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 Chapter

1
BASIC CONCEPTS
CHEMISTRY:
R The branch of science which deal
s with the study of structure of mr ter, composition of
matter , properties ot matter, changes in mat
ter and Jaws and principles which govern these
changes is called chemistry.”
There are many branches of chemistry
lik e, physical chemistry, organic chemistry,
inorganic chemistry biochemistry , analytical
chemistry , industrial chemistry etc. The American
chemical society (ACS ) has divided the chemistry
into thirty divisions .
Atom:
“ The smallest particle of an element which may or may not
take part in chemical reaction is called atom.” ex ist in de pe nd en tly an d ca n
^
T

A * V
' ' '

For examples: He, Ne, Ar, N, O, S, Fe etc. are all atoms. Atoms of H, O
S

exist independently but He, Ne and Ar exist independently. an d N do no t

CONCEPT OF ATOM
Long time ago, it was believed that matter is made up of simple, indivisible particle.
In early times, it was thought that matter is made up of tiny particles which cannot be
divided. Greek Philosophers thought that matter could be divided into smaller and smaller
particles to reach basic unit, which could not be further divided. Democritus (46
-
0 370 B.C.)
called these particles as atoms, derived from the word “ atomos” mean indivisible. The ideas of
Greek Philosophers were not based on experimental evidences.
th
In the late 17 century , the quantitative study of the composition of pure substances
disclosed that a few elements are the components of many different substances. It was also
investigated that now elements combine to form compounds and how compounds could be
broken down into their constituent elements.
In 1808, an English school teacher John Dalton recognized that the law of conservation
of n, aid the law of definite proportions could be explained by the existence of atoms. He
^
develops: an atomic theory , the main point of which is that all matter is composed of atoms of
Afferent elements, which differ in their properties. .
The modern researches have clearly shown that an atom is further composed of
8ub
-atomic particles like electron, proton , neutron, hypron , neutrino, anti-neutrino, meson,
Positron etc More than 100 fundamental particles are thought to exist in an atom.
, The Swedish Chemist J. B er ze liu s ( 17 79 - 18 48) de te rmined the atomic masses of
elements. A number 0f its values are close to the modem values. Berzelius also developed the
Ostein of giving element a symbol.
 mm
«fy
/% V;
rv
&
'sfJjid
[
/*£?•>
m
'/
///

2
Evidence of Atoms:
Key to Chemistry Part-1 [CH.1 ] Basi
Compound:
c Conc epts

“ A pure substance which is formed by the chemical combination of two or more that wo
t
3
i
Atom is very small particle. It is impossible to see an atom. But the evidence of atom can eleme nts in a fixed ratio by mass is called compound .”
different
be seen by the following ways. Compound is always homogeneous. Components of a impound cannot be separated easily
(i) Electron microscope: by physical methods. For example, water is a compound in which hydrogen and oxygen are combined
in a fixed ratio ( 11.19 % and 88.81 % ). Other examples are: NFC , NaCl, H2S04, NaOH etc .
An ordinary optical microscope can measure the size of an object upto or above 500 nm
9 There are two types of compounds .
(1 nm = KF m ). To see the smaller objects, wavelength should be smaller from the size Compounds
of an object. However , the objects of size of an atom can be observed in an electron
microscope. In electron microscope, a beam of electrons is used instead of visible light.
Wavelength of electron is much smaller than visible light. In the figure , a photograph of
piece of graphite is shown . This photograph is taken by the electron microscope. A piece Ionic compounds Moiocular compounds
(consist of ions) (consist of molecules)
of graphite have been magnified about 15 million times in this picture. The bright bands Extmplt: NaCl . CaCI2 Example: NH 3, H 20
in the figure, are layers of carbon atom and dark bands are the spaces between the layers. MgS04 , etc. C (jHi 2Og , etc .

MOLECULE

i
or comp ound which exist indep enden tly is called molec ule.”
IFie smal lest particle of an eleme nt
Molecules are classi fied in differ ent ways ; on the basis of size , numb er of atoms and
nature of atoms.
1 . Molecule - on the basis of size:
of size.
There are two type of mole cules on the basis
(i ) Macromolecules:
differ ent eleme nts in it. For exam ple ,
Which have usually large number of atoms of
chlorophyll , haem oglob in chole stero l , prote ins etc .
and is 68 ,000 times heavie r than
One haemoglob in mole cule is made nearly 10,000 atoms
.
hydrogen atom. It helps to carry oxygen from lungs
00 Micromolecules.
mole
and

cular
suppl

mass e
y

.g
to

.,
all

H
parts

SO „ H
of the

20 ,
body
„
etc .
jg
Molecules of smaller size and lower 2

Electron Micr osco pe Phot ogra ph of Grap h . te

2. basis of natu re of atom s :
Molecule - on the of atoms .
of mole cules on the basis of natur e
(ii) X-Rays: There are two types
m which is
(i) Homoatomic molecules: homo atom ic mole cules”
X-rays analysis has shown that diameter of atoms are of the order 2 x 10 whic h have same types of atoms are calle d
‘Those molecules
.

i
9
0.2 nm (1 nm = 10 m).
"

.
e.g. H2 02, 03, N2 F2 2
, Cl , P
I4 , Sg etc

Radius of atoms = 1 x 10 ~10

m (0.1 nm) . ( (U ) Heteroatomic molecules: of differ ent eleme nts are called hetero atorm c
of atoms
( iii ) Atomic masses:
“ Those molecules
” e.g. CH
whic
, H
h cons
20 , HC
ist
1, NHa .
CsH .
*
,SO etc . .
molecules 4
:
~ 27 ~ 25
. expr essed in num ber of atom s
Atomic masses of atoms ranges from 10 to 10 kg They are often 3. basi s of
atomic mass units. Where 1 a rn . u = 1.66 x 10
The students can have
27
"

idea about the amazingly small size of an atom

24
1.66 x HT g 1.66 X 10
kg =
from
=
the fact
t h a t a full stop may have t w o million atoms present in it and a colon has four million
21 mg.
'

(0
Molecule - on the
Monoatomic molecule
‘The molecule
Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe.
Whic h
:
cons ist of a s n .
gle atom is calle d mono atomi ic
c mole cule ” e . g . He .

atoms.
 >

4 Key to Chemistry Part 1

rr

-
< > < 7 TC
[CH. T] Basic Concepta
KT

^ >> - rbtJ
fil ) Diatomic molecule: 5
“ The molecule consisting of two atoms is called diatomic molecule” e.g. H , , HQ, Molecular Ion:
2 02 CO. “ If an electron iIS removed
( iii )Polyatomic molecule: from a molecule of a substance , it is called molecular ion , ”
For examples:
“ Molecule consisting of more than two atoms is called polyatomic molecule” e.
g. H 20
NH3, CCI4, C$HJ 20$. ;
CH CO+ CO , . ; etc. * H4 is not molecular ion )
Atomicity : tf we remove an electron from an atom js
li .
molecule, it is called molecular ion. These ions can be
call catio n if we remo ve electron from a
The number of atoms present in a molecule is called atomicity.” e.g . Atom
H2S04 = 7 and that of C Hl 20« = 24.
.
icity of -
beam as a particles or X-rays through a gas. These
generated by passing high energy electron
molecular ions can be used to determine
* molecular masses of compounds When a na product (compound ) break down into molecular
ions. It gives very important information.
ION
The word son means * anderer” .
RELATIVE ATOMIC MASS
T 'e ipeciet ~ hicfc carry either positive or negative charge are called ions.” The relative atomic mas# is the mass of one atom of an element comp
ared with the mas?,

0) Cations:
-
T ere i/e 0 types of ions on the basis of charge present on them; i.e. cations and anions. of one atom of carbon taken as 12.000 ”
It is a relative rrass because it is difficult to calculate the mass of an individual atom. Atomic
mass is a comparative mass and the element used for comparison has arbitrary value 12.000.
r. an atom kite* electron it forms cation. Some energy is required to ionize an atom.
Formation of cation u an eariothenmc process. Actua ] atomic mass explains that how heavy or lighter an element is, from carbon .
Carbon is used as reference for comparison due to the following reasons
A t A +c
(i) It is a stable element.
t called cation. The charge of cation is based upon the number of electrons which an
acvrr. cues If ar, atom loses one electron or two electron, its charge will be + 1 and +2 e.g . Na*
(i >) 62
!
Its isotope C can be found in the purest form.
( iii ) It reacts with other elements to form many compounds.
SC *
. 3
etc If an atom oses three electrons , its charge will be + 3 e . g . Al *, Cr 3\ Ft * etc .
The unit used for the atomic mass is atomic mass unit ( a . rau .).
0i ) Anions:
Wher. an atom gains one or more electrons, anion is formed . Some amount of energy . ATOMIC MASS UNIT
released ~ nen ar. electron is added to an atom. Formation of uni -negative is an exotherm . process.
B e "
B ’
‘The mass of 1/12 of an atom of carbon 12 is called atomic mass unit." The relative
atomic mass of carbon is 12.000 a. m.u. and relative atomic mass of hydrogen is 1.008 a. m. u.
-
For example , atoms gaining one electron have 1 charge on them e.g. F\ Cl , Br , T.
The masses of the atoms vary from 10 - 27 -25
kg. We do not weigh such an
endothermic ).
-
Atom gaining two electrons have 2 charge e.g. O-2 , S 2. (Formation of polynegative ions is
" to 10
extremely small mass that is why we use relative atomic mass. The relative atomic masses and
approximate atomic masses of some isotopes are given below in the Table.
Different atoms gain or lose electrons to get stability. Ions are more stable when they
have two electrons ( Duplet ) or eight electrons (Octet ) in their outmost shell . Table
Relative atomic mass
 i mil
m (
m
Vr O
Oi
§?g?
V

x
.',

BE
'
f m
r
x >> = "

6 -
Key to Chemistry Part 1
.
[CH 1] Basic Concepts
7
?

ISOTOPES
radioactive
‘The atoms of same element having same atomic number but different atomic masses are
called isotopes ”
Number of protons present in the nucleus of an atom is called atomic number or proton fSn °KF
varied and rnmnln
only a single isotope. T
pIC
«
,..
^^ ^
nrnduced thronph ^ nir a dlsintegrabon
280 different
. The°
isotopes

distribution
that occur in nature. They include 40
' Besides hese ab ut 300 Unstable radioactive

of isotopes
isotopes
among
have been
the elements is
eXamp1 ; the eIements ® anwfc , fluorine iodine and gold etc have
? monoisotopic substances.
They are called
number. The number of protons and neutrons present in the nucleus of an atom is called mass general, the elements of odd atomic number almost sever
possess more than two stable
number . Mass number is always a whole number.
Isotopes of an element have same chemical properties and same position in the periodic
•
rfcIe £$ nts
c
Fe orm *
near y 50% ,
atomic number usually have much larger number of isotopes.
of irth
,
s crust . 0ut of 280 isotopes that occur
table. Isotopes of same elements have same number of protons and electrons in them. The in nature , 154
i ZA
are of even mass number and even atomic number. Isotopes are separated from
phenomenon of isotopy was discovered l?y Soddy . each other based upon their properties.
,«5
An isotope is represented as •

-
Mass number
Atomic number
> A
» ZX < symbol of element.
|| MASS SPECTROMETRY 1
The technique in which atoms or molecules are converted into ions and are separated on

^
For example, hydrogen has three isotopes |H, H, H naming protium, deuterium and
3
the basis of mass to charge ( m/e) ratio.
£ c.
^ 63
l l
tritium respectively. Carbon has three isotopes C, C and
Chlorine has two isotopes pCl and CL Oxygen has three, nickel has five calcium has
^
six, pladium has six, cadmium has nine, neon has three and tin has eleven isotopes. Those
This spectrometer was discovered by Aston in 1927. This spectrometer is used to identity
the isotopes of an element on the basis of their atomic masses.
elements which have only one isotope are called monoisotopic elements Gold Arsenic, Iodine
and fluorine are monoisotopic elements and the phenomenon is called mono isotopy. DEMPSTER’S SPECTROMETER
Relative abundance of isotopes:
‘The percentage of a particular isotope of an element which exist naturally is called the .This spectrometer have been designed for the identification of elements which are found
relative abundance of the isotope.” in solid state.
The isotopes of all the elements have their own natural abundances. The properties,
which are mentioned in the literature for a particular element mostly corresponds to the most
abundant isotope of that element and their relative abundance can be determine by mass
DETERMINATION OF RELATIVE ATOMIC MASS OF
ISOTOPES BY DEMPSTER MASS SPECTROMETER
!
spectrometry . Table shows the natural abundances of some common isotopes.
Mass spectrometry is used to determine the
Table
Name Natural abundance ( % )
• Number of isotopes of an element.
• Relative isotopic masses and relative abundance of isotopes.
Hydrogen 1
H = 99.985, ?i H = 0.015 • Relative molecular masses and structures of organic compounds.
l iji
Mass spectrometer consists of evaporator, ionizing chamber, negatively charged grid ,
Carbon
'62C = 98.893, '63C = 1.107 accelerator, variable magnetic field, detector or electrometer, amplifier and recorder.
Nitrogen
'7*N = 99.634, 7 N = 0.366 Heated Negative
J‘8 o = 0.037, '8Jo = 0.204 -
( ) fialment
<-> grid Analyzer
Oxygen
'g60 = 99.759, 8
( Magnet )
Neon
Sulphur ^
32
Ne = 90.51,

