Tutorial 13: Week 13

1. Does Asia have special population issues that are not present in other developing countries? If
so, what are they?

2. What are the emerging developmental issues in Asia?

Answer:

At the same time, Asia’s dramatic economic growth and technological progress mask daunting
development challenges. Left unaddressed, these challenges jeopardize Asia’s gains and
undermine its future prospects. Asia is at a critical juncture in determining its future, and where
the dramatic economic, political, and social changes taking place will lead the region. A
changing Asia presents new and different opportunities for the mission and work of The Asia
Foundation, an institution adept at navigating the region’s political context for reform and
development. Throughout our 60-year history, we have been successful in nurturing innovative
leaders, building effective institutions, and advancing path-breaking reforms across Asia.

1) Rapid Urbanization
Today, 50 percent of the Asian population lives in cities. Urbanization has critical implications for
development, since cities are the locus of most social change, most of the demand for more
transparent and accountable government, and the bulk of economic output. The burdens on
urban governance are immense; overstretched infrastructure and services constrain economic
growth, increase communal conflict, and significantly reduce the overall quality of life, especially
for the poor. On top of these challenges, Asia’s bulging cities are increasingly vulnerable to
environmental disasters: 51 of the 100 cities with the greatest exposure to natural hazards are
in Asia.
For example, in Cambodia’s capital, Phnom Penh, the population has nearly doubled in the last
decade, and new construction has driven thousands from the city center to peri-urban areas
where services are few or non-existent, and poor waste management threatens the city’s health
and economic viability. As part of our work on urban governance we brought together local
governments and communities in these areas to raise awareness of issues like waste
management, and prepared a memorandum of solutions for waste collection and disposal for
the governor of Phnom Penh from the Municipal Waste Authority. Now we are collaborating with
solid-waste collectors and City Hall to develop a plan to improve and reform city services and
put ideas into action.
2) Evolution of Democratic Governance
Beginning in the mid-1980s, electoral democracy and a general acceptance of universally
recognized human rights has spread to many nations of the region. But in much of the region,
semi-democratic regimes have taken strong root; despite a great deal of democratic activity,
established elites remain fully entrenched, governance is corrupt and over-politicized, and
development outcomes are suboptimal at best. In other places, citizens are taking dramatic
steps toward the transition to a more democratic state. But it’s not easy.
In Myanmar, for example, the vast majority of the 32 million voters in the country’s recent
elections possessed little or no access to information about the more than 6,000 candidates and
91 political parties. A landmark survey we conducted in 2014 revealed that only 12 percent of
respondents understood how the president was elected, and most had little knowledge of
government institutions and processes. Through a Foundation-sponsored voter education
initiative called MaePaySoh (Let’s Vote), over 200 of Myanmar’s top developers participated in a
competition to build the best apps, websites, and other digital election products to engage a new
generation of voters on the issues impacting their country.
3) Gender Revolution
Considering the status of women across most of the region just a few decades ago, remarkable
progress toward gender equity has been made. For example, gender parity in elementary
education has now been reached in most Asian countries, and in most countries women are
now much more integrated into the formal economy than in the past. Despite these gains,
substantial informal barriers remain, largely reflecting the strong influence of traditional culture
and religion which can be impervious to national policy and legalistic solutions. Violence against
women continues to be a major challenge everywhere in Asia, but especially in South Asia,
where rates are so high that the problem has become a significant constraint on development.
In India, where 26 cases of violence against women are reported every hour, and recent high-
profile rape cases have ignited mass protests, we are partnering with leading civil society
organizations to completely rethink how this issue is addressed by engaging men and boys in
the fight against violence. In Bangladesh, we’re providing budding women entrepreneurs with
first-time networking opportunities, mentoring, access to information and credit, and business
management training to foster environments where women can participate in the business
sector and advocate for improved policies.
4) Violent Conflict
Violent conflict has been an enduring challenge in Asia. At the state-to-state level, despite sharp
tensions over a diversity of issues, in recent decades, open military confrontations have been
rare and limited. In contrast, subnational and communal violence, often driven by inequalities, is
widespread and persistent. Sectarian conflicts in particular are on the rise, and conflicts over
water are becoming more intense, particularly where shortages are acute. Meanwhile, growing
