remove the dust cake. Electrostatic precipitators are the most
common particulate controls in power plants.

Air filter Source: https://www.pxfuel.com/en/free-photo-oftgh

Sulfur Removal
- Important because sulfur oxides are among the most damaging of all air
pollutants in terms of human health and ecosystem viability.
- Switching from soft coal with a high sulfur content to low sulfur coal is the
surest way to reduce sulfur emissions.
- Switching to cleaner oil or gas would eliminate metal effluents as well as sulfur.
- Cleaning fuels is an alternative to switching. Coal can be crushed, washed, and
gasified to remove sulfur and metals before combustion. This improves heat
content and firing properties, but may replace air pollution with solid-waste and
water pollution problems; furthermore, these steps are expensive.

Nitrogen Oxides (NOx)

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- Can be reduced in both internal combustion engines and industrial boilers by

as much as 50 percent by carefully controlling the flow of air and fuel.
- Staged burners, for example, control burning temperatures and oxygen flow to
prevent formation of NOx.
- The catalytic converter on your car uses platinum-palladium and rhodium
catalysts to remove up to 90% of NOx, hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide at
the same time.

Hydrocarbon Controls

- Mainly involve complete combustion or controlling evaporation.

- Hydrocarbons and VOCs are produced by incomplete combustion of fuels or by
solvent evaporation from chemical factories, paints, dry cleaning, plastic
manufacturing, printing, and other industrial processed. Closed systems that
prevent escape of fugitive gases can reduce many of these emissions.
- In automobiles, for instance, positive crankcase ventilation (PCV) systems
collect oil that escapes from around the pistons and unburned fuel and
channels them back to the engine for combustion.
- Controls on fugitive losses from industrial valves, pipes, and storage tanks can
have a significant impact on air quality.
- Afterburners are often the best method for destroying VOCs in industrial
exhaust stacks.
-
Saving Energy and Reducing Pollution
- Conserve energy: carpool, bike, walk, use public transport, and buy compact
fluorescent bulbs and energy efficient appliances. Fortunately, Batangas City
ha ide pa h a o i ea ie o choo e o alk f om one place o ano he .
- Don e poll ing o-cycle gasoline engines if cleaner four-cycle models are
available for lawn mowers, boat motors, etc.
- Buy refrigerators and air conditioners designed for CFC alternatives and with
high energy efficiency rating (EER). If you have old appliances or other CFC
sources, replace them ASAP and dispose them responsibly. In the long run, old
appliances are more expensive due to higher consumption in electricity.
- Plant trees and air purifying plants, and care for them. Not only can trees take
CO2 from the air, but they can also make a place cooler by shading (Where do
you want to park in an open area? Near a tree), so if they are near a building,
AC usage can be lessened.
- Write to your congressional representatives or initiate a petition in change.org
and support a transition to an energy-efficient economy.
- If green pricing options are available in your area, buy renewable energy.
- Have your car tuned every 16,000 km and make sure that its anti-smog
equipment is working properly. Turn-off your engine when waiting longer than
one minute. Start trips a little earlier and drive slower - it not only saves fuel
b i afe oo.
- Use latex-based, low VOC paint rather than oil-based (alkyd) paint.
- Avoid spray-can products. Light charcoal fires with electric starters rather than
petroleum products.

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- Don op off o f el ank hen o b ga oline; op hen he a oma ic

mechanism turns off the p mp. Don d mp ga oline o ed oil on he g o nd
or down the drain.

Source: WHO, 2018

Reference:

Adam, David (October 31, 2008). Scientists discover cloud-thickening chemicals in trees
that could offer a new weapon in the fight against global warming, The Guardian.

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Britannica. (2020). Isoprene, Retrieved from Encyclopeadia Britannica, Inc. on August

8, 2020, https://www.britannica.com/science/isoprene

Cunningham, W. P., & Cunningham, M. (2015). Environmental Science, 13th Edition.

McGraw-Hill Education.

NASA (2009). Thin Line of Earth's Atmosphere and the Setting Sun. Retrieved from
Wikimedia Commons:
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Thin_Line_of_Earth%27s_Atmosphere_and_
the_Setting_Sun.jpg#file
Pxfuel (n.d.) Retrieved August 8, 2020 from: https://www.pxfuel.com/en/free-photo-
oftgh
Simpas, J. G. Lorenzo and M.T. Cruz. 2014. Monitoring Particulate Matter Levels and
Composition for Source Apportionment Study in Metro Manila, Philippines. Book Chapter
in Kim Oanh, N.T. (Editor) Improving Air Quality in Asian Developing Countries:
Compilation of Research Findings. NARENCA. Retrieved August 8, 2020 from:
http://www.observatory.ph/publications/monitoring-particulate-matter-levels-and-
composition-for-source-apportionment-study-in-metro-manila-philippines/.

World Health Organization. (2018). Air Pollution – The Silent Killer, Retrieved August 8,
2020 from: https://www.who.int/airpollution/infographics/Air-pollution-
INFOGRAPHICS-English-1.1200px.jpg

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