16^ =
S 95.0, ]] s ^Ne = 0.27,
= 0.76,
34
16^ =
S
Ne = 9.22
4.22 , *
10
S^= 0.014 8 ^ f

Fluorine
‘, P = 100
9
Electron beam (+) I' '
To vacuum pump Detector
L

Chlorine , C1 = 75.53, , = 24.47

7
37
7C^11
Bromine
739Br = 50.54 “ jBr = 49.49
,
Mass
Evacuated
glass
v
Iodine
»1 = 100 number envelope
 Key to Chemletry Part 1 - .
[CH 1] Baalc Concepts
9
.
1 Evaporation and Ionization
100 -
The substance whose analysis for the separation of isotopes is required is converted into 90.92 %
90 -
the vapours state . The pressure of these vapours is kept very low that is 10 * to l (f torr .
~ 7
8 80 ‘

These vapours are allowed to enter the ionization chamber where fast moving electrons are
thrown upon them. The molecules present in the form of vapours are ionized . These particles may |70 -
consist of single atoms, bearing the positive charge, but the masses are different depending upon § 60 -
the nature of the isotope of the element . For example neon
20 2
form Ne \ lNe + 22
, +
Ne ions. < 50 -
x + e -> x* + e + e
J
J5
&
40
30
--
DC

electron High energy SM 20 -

high energy positive
atom knocked electron i 10 -
electron ion 0.257 % 8.82%
out of X retreating
. 20 21 22
2+
x + e » x + e + 'e + e Mass Number
(Computer plotted graph for the isotopes of neon )
2 electrons knocked out of X Other Methods:
2. Acceleration and Detection (1) Gaseous diffusion (2) Thermal diffusion
(3 ) Distillation (4) Ultracentrifuge
The positive ion of each isotope has its own mass to charge ratio. When potential
-
difference (E) of 500 2000 volts is applied between perforated accelerating plates, these
positive ions are strongly attracted towards the negative plate. In this way ions are accelerated.
(5) Electromagnetic separation (6) Laser separation
Fractional atomic masses:
These ions are allowed to pass through the strong magnetic field (H) or analyzer to make the ions Atomic mass of an element depends upon the number of isotopes of an element and their
to move in circular path . The magnetic field separates the ions on the basis of their m/e ratio. natural abundance. >
The ions of definite m/e value move in the form of groups one after another and fall on the
We know that naturally occurring elements have two or more isotopes, so the atomic weight
detector or electrometer. The mathematical relation for m/e is ( relative atomic mass ) of an element is defined as weighted average of the masses of these isotopes.
m _Hr Average atomic mass =
Sum of products of masses and natural abundance
100
e "
2E
Where H is strength of magnetic field , E is strength of electrical field and r is radius For example, chlorine has two isotopes ,
35
7C1
ahd |^?C1 having natural abundance 75.53
i

of circular path. If E is increased by keeping H constant, then radius will increase and positive and 24.47 respectively . The average atomic mass of Cl is
ions of particular m/e will fall at different place as compared to the first place . This can also be (35 x 75.53) + ( 37 X 24.47 )
done by changing the magnetic field . Each ion set up a minute quantity of electrical current. The Average atomic mass = 100 = 35.5
strength of current gives the relative abundance of that isotope.
Example (1):
the electrical current . The strength
Electrometer is also called ion collector and develops
^ ^
2
A sample of neon is found to consist of Ne , Ne and jjNe in the percentage 90.92 % ,
of current thus measures the relative abundance of a particular isotope.
0.26%, 8.82% respectively. Calculate the fractional atomic mass of Neon .
3. Comparison with C - 12: Solution:
The same experiment is preformed with C r 12 isotope and current strength is .
The overall atomic ma < s of neon , which is an ordinary isotopic mixture, is the average of
compared. This comparison allows us to measure the exact mass number of each isotope . the determined atomic masses of individual isotopes. Hence
However , the current strength of the detector is amplified and recorded on a graph. The
recorder graph shows the relative abundance < >f isotopes plotted against the mass number.
Average atomic mass -
( 20 x 90.92) -f ( 21 x 0.26 ) + ( 22 x 8.82)
100
20.18

i
 m rfs
rx
m
10
Hence the atomic mass of neon is 20.18 a.m.u .
Key to Chemistry Part-1
[CH.1] Basic Concepts
11
-
It is important to realize that no individual neon atom in the sample has a mass of 20.18 (3) Determination of empirical formula:
a.m.u. For most laboratory purposes, however, we consider the sample to consist of atoms with Empirical formulas can be calculated from the given
percentage composition of the
this average mass compounds by the following procedure.
( i ) Divide the mass of each element (% of an element) by
its atomic mass to get the
EMPIRICAL FORMULA number of moles.
( ii ) Divide each number of moles by smallest numbef of moles to
get the mole ratio of
'Thesimplest whole number ratio of atoms of different elements in a compound is called elements. , •

empirical formula ." ( Hi ) If ratio is simple whole number, then it gives empirical formula, otherwise
For example, empirical formula of and CH3COOH is CH2O, empirical multiply with a suitable digit to gei the whole number ratio.
formula of H2O2 is HO. Empirical formula of oxalic acid = CH02. (4) Determination of value of n:
For QjH , and C2H2, empirical formula is CH empirical formula of oxalic and is CHO2. Molecular mass
*
Ionic compounds have only empirical formulas but no molecular formula. For Ex; NaCl , KG.
n Empirical formula
r mass
The empirical and molecular formula of CH4, NH3, H2O, C12H22O 11 are same because n is simple integer, n may be 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 etc.
they cannot be simplified. (5) Determination of molecular formula:
Molecular formula = n X Empirical formula.
MOLECULAR FORMULA Percentage of an Element in a Compound:
“ Actual number of atoms of different elements present in a molecule is called molecular Percentage of an element in a compound is the number of gram of that element present in
formula.” 100 grams of the compound.
For example benzene (C H ) ethane (C2H5) and glucose (CgH Og) have molecular Mass of element
^ ^ ^ Percentage of an element = Mass of compound x 100
formulas. In all these compounds the molecular formulas are simple multiples of empirical
formulas, hence Example (2):
Molecular formula = n x empirical formula: 8.657 g of a compound were decomposed into its elements and gave 5.217 g of carbon,
Where V is a simple integer. Those compounds whose empirical and molecular 0.962 g of hydrogen, 2.478 g of oxygen . Calculate the percentage composition of the compound
formulas are same are numerous. For example, NaCl, H2O, CO2, NH3, SO2, CH4, C12H22O 11 under study.
have same empirical and molecular formulas. Solution:
Their simple multiple * n ’ is unity, ‘n * is the ratio of molar mass and empirical formula Applying the formula:
mass of a substance. Mass of element

r
Molar mass Percentage of element Mass of compound
x 100
n = Empirical formula mass ( x = 2, 3, 4, )
Mass of carbon
Percentage of carbon Mass of compound
x 100
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MOLECULAR FORMULA AND 5.217 g
EMPIRICAL FORMULA STEPS INVOLVED TO DETERMINE THE X l 00 = 6 - 26%
EMPIRICAL AND MOLECULAR FORMULAS OF A COMPOUND
=
^ 8
Mass of hydrogen
°
Percentage of hydrogen - Mass of compound
x 100
Followings steps are involved to determine the empirical and molecular formulas of the 0.962 g
compounds. = 8.657 g
x 100 = 11.11%
(1) Qualitative analysis: Mass of oxygen
Qualitative analysis means which elements are present in the given compound . Percentage of oxygen = ass 0f compound
X 100
( 2) Quantitative analysis:
^ ^2.478 g
The analysis in which mass of an element present in a compound is determined and % of x 100 = 28.62%
each element is calculated .
 V . \A \ A Z S
f
\
/
•i

v
'
>
rvm
12 Key to Chemistry Psrt»l [CH. 1 ] Beelc Concepts 13
The above resu lts tell us that in one hun dred grain s of the give n com poun d , there are Example (3): '

60.26 grams of carb on . 11.1 1 gram s of hydr ogen and 28.6 2 gram s of oxy gen .
Percentage composition of a compound can also be determined theoretically if we know
the form ula mas s of the com poun d . The follo wing equa tion can be used for this purp ose .
Mass of the element
Mass % of an element = Formula mass of the compound x 100
Solution:
v .
COMBUSTION ANALYSIS - PERCENTAGE thC PcrccnlaKcs o{ clement*, we believe that in 100 gram* of ascorbic acid ,
there are 40.92 grams of carbon , 4.58 grams of hydrogen and 54.5 grams of oxygen .
COMPOSITION OF AN ORGANIC COMPOUND
Divide these masses of the
le elements (or percentages) by their atomic masses to get the
Those compounds which simply consist of carbon hydrogen and oxygen can be analyzed number of gram atoms.
very easil y by com bust ion anal ysis. The prod uct of com bust ion is H 2O and CO 2. Thes e two Sm' dr
Mr M
40.92 g
products are collected separately and weighed . No. of gram atoms of carbon = 12.0 g mole-1 = 3.41 gram atoms
Experiment:
A weighed quan tity of sam ple is plac ed in the dish of the com bust ion tube . Exce ss 4 -58 g
oxygen is supplied to bum the compound. No. of gram atoms of hydrogen = -i = 4.54 gram atoms
1.008 g mole s
Sample of compound containing \ Ms
.
C, H and other elements Other substance
No. of gram atoms of oxygen
54.5 g
H20 absorber C02 absorber not absorbed = 16 g mole
ZT = 3.41 gram atoms
1

50% KOH
£3 > number.
Atomic ratio is obtained by dividing the gram atoms with 3.41, which is the smallest

m
Mg (CI 04)2 3.41 4.54 4.54
The carbon and hydrogen present in the com pou nd reac ts with oxyg en in the pres ence of C:H : O = : :
3.41 3.41 3.41
cupric oxide and change to CO2 and H2O resp ectiv ely . Thes e gase s are pass ed fu throu gh

water absorber like Mg (004) 2 magnesium per-chlorate and than thro ugh CO 2 abso r ber , C:H :O = 1 : 1.33 : 1

which is 50 % KOH solution. To convert them into whole numbers, multiply with three
nds to the mas s of wate r and carb on
The increase in mass of these absorbers correspo 3 : 4 : 3.
dioxide produced in the combustion of organic compou nd . From the mas s of wate r and carb on C: H:O = 3 (1: 1.33 : 1) = *
"

. the perc enta ge of hydr ogen and 4

emp irica l form ula of the
dioxide produced in an organic compre id , we can calculate This whole number ratio give s us the subs cript s for the
carbon respectiv ely. Perc enta ge of oxy gen is dete rmin ed indir ectly . compound i.e. C3H4O3. t
Percentage of Hydrogen:
2.016 y Mass of H 2O Empirical formula = mass = 36 + 4 + 48 = 88
% H = 18.00 Mass of organic com“
pound
x 100
Molar mass = 176
Percentage of Carbon: 176
%C =
12.00
x
Mass of CO2
x 100
n 88 = 2 1
44.00 Mass of organic compound
n x (Emp irica l form ula )
Percentage of Oxygen:
oxy gen in not
Molecular formula =
If the sum of percentages of all elements in a compound is 100 , it mea ns
of sum and 100 is perc enta ge = 2 XC3H4O3
present . It sum of percentages of elements is not 100 , the diffe renc e
of oxygen . = QHA
% O = 1 ( X ) - ( sum of percentage of all other elements in a compound ).
-
% 0 = 100 ( % C + % H).
 Key to Chemistry Part -1
14 [CH. 1] Basic Concepts