influence of radical Islamist groups and the potential expansion of the Islamic State in Asia
could lead to a significant expansion of unrest and violence.
The new set of post-2015 Sustainable Development Goals includes for the first time a target
that specifically sets out to promote peaceful and inclusive societies, marking an increase in
awareness that peace and security is critical for sustainable development. However, solid data
on where violence is occurring, the impacts it is having, and what factors are driving it, is
severely lacking. The Asia Foundation is working in areas facing violent conflict in subnational
areas of Mindanao, southern Thailand, and Indonesia, for instance, and we’re now partnering
with leading researchers and think-tanks to vastly improve the quality of data around
violenceacross Asia to better understand how conflicts can be addressed.
5) Environmental Challenges
Climate change, combined with rapid population growth and urbanization, are placing intense
pressure on Asia’s most precious resources. At the same time, extreme weather has led to
unprecedented monsoon rains and deadly floods that have in some cases interrupted the entire
global supply chain for certain industries located in flood-prone regions. How governments, civil
society, and citizens work together to address these issues will shape Asia’s development
trajectory.
Most natural disaster risk programs focus on government capacity or reducing risk to vulnerable
populations in rural areas; private sector responses are rarely part of the equation. Aware of this
blind spot, our office in Vietnam, which has long focused on climate change mitigation and
green growth, took a first-mover approach going straight to the private sector. Harnessing our
people and networks, we trained more than 3,000 CEOs and business managers representing
more than 2,000 small- and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) in 19 provinces to reduce climate
change-related risks to their businesses and communities. With facilitated trainings focused on
shared learning, businesses are better able to plan to protect their own assets, including their
employees, but also able to reach out beyond the perimeter of their sites. As a result, The Asia
Foundation helped open a new corporate social responsibility dialogue that includes risk
assessment and business continuity planning, as well as community outreach. We are currently
scaling this very successful project in other South and Southeast Asian settings.
6) The Intensifying Politics of Inequality
One of the most striking characteristics of development in Asia has been the fall over the past
three decades in the numbers of citizens living in extreme poverty, paralleled by the rapid
expansion of the Asian middle class. However, both developments have occurred unevenly
across the region, largely reflecting differential economic performance. As in the West, there is
growing concern and increasing political mobilization around issues of inequality. Pressure for
government action will likely rise and could have substantial effects, not just for redistribution of
wealth, but also on prospects for future growth and unrest.
For example, while Mongolia’s economic growth has helped to reduce poverty in recent years,
that growth has slowed to a worrying .7 percent in 2016. Inequality in income distribution is on
the rise, particularly for the 1.3 million residents out of which 60% is living in the ger districts on
the outskirts of the booming capital, Ulaanbaatar. To improve the situation of the ger area
residents, we are partnering with Ulaanbaatar city municipality working with citizens to
implement a community mapping process to gather and map service delivery data on the
availability of fresh water, garbage collection sites, schools, health care, and other services to
prioritize investments. We also digitized more than 150 detailed land demarcation maps for a
website where citizens and city officials can now find information, download maps, and avoid
disputes.
Today, I’m proud to say with the TAF2020 Strategic Plan, The Asia Foundation is applying its
expertise and resources to address these critical issues in a focused and sustained way. We
are also taking a number of important steps to position ourselves for continued maximum impact
and increased effectiveness, including strategies for sharpening our program priorities,
measuring results, and streamlining our operations.
On the program side, the Foundation will embrace a more agile and creative approach to the
development of our programs, and to better address emerging and multidimensional issues.
This will include strengthening monitoring, evaluating, and learning from our programs, and
greater use of innovative technologies and tools. On the operations side, we will strengthen our
ability to support and engage our network of 18 country offices, building increased synergies,
operational efficiency, and regional program capabilities.
Engaging our longstanding and ever-expanding networks, leveraging strong partnerships and
emerging technology, and drawing upon our deep regional knowledge and staff expertise, we
will continue to play a catalytic role in advancing Asia’s economic development and social
progress. Clearly, the stakes are higher than ever across Asia; our work in the region, therefore,
remains as urgent and relevant today as it was when we were established in 1954.
3. ‘Urban poverty is going to be the major issue in Asia’ explain.

