unquestioning practitioner.
The techniques are phenomena, such as intellectual stimulation, that
no better than the craftsman and, if applied inap-
propriately to the context, can do harm instead
of good.
Leadership and Performance Beyond
Expectations, by Bernard M. Bass. New
York: Free Press, 1985, 256 pp., $24.95.
Reviewed by John M. Longshore, Captain,
United States Marine Corps, Naval Aviation Lo-
gistic Center, Patuxent River, MD, and doctoral
candidate, NOVA University, Fort Lauderdale,
FL.
Bernard Bass, the editor of the classic leader-
ship reference entitled StogdiWs Handbook of
Leadership (1981), has written another book on
the subject. Although his new book is shorter
and more readable for the nonacademician, this
work retains the same research focus, supple-
mented by relevant leadership theories and li-
terature on organizational and management de-
velopment that made the handbook such a valu-
able research resource.
"Beyond Expectations," the last phrase in the
title, suggests a paradigm shift in which leader-
ship is viewed as transformational processes
aimed at moving individuals beyond normal ex-
pected performance to higher achievement and
maturity levels, not as a series of transactional
arrangements. Bass compares and contrasts the
major differences between the transformational
and transactional leadership styles throughout
the book. He draws heavily on research findings,
and he presents practical examples of recog-
nized leaders' actions and decisions to highlight
these differences.
The book, divided into six parts, begins with
Bass's argument that transformational leadership
goes beyond the current focus of human rela-
tions management. "The essence of transforma-
tional leadership," he states, "involves the dy-
namics of the leader-follower dyad, which is
concerned with second order change and those
756
have typically been excluded from social science
research." In this section, Bass also outlines his
basic transformational leadership model which
serves as the book's foundation.
Charisma, individualized consideration, and
intellectual stimulation are noted to be the major
behaviors distinguishing transformational from
transactional leaders. These behaviors — which
emerged from the author's research—are used
as titles for major book sections.
"The Emotional Component," part two, con-
tains two chapters that emphasize the importance
of the emotional component in transformational
leadership. The first chapter, "Charisma," pres-
ents a charismatic leadership model, consisting
of 14 propositions that conceptually link this phe-
nomenon and social and organizational psycho-
logy. This chapter also describes conditions that
promote charismatic leaders in complex organ-
izations. In the second chapter, "Inspirational
Leadership," emotional appeals, and leaders'
use of persuasive symbols and images are dis-
cussed.
"Individualizing and Intellectualizing," the
third part, is the heart of the book. In this section,
Bass articulates how the leader behaviors of
mentoring, developmental orientation, one-to-
one communication, delegation, intellectual
stimulation, and attention to individual differ-
ences and needs are related to outstanding em-
ployee performance and employee satisfaction.
"Transactional Leadership," part four, and
"Antecedents of Transformational Leadership,"
part five, further explain the differences between
these two leadership paradigms. This material
would benefit leaders who want to change their
leadership styles, especially those who want to
improve their organizations' productivity and
achievement levels.
"Quantitative Explorations," part six, describes
how Bass developed, tested, and revised a scale
to differentiate between transformational and
transactional leaders. A copy of the scale is
included. Bass admits the scale's limitations, all
of which relate to its early development—limited
testing with small and restrictive samples. How-
ever, data from completed studies warrant fur-
ther hypothesis testing on the antecedents and
effects of transformational leadership in various
situations.
Bass's book is indeed interesting and timely.
To those who wish to explore the various rela-
757
tionships between leadership style, environment,
and productivity, the paradigms of transforma-
tional and transactional leadership provide foun-
dations from which precise measurements can
be made toward improved organizational effi-
ciency and effectiveness.