Example (4): Divide the number of gram atoms

by the smallest
A sample of liquid consisting of carbon , hydrogen and oxygen was subjected to c : H : o
analysis . 0.5439 g of the compound gave 1.039 g of CO 2 , 0.6369 g of H20. 5.45 5.45 1.82
combustion
Calculate empirical formula of the compound. 1.82 1.82 1.82
*

3 3 : 1
Solution:
Carbon, hydrogen and oxygen are present in
Mass of organic compound = 0.5439 g iven organic compound in the ratio of
3 : 3 : 1. so the empirical formula
Mass of carbon dioxide = 1.039 g
In order to determine the molecular formula, first
Mass of water = 0.6369 g calculate the empirical formula mass.
Empirical formula mass 1 2 x 3 + 1.008 x 3 + 16 x
, . 1 039 g 12.00 = 1 = 55.05 g/mole
Percentage of carbon = 0.5439 g x 44 X)0 X 100 = 52.10% Molar mass of the compound 110.15
0
=
Molar mass of the compound 110.15
n =
0.6369 g 2.016
X 100 = 13.11% Empirical formula mass = 55.05 = 2
Percentage of hydrogen = 0.5439 gX 18
Molecular formula = n (Empirical formula )
Percentage of oxygen = 100 - ( 52.10 + 13.11 ) = 34.79 %
2 (C3H3O) = QftA
% No. of gram atoms Atomic Ratio Empirical Formula
Element Example (6):
C 52.10 52.10 4.34 An organic compound contains 26.4% carbon, 2.2% hydrogen and 71.4% oxygen .
12 = 4.34 2.17 = 2
Molar mass of the compound is 90. find its molecular formula?
H 13.11 13.11 13.01 C2H60 Solution:
1.008 = 13.01 2.17 = 6
(i) Dividing by the respectively atomic masses.
O 34.77 34.79 2.17
= 2.17 2.17 =
~ 1 No. of gram - atoms of carbon = = 2.2
16.00
Example ( 5 ):
The combustion analysis of an organic compound shows that it contains 65.44 % carbon ,
No. of gram - atoms of hydrogen = —
22
= 2.2

formula of the compound ? If the

5.50% hydrogen and 29.06% of oxygen . What is the empirical . No. of gram - atoms of oxygen = = 4.4
molecular formula of the compound
molecular mass of this compound is 110.15. Calculate the
Molar Ratio C H O
Solution:
get the number of 2.2 2.2 : 4.4
First of all divide the percentage of each element by its atomic mass to
00 Dividing by the least number.
gram atoms or moles.
C : H : O
65.44 g of C g of C
No. of gram atoms of carbon = 12 g/ mole = 5.45 atoms 2.2 2.2 4.4
2.2 *
2.2 ‘ 2.2
5.50 g of H
No. of gram atoms of hydrogen -
= 5.45 g atoms of H 1 : 1 : 2
1.008 g/ mole
The empirical formula = CJHJ 02 = CH02
29.06 g of O
1.82 g atoms of O
No. of gram atoms of oxygen

Molar Ratio C
=
H
16.00 g/ mole
O
=
n = — -
__
Empirical formula mass = 1 2 + 1 + 3 2 = 4 5
Molar mass 90
“ ^
-
L
—
Empirical formula mass 45
“

5.45 5.45 1.82

 m .
r L>
'
w^ z
_
/
v

' I
V
V
-
W,
mm
m $SSS

Key to Chemistry Part-i

.
[CH 1] Basic Concepts
16 17
(iii) Gram formula (mole):
Molecular formula = n X (empirical formula ) ‘The formula unit mass of an ionic compound exprt >ed in grams is
called gram formula
= 2 x CHO2 of the substance.” Since ionic compounds do not exist in m< lecular form he re
fore
( acid ) '
atomic masses of individual ions gives the formula mass. The g am formula is also the sum of
= C 2H 2O4 (oxalic
gram mole or simply a mole. reterred to as

1 CONCEPT OF MOLE No. of gram formulas = of the ionic suStance in fjjm

roFmula mass of the ionic substance
In chemistry we deals with the atoms, ions or molecules which are very small particles. It 1 gram formula of NaCl = 58.50 g
is not easy to weigh one atom or one molecule. 1 gram formula of Na 2(X>3 = 106 g
On the other hand due to extremely smaller size, they cannot be counted in dozen . So 1 gram formula of AgN03 = 170 g
. ” word meanin g a “ huge mass”.
r concep t of mole is used The “ mole is a Latin
(iv) -
Gram Ion (mole):
The mole is the unit of counting as well as the unit of measurement used in chemistry.
The ionic mass of an ionic specie expressed in grams is called one gram ion or one mole
(1) MOLE of ions.
. Mass
No o gram 10ns - pormu| of the ionic
a ^55 0f
specie in grams
‘The atomic mass, formula mass or molecular mass of a substance expressed in grams is
called mole.” Moles of ionic specie
^
jonic SpeCjc

(i ) Gram atom (mole): For example:

“ When a substance is in atomic state, its atomic mass expressed in grams is called gram l gram ions of OH = 17 g
"
•

atom.” gram ions of SO3

] ”
= 80 g
No. of gram atoms or moles of an element .
1 gram ions of CO3 "

= 60 g n
For example: >
1 gram atom of hydrogen = 1.008 g So, the atomic mass, molecular mass, formula mass or ionic mass of the substance
expressed in gram is called moles of those substances.
1 gram atom of carbon = 12.00 g
or Mass of substan ce in grams
and 1 gram atom of uranium = 238.0 g Mole =
s them . One Atomic mass/molecular mass/formula mass/ionic mass
It means that one gram atoms of differe nt elemen ts have differe nt masse in
ole of carbon is 12 g, while 1 mole of magnesium is 24 g . It also shows that one atom of Example (7):
magnesium is twice as heavy as an atom of carbon. Calculate the gram atoms (moles) in
(ii ) Gram - molecule (mole): (a ) 0.1 g of sodium
‘The molecular mass of a substance expressed in gram is called gram molec ule or gram (b) 0.1 kg of silicon
mole or simply the mole of a substance.” Solution:
No. of gram molecules or Mass of elemen t in gram
Mass of the molecular subtance in grams
(*) .
No of gram atoms = Atomic mass of
element
Moles of molecular substance = Molar.mass of the substance Mass of sodium = 0.1 g
For example: Atomic mass of sodium = 23 g/mole
1 gram molecule of water ( mole ) = 18.0 g Ole
. No. of gram atoms of sodium = - 1
t 1 gram molecule of H2SO4 (mole ) = 98 0 g 1«
r\ 23 g mole
and 1 gram molecule of glucose = 180 g 3
= 0.0043 = 4.3 X 10 mole
It means that the one gram molecule: of different molecular substances have diffcre
masses. *

.d
1B
(b) First of all convert the mass of silicon into grams.
Key to Chemistry Part 1
- [CH.1] Basic Concepts

Mass of silicon = 0.1 kg = 100 g 342 g of sucrose - 1 mole

Hence, one mole of diffe of su crose = 6.02 X 1023 molecules of sucrose.
Atomic mass of silicon = 28 g mole-l of molecules. re nt compounds has different masses but has the same
number
In case of ions
lOOg
No. of gram atoms of silicon = - I = 3.57 moles. 96 g of SOJ -

Example (8):
_3
Calculate the mass of 10 moles of MgSC>4
28 g mole
62 g of NO3
58.5 g of NaCl = 6.02 x 1023
fo rm
^
= 1 mole of SO tz 6.02 x 1023 ions of SO
= 1 mole of NO3 = 6.02 X 1023 ions of NO
ul a un its
^ 3
From the above discussion , we reac
closely related with one mole of a substa h th e co nc lu sio n th at th e nu mb 23
er 6.02 x 10 is
"
Solution: is denoted by N .
nc e. This number is called as Avogadro’
s number and it
MgSC>4 is an ionic compound . We will consider its formula mass in pla *
ce of molecular mass. (i ) Number of atoms of an element Mass of the element x NA
a|
Mass of ionic substance Atomic mass
No . of gram formula = Formula mass of ionic substance ( ii) No. of molecules =— Mass
Molecular mass x M
A
Formula mass MgS04 = 24 + 96 = 120 g/mole
( iii ) No. of ions Mas
3 ~
No. of moles of MgSC>4 = 1 T moles
( Ionic mass XNA
( iv ) No. of formula units = Mass
Applying the formula 10 3 Mass of MgSQ4 Formula mass X N A
= 120 g mole 1 - When we have compounds of known mass we can calcu
lat e th e number of atoms from
3 their formulas .
Mass of MgS(>4 = 10 moles x 120 g/mole In 18 g of water there are present 6.02 X 1023 molecule of
3 H2O, 2 X 6.02 X 1023 atoms of
= 120 X 10 "
= 0.12 g hydrogen and 6.02 X 1023 atoms of oxygen. Similarly ,
in 98 g of H2SO4, it has twice the
Avogadro’ s number of hydrogen atoms , four times the Avog
adro’ s number of oxygen atoms and
(2) (AVOGADRO S NUMBER ) NA the Avogadro’ s number of sulphur atom.
Some substances ionize in suitable solvents to yield cations and
anions. The number of
The number of atoms, ions or molecules and formula units which are present in one gram such ions, their masses , number of positive and negative charges ca
n be easily calculated from the
atom of an element , one gram molecule of a compound or one gram ion an known amount of the substance dissolved. Let us dissolve 9.8 g
d 1 gram-formula mass of H 2SO4 , in sufficient quantity
of a substance is also called Avogadro’ s number. It is denoted by N . of H2O to get it completely ionized. It has 0.1 mole of
H2SO4 . It will yield 0.2 mole or
Its value is 6.022 X 1023
* 2 x 6.02 x 1023 H+ and 0.1 mole or 1 X 6.02 x 1023 SO ii . "

ons
4
H2SO4 » +
To understand Avogadro’ s number let us consider the following quantities of substances.
0.1 M
2H
0.2 M
+
soJ
~

1.008 g of hydrogen = 1 mole of hydrogen = 6.02 x 1023 atoms of H. 0.1 M

6.02 x 1023 12.04 x 1023 6.02 x 1023
23 g of sodium = 1 mole of Na = 6.02 X 1023 atoms of Na . Total positive charges will be 2 x 6.02 x 1003 and the total negative charges wi be
ll
2 X 6.02 X 10 ( because each S04 has two negative charges). The
238 g of uranium = 1 mole of U = 6.02 x 1023 atoms of U. total mass of H is
This number, 6.02 X 1023 is the number of atoms in one mole of the elemen . It is (0.2 x 1.008 ) g and that of S
04 is (0.1 x 98 ) g.
"

t
interesting to know that different masses of elements have th sa
e me number of atoms. An atom of Example (9):
sodium is 23 times heavier than an atom of hydr How many molecules of water are there in 10.0 g of ice? Also calculate the number of
ogen . In order to have equal number of atoms
sodium should be taken 23 times greater atoms of hydrogen and oxygen separately, the total number of atoms and the covalent bonds
in mass than hydrogen. Magnesium atom is twice
heavier than carbon ; i .e. 10 g of Mg an present in the sample .
d 5 g of C contain the same number of atoms.
18 g of HjO = 1 mole of water 6.02 x 1023 m Solution:
= olecules of water. Mass of ice ( water) = 10.0 g
 ns n
n
_
v
V
*

Vr O m
20 K#y fo ChemlBtry Part i - .
[CH 1] BMBIC Concept
*
Mass of water in g x NA 21
No. of molecules of water = Molar mass of water in g mole-1 (b ) H3PO4 dissolves in water and ion
ized as foil ows.
10 g H3PO4 » 3H* + po;3
1 x 6.02 x 1023
18 g mole According to the balanced chemical equation 1: '

No. of molecules of water = 3.34 x 1023 H3PO4 : H*

One molecule of water contains hydrogen atoms = 2 1 : 3
3.34 x 1023 molecules of water contain H atoms 6.14 x 1022 * : 3 X 6.14 X 1022
= 2 x 3.34 x 1023
23 : 1.842 xlO23
= 6.68 xlO •1
One molecule of water contains oxygen atom Hence, the number of H + will be 1.842 x 1023
= 1.
3.34 x 1023 molecules of water contains O atoms = 3.34 x 1023 H3PO4 : P $-
1
One molecules of water contains number of covalent bonds
= 2. 1 : 1. V '

23 22 22
3.34 x 10 molecules of water contain number of covalent bonds 23 6.14 XlO : 6.14 xlO
= 2 x 3.34 x 10
23 Hence, the number of PO]- will be 6.14 x 1022
= 6.68 xlO
(c) In order to calculate the mass of the ions, use the formulas.
Total number of atoms of hydrogen and oxygen = 3.34 x 1023 X 3
24 + 1.842 x 1023 x 1.008
= 1.003 xlO Total mass of H
6.02 x 1023
Example (10):
*J
6.14 x 1022 x 95
10.0 g of H 3PO4 have been dissolved in excess of water to dissociate it complete into ions. Total mass of PO4 = 6.02 x 1023
Calculate,
= 9.689 g \
( a) No. of molecules in 10.0 g of H3PO4. (d) One molecule of H3PO4 gives three positive charges in the solution.
( b) No. of positive and negative ions in case of complete dissociation in water. 6.14 x 1022 molecules of H3PO4 will give = 3 X 6.14 x 1022
(c ) Masses of individual ions.
= 1.842 x 1023 positive charges
(d ) No. of positive and negative charges dispersed in the solution
Number of positive and negative charges are always equal. So the number of negative
Solution: charges dispersed in the solution = 1.842 X 10 .
(a ) Mass of H 3PO4 = 10 g Example (11):
Molar mass of H3PO4 A puff of smoke weighs 0.1 grams. How many atoms are present (smoke is assumed to
= 3 + 31 + 64 = 98 g/mole be pure carbon ).
No. of molecules of H 3PO4 Mass of H3PO4 Mass
= Molar mass of H3 PO4
x 6.02 x 1023 No. of atoms = x
At . mass NA
!0 g
6.0 2 X 1023
25
TTX = 6.02 xlO
98 g mole
6 14 x I 022 = 0.5 x 1022 atoms
=
 V
V
22 Key to Chemistry Part i
[CH. 1] Beelc Concepta
* 23
Example (12): Law of Conservation of Mass:
A ring is studded with 6 grams of diamond. How many atoms are present ? ‘This law states “
Mass can neither be created nor troyed in a chemicaJ reaction. ”
Mass But a$ matter is atomic in nature we can
No. of atoms = At. mass X N A destroyed in a chemical reaction.”
say: toms can neither be created nor

Law of Definite Proportions:

= 12
x 6.02 x 1023 It is stated as ‘The different samples of 11 contain the number of atoms
23 of__ different elements in the same fixed ratio by mass.
= 3.01 xlO -
• — ..
For example water collected from any source contain two‘—

Molar Volume (V»): ^ atoms of hydrogen and one

atom of oxygen . We can say that ratio of H and O is fixed by mass i .e . 1 : 8. (
2 2 11.19 88.81 )
“ One mole of an ideal gas at standard temperature and pressure occupies 22.414 dm
which is called molar volume. ” CALCULATIONS BASED ON CHEMICAL EQUATION]
With the help of this information , we can convert the mass of a gas at STP into its (STIOCHIOMETRY)
volume and vice versa .
‘The branch of chemistry which deals with the quantitative relationship between
Hence we can say that
reactants and products in a balanced chemical equation is called Stiochiometry . ”
2.016 g of H2 = 1 mole of H2 = 6.02 X 1023 molecules of H2 = 22.414 dm of H2 at STP .
3
Chemical equations have certain limitations as well. They do not tell about the
. .
l 6 g o f CH, = 1 mole of CH = 6.02 x 10“ molecules of CH = 22.414 dm of CH at STP.
3
1
. conditions, am the rate of reaction . Chemical equation can even be written to describe a chemical
change that do not occur . So, when stiochiometric calculations are performed , we have to assume
It is very interesting to know from the above data that 22.414 dm of each gas has a the following conditions , *
different mass but the same number of molecules. The reason is that the masses and the sizes of 1. All reactants are completely converted into the products.
the molecules don ’ t affect the volumes . Normally it is known that in the gaseous state the
2. No side reactions occurs .
distance between molecules is 300 times greater than their diameters .
3. While doing calculations, law of conservation of mass and law of definite proportions are
Example (13): obeyed .
3
A well known ideal gas is enclosed in a container having volume 500 cm at STP. Its Stiochiometric Amounts:
mast comes out to be 0.72 g . What is the molar mass of this gas . ‘The amount of reactants and products in a balanced chemical equations are called
Solution: Stiochiometric amounts” , e.g .
We can calculate the number of moles of the ideal gas at STP from the given volume . 2H2 + 02 > 2H20
3 3 32 g of O2 and 36 g of H2O are called Stiochiometric
22.414 dm or 22414 cm of the ideal gas at STP = 1 mole
3 1
1 cm of the ideal gas at STP = 2 414 mole

3
500 cm of the ideal gas at STP
^= 1
x 500 = 0.0223 mole
22414
We know that
Mass of the gas
No, of moles of the gas = Molar mass of the gas
Mass of the gar
Molar mass of the gas »
No. of moles of the gas
0 /72 g
Molar mass of the gas = .

= 12 mole
0.0223 mole
 Vy J
& ii!

Vr <> <
. c\ 1i
24 Key to Chemistry Part i >7
-
Example ( 14):
.
[CH 1] Basic Concepts
Calculate the number of grams of K 2SO4 and water produced when 14 g of 25
KOH are Example ( 15 ):
reacted with excess of H2SO4. Also calculate the number of molecules of water produced
.
Solution: rCaCtS lh HC1 t0 give hydroSen gas.
W
'
so ution 27 % by weight ) required to produce
1 *
( Wh at is the minimum volume of HC1
For doing such calculations, first of all convert the given mass of KOH 12.1 g of H2. The density of HC1 solution is
into moles and 1.14 g/cm .
then compare these moles with those of K2S04 with the help of the balanced
chemical equation . Mg (s) + 2 HC1 (aq)
Mass of KOH = 14.0 g * MgCl 2 (aq ) + H2 (g)
Solution:
v Molar mass of KOH = 39 + 16 + 1 = 56 g/ mole
Mass of H2 produced
= 12.1 g
^ J

- Equation:
No. of moles of KOH =
14.0 g
56 g mole TT = 0.25 mole Molar mass of H2

Moles of H2 = —
= 2.016 g mole
ta 5S f H ~
°
- i

2KOH (aq ) + H2S04 (aq ) -> K2S04 (aq ) + 2H20 (1)

To get the number of moles of K2S04 compare the moles of KO wit
_ Molar mass of H2
12.1 g
= ioTegmole-1 = 60 moleS
H h the those of
K 2S04 . To calculate the number of moles of HCI , compar
e the moles of H2 with those of HC1
2 moles of KOH produces K 2S04 = 1 mole H2 : HC1
1 : 2
0.25 moles of KOH produces K 2S04

Molar mass of K 2S04 =

'
2 x 3 9 + 96 =
= ^
= x 0.25 mole
0.125 mole K 2S04
174 g/ mole
12 moles of HC1 are being consumed to produce to moles of
Mass of HC1 =
=
Moles of HC1 x Molar mass of HC1
12 moles x 36.5 g mole-l
H2 .

1
1
J
Mass of K 2S04 produced = No. of moles x molar mass =438 g
We know that HCI solution is 27% by weight.
-1
= 0.125 moles X 174 g mole 27 g of pure HCI are present in impure HCI solution
= 100 g.
• = 21.75 g
1 g is present in HCI solution
100
To get the number of moles of 'H20, compare the moles of KOH with those of water. = yy
KOH H20
J
438 g are present in how much of HCI solution 100
= yy X 438 = 1622.2 g
2 2 3
1 1
Density of HCI of solution = 1.14 g/cm
Mass of HCI solution
0.25 0.25 Volume of HCI
Density of HCI
So, the number of moles of water produced 1622.2
= 0.25. t § = 1423 cm3
Mass of water produced = 0.25 moles x 18 g mole- l .r 1.14 cm

= 4.5 g LIMITING REACTANT

No. of molecules of water = No. of moles x 6.02 x 10
t
3 Often reactants are added to a reaction vessel in amounts different from the molar
= 0.25 moles x 6.02 x 10 i
molecules/ mole k
proportions given by the balanced chemical equation . In that case only one of the reactants is
= 1.505 x 10‘ molecules completely consumed in the reaction. This reactants which consumes earlier, control the amount
of product .

l>

.
X
)
26 Key to Chemistry Part - l
[CH.1] Basic Concepts
“ The reactant which is consumed earlier during a chemical reaction and
gives the least
moles of the product is called limiting reactant.’* Example (16):
Once this reactant is consumed, the reaction stops and no further product is NH3 gas can be prepared by
reactant which is in excess cannot control the amount of product. The mo
for me d . The heating together two ilids NH4CI and Ca (OH) . If a
les of products are mixture containing 100 g of each solid 2
always determined by the moles of limiting reactant. is heated then .
(a ) Calculate the number of grams of
The concept of limiting reactant is analogous to the relationship between the NH 3 produced .
nu mb er of ( b) Calculate the excess amount of reagen
“ kababs” and the “ slices” to prepare “ sandwiches” . If we have 30
“ having 58 slices” , then we can only prepare 29 “ sandwiches . On “
“ kababs” and five breads 2 NH4CI (s ) + Ca (OH) (S)
-
t left un reacted.
” e kababs” will be extra 2 > CaCl2 (s) + : [3 (g) + 2H20 (1)
(excess reactant ) and “ slices” will be the limiting reactant. It is a practical Solution:
problem that we can
not purchase exactly sixty “ slices” for 30 “ kababs” to prepare 30 “ sandwiches”
. (a) (i) Convert the given amounts of
both reactants into their number of moles.
m To understand the concept of limiting reactant consider the reaction between hy Mass of NH4CI = 100 g
drogen
and oxygen to form water .
Molar mass of NH4CI 53.5 g/ mole
Experiment 1: =
Moles of NH4CI 100 g
In first experiment 4 g of H2 was reacted with 32 g of 02 and 36 g of H20 was = 53.5 g mole-1 = 1.87 moles
formed .
Mass of Ca (OHT = 100 g
2H2
4 g H2
* o2 » 2H20 ^
Molar mass of Ca (OH)2 = 74 g mole-1
32 g 02 36 g H20
Moles of Ca (OH)2 = 10 0 g
In this experiment all quantities of H2 and 02 are consumed because they have ry = 1.35 moles
74 g mole
Stiochiometric ratio in them.
(ii ) Compare the number of moles of NH CI with those of
Experiment 2: 4 NH3.
NH4CI NH3
In second experiment 6 g of H2 was reacted with 32 g of 02 and 36 g of H i

produced .
20 was z 2
1 1
2H2 + 02 * 2H20 1.87 1.87
6 g H2 32 g 02 36 g H20 Similarly compare the number of moles of Ca (OH with those of NH .
In this experiment, formation of H20 is limited by 02 reactant. 2g H remains un-
reactive therefore in excess or non-limiting reactant.
2 Ca (OH)2 NH3 ^ 3

1 2
Experiment 3: 1.35 2.70
In third experiment 4 g of H2 was reacted with 40 g of 02 and 36 g of H was Since the number of moles of NH3 produced by 100 g or 1.87 moles of NH CI are less,
produced .
20 4
so NH4CI is the limiting reactant. The other reactant, Ca (OH is present in exc .
2H2 + 02
* 2H20 Mass of NH3 produced = 1.87 moles x 17 g/ mole = 31.179 g ^ ess Hence

4 g H2 40 g 02 36 g H20 (b) Amount of the reagent present in excess. 9

V
'
In this experiment, formation of H20 is limited by H2 and 02 is in excess 8 g of 02 Let us calculate the number of moles of Ca (OH which will completely react with 1.87
remains un-reactive so H2 is limiting reactant. moles of NH4CI with the help of equation . ^
Identification of limiting reactant: NH4CI : Ca (OH)2
To identify a limiting reactant , the following three steps are performed . 2 1

-
1.
2.
3.
Calculate the number of moles from the given amount of reactant.
Find out the number of moles of product with the help of a balanced chemical equation .
Identify the reactant which prcduces the least amount of product as limiting reactant .
1
1.87
1
2
0.935
i
w
*
 NH,CI U 0.935 mole « .
When lime stone (CaC ) is
No. of mole* of Ca ( OH>2 taken = 1.35 mole. 03
following equation . The actual yield of
roasted, quicklime 1(CO ) is
j produced according to the
‘

CaO ls 2.5 kg, when 4.5 kg of lime stone is roasted.

What is the percentage yield of this reaction
No. of mole* of Ci (OH 2 used> = 0.935 mole .

CaCOj (g )
No. of moles of Ca (OH>2 left behind = 1.35 - 0.935 = 0.415 mole. |
CaO (g ) + : (g)
02 *

Mass of non-reactive Ca ( OH>2 0.415 x 74 Solution:

= = 30.71 g.
J
Mass of lime stone roasted *
It means we should have mixed 100 g of NH4CI with 69.3 g of Ca (OH >2 to get 1.87
Mass of quicklime produced ( i
m
mole NH 3 yield ) = 2.5 kg = 2500 g i
Molar mass of CaC03 = 100 g/mo
YIELD Molar mass of CaO = 56 g/mole
“ The amount of product obtained as a result of chemical reaction is called yield .” According to the balanced chemical equation.
100 g of CaC03 should give CaO
Theoretical Yield : = 56 g
“ The amount of product calculated from balanced chemical equations, is called
1 g of CaC03 should give CaO
theoretical yield ” , e g . =

r
CaC03 * CaO + C02 4500 g of CaC03 should give CaO = x 4500
1 mole 1 mole 1 mole
= 2520 g
100 g 56 g 44 g Theoretical yield of CaO = 2520 g
50 g 28 g 22 g Actual yield of CaO = 2500 g
>
Actual Yield:

called
' The amount of product that is actually
actual yield . ”
obtained experimentally in a chemical reaction is
% yield

Significance:
=
Actual yield
Theoretical yield x 100
- 2500
2520 X 100 * 99.2%

Many chemical reactions do not produce the amount of products expected theoretically . % yield indicates the efficiency of the reaction .
The reasons are: Greater the % yield , greater the efficiency.
(a ) Side reaction produces by - products. * \
Actual Yield Theoretical Yield
( b) Reactions are reversible.
(c ) Mechanical loss of product during separation by filtration . separation by distillation,
(1) Amount of the product actually obtained . (1) Amount of the product obtained from
the balanced chemical equation .
separation by a separating funnel , washing , drying and crystallization is not properly
carried out decreases the yield (2) It is always less than the theoretical (2) It Is greater than the actual yield .
yield .
PERCENT YIELD ( EFFICIENCY OF REACTION ) ( 3) It Is not calculated from the limiting ( 3 ) It is calculated from the limiting
reactant . reactant
Actual yield divided by the theorem al yield and mswer is multiplied by 100 is
“ called
percent yield . ”
Actual yield
Efficiency of Reaction % yirld =
 30 Key to Chemistry parf.f *mn T
< <S* ‘ k
V
V *
.
[CH 1] Basic Concepts
( viii ) One mole of SO2
contains:
(a ) 6.023 x 1023
atoms of oxygen (b) 18Ax 1023
Ql. Select the most suitable answer from the given ones in each questions. (c) 6.023 x 1023
atoms of sulphur (d) 4 g at > m of S
molecules of SO2
02
( ix ) The volume occupied by 1.4
(0 Isotopes differ in:
(a) 2.24 dm3
.
g of N2 at S T.P. is:
(a) Properties which depend upon mass
(b) Arrangement of electrons in orbita 's (c) 1.12 dm3
( d ) 112 dm
(c) Chemical properties (x ) A limiting reactant is the one
which :
(a) is taken in lesser W
(d ) The extent to which they may be affected in electromagnetic field quantity in grams as compared to other
( b) is taken in lesser reactants
(ii ) Which of the following statement is true? quantity in volume as compared to the other
(c ) carries the maximum
(a) Isotopes with even atomic masses are comparatively abundant amount of the product which is required
(d ) gives the minimum
(b) Isotopes with odd atomic masses are comparatively abundant amount of the product under consideration
(c) Isotopes with even atomic masses and even atomic numbers are V ANSWERS
comparatively abundant Answers
(d ) Isotopes with even atomic masses and odd atomic numbers are Reasons
(0
. comparatively abundant
(a ) Isotopes have same chemical properties but have
properties, these depend upon their different masses .
different physical
(iii ) Many elements have fractional atomic masses. This is because: (ii ) (c)
f (a) The mass of the atom is itself fractional (iii ) The atomic mass depends upon number of isotopes and
(b) Atomic masses are average masses of isebars percentage abundance. Its formula is:
their relative

(iv )
(c) Atomic masses are average masses of isotopes
(d ) Atomic masses are average masses of isotopes proportional to
abundance
The maaa of one mole of electron is:
L
(lv) (d )
Average atomic mass = I Mass x Natural
100
abundance

That 's why many elements have fractional atomic masses usually
Mass of one electron 9.1 x 10 kg
‘ 51
( a ) 1.006 mg ( b) 0, 164 mg 9, 1 x 10'JI x 106
(c) 1.673 mg (d) 0, 35 mg 9, 1 x 10'M mg
(v) 27 g of Al will react completely with how much mu*» of Oi 10 produce Ah h Mass of one mole of electrons
(a ) 8 g of oxy gen ( b ) 16 g of oxygen
”
6,02 x 10 x 9, 1 x 10’
0, 35 mg
”
(c ) 32 g of oxygen (d ) 24 g of oxygen (v) (d ) 4 AI + 3Qj 2 AIJOJ
( vi ) The number of mole of COi , which contain 8 , 0 g of oxygen , 1 mole of Al a 27 g
(a ) 0 , 25
*
( b ) 0,10 4 moles of Al react with a 3 moles of Q
(e ) 1 ,0 (d ) 1 , 50
*
( vii ) The larpst number of molecules arc present in *
1 moles of Al react with a 4l a 0,75 moles
(a ) 3 , 6 g of H?0 (b ) 4 , 1 g of G HsOH Mass of 0,75 moles of 'Oi ' a 0,75 x 32 24 g
(e ) 2 J g of CO ^
32 Key to Chemistry part ,
t
[CH. 1] Basic Concepts
( vi ) (a ) Molecular mass of CO2 = 44 g ( } .2 Fill in the blanks.
32g of ‘0’ = 1 mole of CO2 The unit of relative atomic mas
l g ‘CT
1
(i )
( ii )
s is
The exact masses of isotopes can
—
32 be determined by spectrography.
(iii ) The Phenomenon of isotopy was first
1 discovered by
8 g ‘0’ = TTX 8
32 ( iv ) Empirical formula
cafirbe determined by combustion analysis for those
compounds which have - and in them.
= 0.25 moles of CO 2
(v ) A limiting reagent is that which controls the
( vii ) (a) Mass in grams quantities of
Moles ( vi ) A mole of glucose has
Molar mass atoms of carbon , of oxygen and
of hydrogen.
3.6
Moles of H2O = Yg = 0 . 2 moles ( vii ) 4 g of CH ; at 0°C and 1 atm. pressure has molecules of CH .
*
( viii ) Stoichiometric calculations can be performed only when
4.8 t is obeyed .
Moles of C2H5OH = 0.1 mole ANSWERS
2.8 Answers Explanation
Moles of CO = 0.1 mole
2g (i ) a.m. u (atomic mass
unit
5.4
Moles of N2O5
108 = 0.05 mole ( ii ) Mass
( iii ) Soddy
No . of molecules = No . of moles x NA
( iv ) Carbon , hydrogen
Larger the no . of moles , larger will be the no . of molecules .
( v) Products
( viii ) (c ) One mole of SO2 contain ‘0’ = 2 moles ( vi ) 6NA, 6Na, 12NA 6 NA atoms or 6 gram atoms or 3.612 x 1024 atoms
Atoms of '0* 2 x 6.02 x 10 23 atoms
= 6 NA atoms or 6 gram atoms or 3.612 x 1024 atoms
j
One mole of SO2 contain molecules = 6.02 x 102 12 NA atoms or 12 gram atoms 7.224 x 1024 atoms
,
One mole of SO 2 contain = 6.02 x 102 atoms of S Molecular formula of glucose = C6Hi 206
(ix) (c) 1 mole of N2 * 28 g molar mass Which shows that 1 mole of glucose has 6 moles of carbon ,
3 6 moles of oxygen and 12 moles of hydrogen.
28 g N 2 occupy volume at S .T . P = 22.414 dm
No. of atoms = No of moles x NA
22.414
1 g N2 occupy volume at S . T . P No. of C- atom s = 6 NA = 3.612 xlO
x 24
28
_ No. of O-atoms = 6 x NA = 3.612 x 10‘ 4

(x )
. . ,
1.4 g N 2 occupy volume at S .T . P
orT

^ 28
—= — 22.414 x 1.4
= 1.12 dm
3
No. of H-atoms = 12 x NA = 7.22 x lO 24

(d) A reacuit which is consumed earlier and limitise the amount of Note: 6 NA and 12 NA can be written as 6 gram atoms and
products is called limiting reactant . 12 grams atoms respectively.
 Key to Chemistry part.
/
[CH. 1] Basic Concepts
( vii ) Na / 4 Molecular mass of CH4 = 16 g = 1 mole 35
ANSWERS "

1 mole = Na = 6.02 x 1023 Answers

Correct Statement
16 g of CH4 contain molecules (i ) False Neon has three isotopes and 20.18 a. m.u . is
= NA isotopes of neon .
the average atomic mass of three

NA (ii ) False Empirical formula gives the information about

1 g of CH4 contain molecules the simplest ratio among the
16 atoms present in a molecule.
(iii) True
4 g of CH4 contain molecules _ NA x 4 (iv) False
16 Molecular formula is the integral multiple of empirical forrhula
and the integral
multiple can be unity .
NA (v) False 23 g of Na contain atoms = 1 mole = 6.02 X 1023
4 23
, ,„ . . 6.02 xlO
1 g or Na contain atoms =
6.02 x 1023 J3
4 6.02 X 1023
0.023g of Na contains = x 0.0 23
23
= 1.505 x 1023 90
( viii ) Law of conservation
= 6.02 x 10 atoms
of mass 179 g of gold contain atoms = 1 mole
X
= 6.02 X 1023
Q. 3 Indicate true or false as the case may be.
6.02 x 1023
(0 Neon has three isotopes and the fourth one with atomic mass 20.18 a. 1 g of gold contain atoms = x 1.7 9
m.u. 179
\
N ( ii ) Empirical formula gives the information about the total number of atoms = 6.02 X 1021 atoms
present in the
molecule. ( vi ) True 1 mole of carbon ( 12 g) = 6 moles of electrons
( iii ) During combustion analysis Mg (CIO 1 mole of oxygen ( 16 g) = 8 moles of electrons
( iv )
^ is employed to absorb water vapours.
Molecular formula is the integral multiple of empirical formula and the integral multiple
1 mole of ‘CO’ (28 g ) = 14 moles of electrons
can never be unity. 1 mole of ‘N’ ( 14 g) = 7 moles of electrons
( v) The number of at&ns in 1.79 g of gold and 0.023 of sodium are equal. 1 mole of ‘N’ ( 14 g) = 7 moles of electrons b
( Vi ) The number of electron in the molecules of CO and N are
1 mole of N 2 * ( 28 g ) = 14 moles of electrons
2 14 each , so 1 mg of each
gas will have same number of electrons. So, any equal mass of these two substances have equal number of electrons.

( vii ) (vii) False Avogadro’s hypothesis is applicable to ideal gas only.

Avogadro’ s hypothesis is applicable to all types

I
of gases i .e., ideal and non-ideal.
(viii) False Due to ( i) mechanical loss ( ii) reaction reversibility and ( iii ) side reactions. The
( viii ) Actual yield of a chemical reaction may be gre
ater than the theoretical yield . actual yield is always lesser than theoretical yield .
[

I
„ ,
~ HITT fflWlu r-" -xWF/M! WY
1

36 Key to Chemistry parf. ,

Q.4 What are ions? Under what conditions are they produced . [CH. 1] Basic Concepts
[Am. l Ion: Charge carrying species are called ions. Q6. Silver has atomic number
47 and has 16 Jenown isotopes, but
37
Conditions for Ion Formation : i'e A8 107 and Ag-109. two occur naturally
Given the follow ,mg mass spectrometric data ,
'
”
1 . Positively charged ions called cations are formed by loss of the average atomic mass of calculate
~
Na\ Mg . Atoms of elements in gaseous state lose electrons
el ec tro ns e.
under the
g
Isotopes
silvers
Mass (amu) Percentage
X
following condition :
( a ) When they are heated sufficiently. ; 107
Ab un da nc e
Ag 106.90509 51 .84 %
( b) When a beam of fast moving electrons
or a- particles or X- rays is 109
Ag
passed through the gas. 108.90476 48.16%
Molecular cations arc also formed under the above mentione
d condition b \ 4
.
Ans Average atomic mass ( 106.90509 X51.84 ) + (108.90476 X 48.16 )
2. Negatively charged ions called anions are formed by 100
gain of electrons.
Atoms of highly electronegative elements gain ele
ctrons when they are 5541.959 + 5244.853
placed in a medium having a source of electrons. M 100
olecular anions are very
rare . 10786.81
Q.5 (a ) What are isotopes? How do you deduce 100
the fractional atomic masses of
elements from the relative isotopic abundance? Give
support of your answer.
two examples in = 107.86 g/mol.
Q.7 Boron with atomic number 5 has two naturally
(b ) How does a mass spectrograph show the
relative abundance of isotopes of
, 0
oc
percentage abundance of B and nB from the following
cu rri ng isotopes. Calculate the
an element? information:
Average atomic mass of boron = 10.81 amu
(c ) What is the justification of two strong pe
aks in the mass spectrum for Isotopic mass of l 0B 10.0129 amu
bromine ; while for iodine only one peak at 127 amu , is indicated ?
Isotopic mass of nB
jAns l . 11.0093 amu.
(a ) Isotopes: “ Atoms of the same element which have different ato IKkWnl Average atomic mass of boron = 10.81 amu.
mic masses but Isotopic mass of 10B
same atomic numbers. Such atoms of an element are called isotop ’ . 10.0129 amu .
es
Fractional Atomic Mass: Fractional atomic mass is the average of the ato Isotopic mass of UB 11.0093 amu.
mic
masses of all isotopes and their relative abundance. l0
Relative abundance of B x
Example: Relative abundance of nB 100 - x
(i ) ( 20 x 90.92) -f ( 21 x 0.26) 4 (22 x 8.82) (10.0129) x + (11.0093X100 - x)
Fractional atomic mass of neon = Average atomic mass
100 100
= 20.18 g/ mol 10.0129 x + 1100.93 - 11.0093 x
( ii ) Average atomic mass of silver (106.90509 X51.84 ) + (108.9476 X48.161 10.81
= 100
100
10.81 x 100 = -0.9964 x + 1100.93
( b)
= 107.86 g/ mol
Relative abundance of isotopes is equal to the current strength produced. When -0.9964 x -
1081 1100.93 = -19.93
cations of respective isotopes fall on ion collector. 19.93
Finally, graph is plotted between mass no. and relative abundance. The height of x ~ 0.9964 *

the peak in the graph against specific mass no. show

s the relative abundance of x = 20%,
respective isotopes. 0
Relative abundance of B = 20%
(c )
-
Bromine has two stronger peaks in the mass spectrograph
isotopes. Whereas iodine has only one peak at 127 a
.
because it has two
m . u because it has only one
Relative abundance of nB = 10 0 - 20
isotope with 100% relative abundance. = 80%
 Q.8 Define the following terms and give three examples of each ,
(i ) Oram atom
( iii ) Gram formula
( ii )
( iv )
Gram molecular mass
Gram ion
( v) -
Molar Volume: One
molar volume.
For Example;
mole of any gas « STP
.
occup es 22.414 dm 3. It is called

(v) Molar volume ( vi ) 44g f c 2 at STP occupies :

Avogadro ’ s number
° ° * 22. 414 dm 3

——
( vii ) Stoichiometry ( viii ) Percentage yield 17g of NH3 at STP occupies ?
* 22.414 dm *
64 g of SO2 at STP occupies
= 22.414 dm 3
( vl )
tznumsO , ..
(I ) Gram Atom: The atomic mass of an clement expressed in grams is called gram
atom. It is also known as gram mole or simply mole. S
N
n “ T-^ ,
substance ( I gram
ber. It
: rk
° r (
*m"
atom , 1 gra
o
* > •« <f
molecule, 1 gram ion ) is called Avogadro’ s
is constant denoted by N and
Examples:
For Example; Li
A .
is equal to 6.022 x 1023
1. 1 gram atom of hydrogen = 1 XX)8 g = 1 mole
Jr 6.02 x 1023
2.
3.
1 gram atom of carbon = 12.0 g
1 gram atom of oxygen = 16.0 g
1 mole
1 mole
23g of Nacontains
44g of CO2 contains ^— atoms
6.02 x 1023 molecules
~
17g of OH contains
( ID Gram Molecular Mass: The molecular mass of a molecular substance expressed = 6.02 x 1023 ions
in grams is called gram molecular mass, gram mole or simply mole of a * ( vii ) Stoichiometry: The study of quantitative relationship bet
ween reactants and the
substance . products in a balanced chemical equation is called
stoichiometry.
Examples: Stoichiometric calculations are based upon two laws of chemical
combin ation .
1 gram mole of H 2 (i ) Law of conservation of mass.
1. = 2g 1 mole
2. ( ii ) Law of definite proportions.
1 gram mole of O 2 = 32 g = 1 mole
3. The following assumptions must be obeyed when stoichiometric calc
1 gram mole of H2O = 18 g =

f
1 mole ulations
performed.
( iii ) Gram Formula: The formula mass of an ionic compound expressed in grams is
(a) All reactants are completely converted into products.
called gram formula or mole .
( b) No side reaction occur.
Examples:
(c) . Two laws of chemical combination must be obeyed .
1. 1 gram formula ofNaCl = 58.5 g 1 mole
(viii ) Percentage Yield:
2. 1 gram formula of AgN03 = 170 g 1 mole
3. 1 gram formula of Na 2C03 Ac tua l Yield
= 106 g 1 mole % Yield
Theoretical Yield
x 100
( iv ) Gram Ion: The ionic mass of an ionic species expressed in grams is known as on
gram ion or one mole of 10 ns. % age yield shows the efficiency of the reaction .

Examples:
Factors Responsible for Low Yield:
Side reaction
40 Key to Chemistry Part-/ [CH . 1 ] Basic Concepts
QJ> Justify the following statements: (0
^
^
thou ^ 01
^ 44 g of CO2 occupy separately the volumes of

(a) 23 g of sodium and 23S g of uranium have equal numbers of atoms in them .
’
c
’
^
different from each other.
s* zes and masses of molecules of three gases are very

The sizes and masses do. not affect the

23 g of Na and 238 g of U is equal to their one mole . We know that 1 mole of all occupied volume at S .T.P. Since, distance
between gas molecules is 300 times of iheir
dements contain equal no. of atoms i .e ., 6.02 x lCr atoms .
'
diameter. Hence , if no. of molecules
of different gases are same at S T . P, the occupied
volume , will also be same.
*
b- Mg atom is wee heavier than that of carbon . Q.10 Calculate each of the following quantities:
Atomic mass of C is 12 and of Mg is 24. 6.02 x 1022 atoms of Mg weight 24
grams anc 6.02 x 10^ atoms of carbon which 12 grams . It shows that Mg is twice
KffHB
hmritr than C (a) Mass in grams of 2.74 moles of KMn04
(c) 180 g of glucose and 342 g of sucrose have the same number of molecules but Mass of KMnC> 4 a= ?
different number of atoms present in them. No . of mo . es of KMn04
180 2 of g- -*cose and 342 g of sucrose is equal 10 their one mole . 1 mole of even
=
n = 2.74 moles
Molecular mass =? 39 + 55 + 64 = 158 g
molecular substance contain equal no of molecules ( 6.02 x 1023). 1 molecule of
-
g. &me ccrsam 2 items ar c 1 moiecuie of sucrose contain 45 atoms. Hence the;
j

na same nc of molecuies oat different no . of atoms.

. m = n(M) = 2.74(158 ) = 432.92 g
Moles of oxygen atoms in 9 g of Mg(N03 2
: 4 9 1 of H;SO 4 - hen ccm.pietely ionized in water have equal number of positive
>
Mas $ of Mg(NOj)2 m = 9g
and icga^ * * crarges hut me number of posid /el} charged ions are twice the
.rrcer of neptc . eiy charged mas. m 9
=
*

n M 148 = 0.06 moles

49 I
Mere* cf H2SO4
% 20 = 0.05 mole s 1 mole of Mg(NOj)2 = 6 moles of O-atoms

49 g
-
H SO*
^ 2W
2 x 0 05
,
+
0.06 mole of Mg(N03)j =
=
0.36 moles
6(0.06) moles of O- atoms

0 05 moles) moles moles No . of oxygen atoms in 10.037 g of CuS04.5H20

4 > g cr H SO
: * 2 05 moles) when icrjzed completely produces 0.1 moles of Mass of CuS04.5H20 = 10.037 g
pot tive charges aac 0.1 rooks of negative charges. Hence no of positive and
negate charges are same 4.9 g of H;SO< 0.05 mo
*
Molar mass = 63.5 + 32 64 + (5 x 18 )
.> produces 1 moles of H
am ana 0.05 notes of SO* * 10ns. Hence , no. of positively charged ions is twice = 249.5
dun the no of negatively charged ions . m 10.03 7
n s M = 249.5 = 0.04 moles
e One mg of K CrO* has thrice the number of « ons than the number of formula units
^
when ionized in w ater . 1 mole of CuS04.5H20 = 9 moles of O-atoms
H 2O 0.04 moles of CuS04.5H20 = 0.04 x 9 = 0.362 moles
KzCiO, ± 2 IC + Cr 042
^ 1 mole of oxygen atom = 6.02 x 1023 = atoms
This equauon shows that 1 mg formula unit of K 2Cr04 ionizes into three ions
( 2K and ) Cr
0.36 mole of oxygen atom = 0.36 x 6.02 x 1023
04 hence ihc n of ion * is thrice the no. of formula units ot = 2.18 x 1023 atoms
KjCrOi . One mg will have same values .
•y
 ‘iV r
V

42 KiytoChemlstry Part - /
-
>v
[CH. 1] Basic Concepts
(d) Mass in kg of 2.6 x 1020 molecules of SO2
43

Molecular mass of SO 2
N =
=
2.6 x 1020 molecules
3 2 + 1 6 x 2 = 64
(g ) Mass in grams of 2.78 x
m
102' molecules of C 02C12
= ?
.
Mass in kg = ? - 2.78 x 1021 molecules
Molecular mass of Cr02Cl 2
N = MXNA = * 52 16 x 2 + 35 5 x 2

NM No. of molecules
m XNA
NA
"
_ ( 2.6 x 1020) ( 64 )
6.02 x 1023 x 1000 NA
= 27 .64 x IO 20 23 - 3
'
2.78 x 102 )( 155 )I

6.02 X 10
= 27.64 xlO 6 "

m = 27.64 x 10 6 kg - = 71.57 X 10 ' 2

(e) Moles of Cl -atoms in 0.822 g of CjH Ch = 0.7157 g

^ formula units in 100 g of KC103
m = 0.822 g
Mol ofKClOj = 39 + 35.5 + 1 6 x 3
Cl -atoms = ?
M = 122.5
Molecular mass of C 2H4CU = 1 2 x 2 + 1 x 4 + 35.5 x 2
n >
= 99 N = 7
.
No of mole of CjHtClj = n = M
m
m = 100 g
m 100
0.822
8.3 0 x 10‘3
mo les
n =M =
122.5 0.8 16 moles =
“ 99 No. of formula units (N) nxN*
1 mole of CsHtClj 2 moles of Cl atoms -
*3
8.30 x 10 moles of CiH«Cla 2 xl 0"Jx 8 , 30
(0, 816X6 ,02 x 10 )
4 91 x 10* formula units
3
”
0,017 moles of Cl atoms - ,

(0 Maas in grams of 5,136 moles of AgjCOj

n 5.136 moles 1 formula units of KCIOj
- -
No , of K* Ions, CIO, ions, Cl atoms and O atoms in (h ),
* IK* Ion
m s ? 4 91 x 1033 formula units of KCIOj a 4,91 x 10 K * lens
, } ,
Melacular mass of AgjCO? a ( 108 x 2 ) + 12 + ( 16 x 3)

^
* 276 j 1 formula unit of KCIOJ
t
a 1 C1037 Ions
m a nM w
4,91 x 101 formula units of KCIOJ
- « 4 91 x 10 CIO
,
3 io ns
* (5 , 136 X 276)
m 1 formula unit of KCIO? s 1 Cl atem-
 1U / gi- ;
\
^ rK
.
yi

/ I >
\ I
V
=
44 Key to Chemistry part. , i WT*F*- ^Sa -

4.91 x 1023 formula unit of KCIO3 = 4.91 x 1023 Cl -atoms .

[CH 1 ) Basic Concepts
1 formula unit of KCIO3 - 3 oxygen atoms Q.12 A sample of 0.6 45
4.91 x 1023 formula unit of KCIO 3 23 moles of a metal M reacts
= 3(4.91 xlO ) to form 46.8 g of M
F2. co m pl et el y with excess of fluorine
23
= .73 xlO
14 |ETfl3ll
= 1.473 x lO^-atoms (a) How many moles of F
Q.ll Aspartame, the artificial sweetner, has a molecular formula ar e prese
of C14H18N2O5. No. of moles of ‘M ’
Ans . j =i 0,
(a ) What is mass of one mole of aspartame?
Mass of one mole of aspartame C 14H 18N 2O5
M + F2
—
0.6 moles
2

Mass of one mole of aspartame C 14H 18N 2O 5 No. of moles of F _ 8g

= 12 x 14 + 1 x 18 + 14 x 2+ 16x5 1 mole of M w •

(b) How many moles are present in 52 g of aspartame?

= 168 + 18 + 28 + 80
M = 294 g/mole 0.6 mole of M
1 mole of MF2
:= '
mole of MF2
o..6 moles of MF
2 moles of F-atom
2

- m = 52 g 0.6 moles of MF2

M = 294 g/mole = 2(0.6) moles of F-atoms
n = ? ( b)
= 1.2 moles of F-atoms
Which element is represented by “ M ” ?
52
n = 0. 17 7 moles M = ?
294
(c ) What is mass in grams of 1 0.122 mole of aspartame? m
n
A

10.122 moles
n =M
M = 294 g/mole m
M
m = ? n
m = nxM 46.8
= 10.122 x 294 0.6 = 78 g
« 2975.88 g MF2 = 78 g
(d) How many hydrogen atoms are present in 2.43 g of aspartame 7 M + 38 = . 78 g
m «s 2.43 g M = 78-38
M = 294 g/mole
No. of H -atoms * ?
=
40 g = Calcium = Ca
MF2 = CaF2
No. of molecules (N) =

^
2.43
x NA

= 294 x 6.02 x 1023

» 4.975 x 1021 molecules
-
Q 13 In each pair, choose larger of indicated quan
Sns]
(a)
tity or state if samples arc equal .

Individual particles: 0.4 moles of oxygen molecules or 0.4 moles of ox

atoms.
ygen
1 molecule of aspartame
= 18 H-atoms
4.975 x 1021 molecules of aspartame 18 x
0.4 moles of 02 = 0.4 x NA molecules
= 4.975 x 1021 0.4 moles of O = 0.4 x NA atoms
46 Key to Chemistry pBrU .
[CH 1] Beelc Concept
*
(b) Mass: 0.4 moles of ozone molecules or 0.4 mole of oxygen atoms. MgCl 2 2
Mg + 2CP
*

Mass of ozone = 0.4 x 4 8 MgCl2 ionizes into three ions Mg+ 2

and 2CF
1 mole of MgCl2 - 3 moles of ions
= 19.2 g
2 moles of ions
Mass of oxygen atom = 0.4 x 16 = 3(2)
= 6.4 g 6 moles of ions
=
6 moles of ions

0.4 moles of ozone is larger than 0.4 moles of oxygen atoms.

=
6 x 6.02 x 1023 ions

(c ) Mass: 0.6 mole of C2H4 or 0.6 mole of I 2.

= 23
36.12 xlO ions
2 moles of MgCl2 contains larger no. of ions than 2.3
Mass = nM
Mass of C2H4 = (0.6)( 28)
(f )
moles of NaC103.
1
-KZ :
— " Ciu
’
Molecules: 11.0 g H20 or 11.0 g H202
moles of ions
i than 2.3

Mass of I 2
= 16.8 g
= (0.6)(254)
=152.4 g
0.6 moles of I2 is larger than the 0.6 moles of C 2H4.
No. of molecules of H20 = xNA
= ^
11
To
18 x 6.02 x 1023
= 3.67 x 1023 molecules
(d ) Individual particles: 4 g of N204 or 3.3 g of S02 No. of molecules of H202 m
MXNA
No. of molecules 11
24 x =
6.02 x 1023
=
= ^ x 6.02 x 1023 molecules
0.26 x 1023 molecules (g)
= 1.94 x 1023 molecules
11 g of water contains larger no. of molecules than H202.
Na* ion: 0.500 moles of NaBr or 0.0145 kg of NaCl.
0.0145 x 1000 = 14.5 g NaCl
=
^
v
No. of molecules of S02 xNA m
No. of moles of NaCl “
3 3 M
= ~
7T
64
x 6.02 x 1023 molecules 14.5
P ”
58.5 = 0.25 moles
0.31 x 1023 molecules
= NaBr Na* + Br '

3.3 g of S02 0.31 x 1023 molecules

( ) contain larger no . of molecules than 4 %
0.500 ^ 0.500 0.500
(0.26 x 1023 molecules) of N 204. moles moles moles
(c ) Total ions: 2.3 moles of NaCICh or 2.0 moles of MgCl 2. NaCl T- ± Na* + Cl
“

NaClOj ? i Na^ + C l O j ' 0.25 0.25 0.25

moles moles
moles
Naf IO 3 ionizes into two ions Na * and
0103'. No. of ions in 0.500 moles of NaBr is larger.
235
1 mole of NaC103 = 2 moles of ions (h ) Mass: 6.02 x 1023 atoms of U or 6.02 x 1023 atoms of U.
238

\
2. rlioles of NaC103 = 2( 2.3) 6.02 x 1023 atoms of U
235
38
6.02 x 1023 atoms of U = 238 g
‘
=
235 g
= 4.6 moles of ions
238
4.6 moles of ions = 4.6 x 6.02 x 1023 ions 6.02 x 1023 atoms of U have larger mass.
= 27.692 x 1023 ions
 -

^
7, V *' '
A

1
( /

«3
/ ^ i\

48 Ke y to Chemistry p
Q.14 (a ) Calculate the percentage of nitrogen in the four important fertilizers i.e,,
* r,
.
[CH 1 ) Basic Concept %

(iii ) (NH4 )3P04 molar mass 49

(ii ) NH 2CONH2 ( urea ) of compound
( ii ) (NH4 hS04 ( iv ) NH4NO3 42
= 4. 12 + 31 + 64 = 149 g/mol
*
(b; CakuL* e the percei / age of nitrogen and phosphorous in
% age of nitrogen
~
14 9 x
each of tfy
following :

^
% age of phosphorus
(!) NH4H2PO4 (ii ) >
(NH4 2HP04 = x!oo = 20.8%

MM
(!!!) ( NH4 >3P04
/
Q'15
SchenSucLal*** *energy CalculmlatPoerttheant manusstrien%t
potential .
the m St
° in
of
the cel l for generating
each element glucose In
and determine the number of C,
H and O atoms in 10.5 g of the sample.
( a > ( \ ) NH 3 moUr mass of compound
% age of nitrogen 9
= 14 + 1 x 3 = 17 g/ mol .
Ans Molar mass of C6HJ 2 <
= 1 2 x 6 + 1 2 + 1 6 x 6 = 1 8 0 g/mol
% age of carbon 72
14 x =
% age of nitrogen = TT: X 100 = 82.351 % 180 100 40%
17
(ii) NH 2CONH 2 molar mass of the compound % age of hydrogen 12
= = l 80 xl 0
=
14 + 2 + 1 2 + 1 6 + 1 4 + 2
60 g/mol 96
° “ 667%

% age of oxygen .
28 = JgQX 100 = 53.3%
% age o! nitrogen = x 100 = 46.67%
( iii ) ( NH4 )2S04 ^
molar mass of compound = (14 + 4 ) x 2 + 32 + 64 = 132
C6H { 206 = 10.5 g
No. of moles of C6H12O6 = 10.5
= 132 g/mol 180 = 0.06 moles
28 1 mole of C6HI 206
% age of nitrogen = x 100 = 21.21% = 6 moles of C-atoms
0.06 moles of C6HI 206 = (0.06 )(6 ) = 0.36 moles
( iv ) NH4NO3 molar mass of the compound = 14 + 4 + 14 + 16 x 3 = 80 g/mol No. of carbon atoms
= (0.36)(6.02 x 1023)
= 2.167 x 1023
28 1 mole of C6HI 206
% age of nitrogen =
x 100 = 35 % =
12 moles of H-atoms
0.06 moles of C6HJ 206 =
(0.06)( 12) = 0.72 moles of H
( b ) ( i ) Nl-LtH 2 P04 molar mass of compound
= 14 + 4 + 2 + 31 x 1 6 x 4 No. of hydrogen atoms
= 0.72 x 6.02 x 1023 = 4.33 x 1023 atoms
= 115 g/mol 1 mole of C6 HI 206
= 6 moles of O-atoms
% age of nitrogen 14
x 10 0 12.17 % 0.06 moles of C6HJ 206
= (0.06)(6) = 0.36 moles
115
% age of phosphorus
=
31
yjyxlOO = 26.96%
No. of oxygen atoms
= 0.3 6 x x
6.02 10
Q‘16 Ethylene glycol is used to as automob
" 3
= 2.167 x 1023 atoms
ile antifreeze. It has 38.7 % carbon,
$
( ii ) ( NH4 ) 2HP04 molar mass of compound 9.7 % hydrogen and 51.6 % oxygen . Its molar mass is 62.1 grams mol 1. "

= 28 + 8 + 1 + 31 + 1 6 x 4
Determine its empirical formula.
= 132 g/ mol [Ans.
% age of nitrogen 28
= y x 100 = 21.21 % 0)
=
% age of phosphorus
=y
^ 31
% age of C
% age of H =
38.7 %
9.7 %
xlOO =
^ % age of O = 51.6%

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r
k
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VI
V
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SSi t:
»

Key to Ch*mi*try part. , .

[CH 1] Basle Conetpta
51
50
(iii ) Atom ratio
38.7 C
No. of gram atoms of C = y = 3.225 H
(ii )
^
"
N
f 5.68 6.80 1.07
9.7 0.57 :
= 9.62
1

No. of gram atoms of H = 1.008 0.57 0.57

10 12 :
51.6
No. of gram atoms of O = ^ = 3.225 (iv) Empirical formulas = CioHI 2N20
(iii ) Atomic ratio: Formula mass = CIQHIJNJO x 1 0 + 12 xl .008 + 14 x 2 -f 16 . 4
-

C H o = 176.096 g/mole
3.225 9.62 3.225 Molecular formula = n x Empirical formula mass
* 3.225 ’3.225 1
3.225 Molecular mass
n
1 3 1 Formula mass
(iv ) Empirical formula = CH3O
x .
176
(V) For molecular formula: .
r
Vr;
- •
" = 176.096 "
°"
'9 = 1
Molar mass =
62.1 g / mole Molecular formula = n x Empirical formula
Formula mass = 12 + 3 x1.008 + 16 31.024 g/mole = C, oH , 2N20 = 1 XC, OHI 2N20
Molecular mass =
n x Formula mass Molecular formula = CIOHI 2 N20
Molar mass 62.1 Q.18 An unknown metal M reacts with S to form a compound with a formula
n Formula mass
”
31.024
2.001
”
= MzSj. If 3.12 g of M reacts with exactly 2.88 g of sulphur, what are the names
n =
2 of metal M and the compound M2S3?
Molecular formula = n x Emp. formula
Molecular formula = 2 x CH3O
IPBH1 2M + 3S
Mass of “ M”
— > M2S3
= 3.12 g
=
C 2H*0 2 Mass of “ S” = 2.88 g
Q.17 Serotenin (Molecular mass = 176 g mol ) is a compound that conducts nerve
1 '

2.88
Impulses in brain and muscles. It contains 68.2% C, 6.86 % H, 15.09% N and No. of moles of ‘S’ = n 32 = -
0.09 moles
9.08% O. What is its molecular formula? According to balanced equation:
[KTTEIl Molecular mass =176 g / mole 3 moles of “ S’ = 2 moles of “ M”
(i ) % age of C = 68.2%
% age of H = 6.86% 1 mole of “ S” |
= moles of “ M ”
% age of O = 9.08% | x = 0.06 moles of “ M”
% age of N =
15.09% 0.09 moles of “ S” = 0.09
68.2 m
( ii ) No. of gram atoms of C = ^ = 5.68 n "
M
6.86 3.12
No. of gram atoms of H = = 6.80 fAt. wtoft m
= = 52
1 008
9.08
lmetal My n 0.06
No. of gram atoms of O M = Cr. (Atomic mass = 52)
= = 0.57
„ . ^
15.09
M2S3 = Cr2S3
No. of gram atoms of N = 1.07

•
>
 /sKiMawMiw is:- X
>
52 Key to Chemistry Part - l
fCH . 1 ] Beelc Concepts
Q.19 The octane present in gasoline bums according to the following equation. 53
Q,2<>
'
inni
(a )
2 C8H 18 fl ) + 25 02 16 C02 < ) + 18 H2O0)
*

How many moles of O2 are needed to react fully with 4 moles of octane?
^
reaction of
reactant is in
[AnsT] 2A1 + 3S
^
O7 o f A l
excess?
an
> A12S3
fjw8 fA
°
°
,
f SUfphur
' h “i
"
- How **
much
prep ared by the
the non- imitin8 |

According to balanced equation: Mass of A1

2 moles of octane = 25 moles of O2
•
= 20 g
Mass of S = 30 g
4 moles of octane = 50 moles of 02
No. of moles of “ Al ” m 20
(b) How many moles of CO2 can be produced from one mole of octane? = n
N 27
^
= 0.74 moles
According to balanced equation: m 30
No. of moles of “ S” = n =
2 moles of octane = 16 moles of CO2 M” 32 = 0.93 moles
16 According to balanced equation:
1 mole of octane = 8 mole s of CO 2
2
(c) How many moles of water are produced by the combustion of 6 moles of octane?
2 moles of Al = 1 mole of AI2S3
1
According to balanced equation: 1 mole of Al = 2 m°leof Al2S 3

2 moles of octane = 18 moles of H2O 1

6 moles of octane 1 8 x 3 = 5 4 moles H2O
0.74 mole of Al = 2
X 0 74 - = 0-37 moles of AI 2S3
(d) If this reaction to be used to synthesize 8 moles of CO2, how many grams of 3 moles of S = 1 mole of AI 2S 3
oxygen are needed? How many grams of octane will be used ?
1
According to balanced equation: 1 moles of S = j mole of AI 2S3
16 moles of CO2 = 25 moles of O2 1
25
0.9 moles of S = jx 0.93 = 0.31 moles of AI 2S3
1 moles of C02 = moles of O2 Limiting reactant = “ S”
25
8 moles of CO2 = T7x 8
16 12.5 moles Mass of AI 2S3 nxM= = 0.31 x 150 = 46.5 g
Mass of reactant left in excess:
m = n (M ) 12.5 x 32 = 400 g of 02
16 moles of C02 = 2 moles of octane
3 moles of “ S” = 2 moles of “ Al”
f 1 mole of C02 =
2
77
16 mole s of octan e
1 moles of “ S ” |
= mole s of “ Al ”

8 moles of C02 =
2
77 x 8
16 1 mole of octane
0.93 moles of “ S” =|x 0.93 = 0.62 moles of “ Al ”

0.62 0.12 moles

 K§y to Cheml §try Pan-i
54 .
[CH 1] BMBIC Concept* 55
of tw o liq uid s, hy dr az ine N H 4 an d N 20 4 ar e us ed as a fu el in
Q.21 A mixture 2
pr od uc e N an d wa ter va po ur s. Ho w ma ny gr am s of N 2 ga s Q.23 (a) What fc the Stiochiometry? Give its assumptions. Mention two important
rockets. They 2
aws, w ich help to perform the Stiochiometric calculations.
will be formed by reacting 10 0 g of N 2ft| an d 20 0 g of N 20 4.
2 N 2H4 + N 204 3 N2 + 4 H20 (b) What is a limiting reactant? How does It control the quantity of the
Ans. product formed? Explain with three examples.
Mass of N 2H4 = lOOg
Ans.
Mass of N204 = 200 g
100 (a) Stiochiometry: \W
No. of moles of N2H4 = = 3.125 moles
The branch of chemistry which deals with the study of quantitative relationship between
200
No. of moles of N204 = = 2.17 moles the reactants and the products in a balanced chemical equation.
3 moles of N2 Assumptions of Stiochiometry:
2 moles of N2H4 =
3 1. All the reactants must be converted into products.
1 mole of N2H4 = 2 mo^es of N2
2. No side reaction should occur.
3.125 mo les of N 2 4 =
H | x 3.1 25 = 4.6 8 mo les of “ N 2”
3. . In Stiochiometric calculations law of conservation of mass and law of definite
1 mole of N204 = 3 moles of N proportions are obeyed.
2.1 7 mo le of N 204 = ( 2.1 7 ) ( 3 ) = 6.5 mo les t4
of N”
Law of conservation of mass and law of definite proportions help to perform
Limiting reactant = N2H4 Stiochiometric calculations.
Mass of nit rog en ( N 2 =
) m = n M = ( 4.6 8 ) (28 ) = 131 g
win g (b) Limiting reactant:
Q.22 Silicon carbide (SiC) is an important ceram ic material . It is pr od uc ed by allo
sand (SiOi) to react with carbon at high temperature. A reactant that controls the amount of product formed in a chemical reaction due to its
SiOi + 3C » SiC + 2CO smaller amount than required.
, .4 kg of SiC is pr od uc ed.
When 100 kg sand is reacted with excess of carbon 51 It controls the amount of product formed by being consumed earlier than the other
What is the percentage yield of SiC? reactant. It produces the least moles of the product.
f Ans.
Si02 + 3C » SiC + 2CO Examples:
Mass of S and (Si02) 100 kg = 105 g
= 1. Burning of coal:
Mass of SiC 51.4 kg = 51.4 x 1000 = 51400 g
=
Molar mass of SiC = 28 + 16 x 2 = 60 g
c + o2 * C02
^
Molar mass of SiC = 28 + 12 = 40 g In this reaction 02 is in excess and carbon is the limiting reactant.
60 gof Si02 = 40 gof SiC
40
2. Burning of natural gas:
=
1 g of Si02 5Q g f SiC
° CH* + 202 > C02 + 2H20
e 40 (

103 g of Si02 = X 103 = 66666.67 g In this reaction, 02 is in excess and natural gas is the limiting reactant.
Theoretical yield =
66666.67 g 3. Combustion (bur nin g ) of gas oli ne ( pet rol ):
Actual yield = 51400
Actual yield 25 > 8C02 + 9H20
% age yield =Theoretical yield QH ig + 2
°2
51400
is in excess and pet rol is the lim itin g rea ctan t .
~ 66666.67 X 100 = 77.1% In this reaction 02
 1,
\

3 WI t
>
xm
56 Key to Chemistry Part-1
[CH. 1] Basic Concepts
57
Q.24 (a ) Define yield . How do we calculate the percentage yield of a chemical ( iv) One mole of H2S04 should
reaction ? completely reaact with two moles of NaOH. How
uoes Avcgadro’s number help to expla ?
(b) What are the factors which are mostly responsible for the low yield of
in it
• (v) One mole of H20 has two moles of
the products in chemical reaction? bonds, three moles of atoms, ten moles of
c.ectrons and twenty-eight moles of the total funda
mental particles present in it.
Ans. ( vi ) N2 and CO have the same number of electrons
protons and neutrons.
(a ) Yield: Ans . f
The amount of product obtained as a result of chemical reaction is called yield . (i) Law cf conservation of mass is stated as, “ mass can neither
be created nor destroyed but
Percentage yield: it can be transformed from one form to other.
Let us calculate the percentage yield with the help of example. 2500 g CaO is formed Stiochiometric calculations are based on balanced chemical equation , so number of moles
atoms in reactants and product are equal . As number of moles atoms
according to following equation when 4500 g of CaC(>3 is roasted. are equal hence their
masses should also be equal in reactants and products which is according to law
of
CaC03 * CaO + C02 conservation of mass. Jm I
So calculate percentage yield , we require actual yield which is 2500 g and theoretical (ii) Many chemical reactions taking place in our surrounding involve the limiting reactants. If
it is not so, the reaction will go on continuously and would not stop. But due to this
%
yield which is 2500 g and theoretical yield which is to be calculated through balanced equation.
limiting reactants , the reaction stops after some time after the complete consumption of
CaC03 CaO + C02 limiting reactant .
100 g 56 g 44 g For example, when wood bums, it reacts with the oxygen of air which is in excess in
According to balanced chemical equation : nature . But after the complete consumption of wood , the fire extinguishes.
20
Neon has three isotopes which have atomic masses Ne , Ne ' and Ne 22. The relative
100 g of CaC03 gives = 56 g of CaO “

abundance of these isotopes in nature is 92.92 % , 0.26% and 8.82%, respectively and
56 20.18 is the relative atomic mass of neon , i.e . , the average atomic mass of all the three
1 g of CaC03 gives = g of CaO
isotopes of neon . This is the reason that no individual neon atom in tut .ample of the
4500 g of CaC03 gives
56 element has a mass of 20.18 a. m. u . exactly.
= j QX 4500 gof CaO
^
*

When one mole of H2S04 ionizes, it gives 2 moles of positively charged H + ions
= 2520 g ”
which in turn needs 2 moles of negatively charged OH ions. These OH ions are given
”

Actual yield by two moles of NaOH ions. According to Avogadro ' s rule, one mole of any substance
% yield = x
Theoretical yield 100 contain 6.02 X 1023 atoms, ions or molecules. So the yield of H* ions from one mole of
2500 H2S04 is 2 X 6.02 X 10“ ions and the yield of OH ions from two moles of NaOH is
x 100 = 99.2 %
2 X 6.02 X 1023 ions. So Avogadro’ s number explain that equal number of positive ions
"
2520
There are various fictors responsible for low yield (actual yield ) of a product in a react with equal number of negative ions, i.e., one mole of H2S04 should completely
chemical reaction . react with two moles of NaOH.
1. Side reaction produces by products. ( v) ( i ) The molecular structure of water is:
2. Sometimes re* Hi on is reversible. As one molecule of water has two bonds. So one mole of water contain two moles of
3. bonds as follow:
Mechanical loss cf product during separation by filtration, distillation , separating funnel ,
washing, drying and crystallization . H 20 2 bonds
Q.25 Explain the following with reasons . 1 mole -» 2 moles
(1) (ii) H20 2H + 0
Law of conservauon of mass has to be obeyed during Stiochiometric calculations.
(ii ) 1 mole -» 2 moles + 1 mole
Many chemical reactions taking place in our surrounding involve the limiting
reactants As, 1 molecule of H20 contain 3 atoms, i.e., two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom each.
fill ) No individual neon atom in he sampie of the element has a mass of 20.18 a. m . u. So 1 mole of H20 conta in 3 moles of atom.
5t K y to ChtmlBtry
*
( iii ) H20 - 8e of 0 +
"
2 ( 1 e of H) .
[CH 1] BMMIC ConctptB
59
*
1 mole 8 moles of + 2 moles Silicon carbide (carborundum) SiC
As 1 molecule of H20 contain 10 electrons i .e. , 8 electrons of oxygen and 1 electron of Urea (fertilizer ) CO (NH2)2
2 hydrogen atoms .
(Urea contain 46.6% N)
So, 1 mole of H20 contain 10 moles of electrons .
Chromyl chloride
Cr02Cl2
( iv ) H20 2H + O
~ + Blue vitriol CuS04.5H20
2H + 2 X [1 e + 1 p ] = 4
+ Green vitriol FeS04.7H20
O * 8e + 8p + 8n = 24
White vitriol ZnS04.7H20
As, 1 molecule of H20 contain 24 fundamental particles i .e . , one electrons and one
proton in two hydrogen atoms and 8 electrons , 8 protons and 8 neutrons in one oxygen Laughing gas ( nitrous N20
atom.
Artificial mil ! BiOCl
So, 1 mole of H20 contain 28 moles of fundamental particles .
Sucrose ( s ugar) CI 2H120
( vi ) No. of Electrons:
N2 N+N 7e + 7e = 14 electrons
Ethylene glycol
]
antifreezes
CH2— OH
* (glycol )
CO + c+o 6e + 8e = 14 electrons CH —
2 OH
No. of Protons: Caustic soda NaOH *
N2 + N+N + 7p + 7 p = 14 protons Caustic potash KOH
Washing soda Na2C03 . lOh
CO +
No. of Neutrons:
C+O 6p + 8p = 14 protons
Soda ash Na 2C03
^
N2 -> N+N + 7n + 7n = 14 neutrons Pearl ash K 2CO3
CO + c+o > 6n + 8n = 14 neutrons Soda lime NaOH + CaO
So, N2 and CO have the same number of electrons , protons and neutrons . Quicklime CaO
( vii ) How many protons, neutrons and electrons are present in H2S04. Lime water Ca (OH)2
2HJ S 32
516
6
40 g Baking soda NaHC03
P = 2 + 16 + 32 = 50
E = 2 + 16 + 32 = 50
N = 0 + 16 + 32 = 48
IMPORTANT FORMULAE
Hydrazine ( rocket fuel ) N2H4
Ascorbic acid ( vit - C) C6H8O6
Aspartame ( artificial sweetener )
Ci 4Hi 8N205
Serotenin conducts nerve impulses in brain and muscles CioHj 2N20
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