Answer:

In several Asian countries, the numbers of the urban poor have risen over
the 1990–2008 period; they may face increasing urban poverty with some
urban scholars labeling it as “urbanization of poverty.”

As Asian economies become more urbanised, they may face an “urbanisation of poverty,”
rather than a reduction in poverty if urban vulnerabilities, inequalities and deprivation are not
formally addressed. Middle-income countries are associated with high levels of urban
poverty and low-income countries with low levels of urban poverty.

Unlike rural poverty, urban poverty is complex and multidimensional—extending

beyond the deficiency of income or consumption, where its many dimensions
relate to the vulnerability of the poor on account of their inadequate access to
land and housing, physical infrastructure and services, economic and livelihood
sources, health and education facilities, social security networks, and voice and
empowerment.
In most of developing Asia, urbanization has been accompanied by slums and
shelter deprivation, informality, worsening of the living conditions, and increasing
risks due to climate change and exclusionary urban forms. According to the UN-
HABITAT, Asia has 60% of the world’s total slum population, and many more live
in slum-like conditions in areas that are officially designated as nonslums.
Working poverty and informality are high in Asian cities and towns. Recent years
have witnessed, almost universally, increasing urban inequalities and stagnating
consumption shares of lower-percentile households, with Hong Kong, China
registering one of the highest Gini-coefficients observed in any other part of the
developing and developed world.

Economic growth is important for urban poverty reduction. According to the 14 Asian
countries’ data, a 1% increase in per capita GDP has produced 0.25% reduction in urban
poverty. While the urbanisation–GDP nexus is positive, it is vastly untapped to yield its full
potential.

India and the PRC hold the key to urban poverty reduction in Asia and globally. They
account for a greater part of Asia’s urban poverty, with India accounting for about one-third
of the world’s urban poor, 13% of informal settlements’ population, and over 40% of the
working poor. The PRC accounts for 22% of the world’s informal dwellers, consisting of a
class of new urban poor. This is an important aspect of emerging poverty in urban Asia,
where poverty is a function not only of the domestic factors and policies, but also of external
factors. Any progress in global poverty and poverty in Asia is crucially dependent on how
India manages its growth and urbanisation policies, and how the PRC manages to integrate
its informal dwellers with the cities’ population and addresses growing inequalities.

The speed with which Asian economies implement social security systems to safeguard the
poor from external shocks will also be important in determining the progress of Asian and
global poverty.

4. Explain the consequences of rapid urbanisation.

Answer:

Rapid urbanization occurs when populations move into cities at a rate that is faster than the
development of infrastructure. This is usually the result of economic changes that leave rural
dwellers and farmers in poverty. This migration to cities has been going on in developing
countries for decades, resulting in enormous shanty towns surrounding growing cities such as
Rio, Mexico City and Shanghai.

Environmental Degradation
Human activity that isn't controlled through appropriate infrastructure leads to
damage to the natural environment, and this damage increases with larger
populations. Inadequate sewer facilities lead to polluted water, unregulated
growth leads to housing being built in environmentally sensitive areas and a
lack of gas or electricity leads to intensive cooking with wood fires, something
that seriously compromises air quality. Population increase, which is higher in
countries with lower education levels and less empowered women, make all of
these problems worse.

Lack of Infrastructure
In a well-planned city, infrastructure is created in a sensible way to
accommodate the population. Electric grids, sewer facilities, gas lines and
roads are expanded at the same rate as the population. When rapid
urbanization occurs, many of the new residents of a city are there unofficially,
living in informal slums and shanty towns that have inadequate or nonexistent
public services. With no census or official information, it is difficult or
impossible for municipal authorities to plan for or provide adequate
infrastructure for burgeoning populations.
Unemployment
Poor farmers and landless people gravitate to cities in search of work and an
improved standard of living, but often find themselves living in poverty in the
city and unable to find work. Since employment levels are related to levels of
economic activity and development of infrastructure, it isn't surprising that
cities with many shanty towns have high levels of unemployment. The
economic base of such a city is dwarfed by the numbers of people. With such
a surplus of willing workers, this situation drives wages down, meaning that
even when a poor person has a job, it may pay very little.

Poor Health
Diseases that are caused by unclean water, impure air and overcrowding are
epidemic in some rapidly growing cities. Cholera, diarrhea and other water-
borne illnesses thrive in places that don't have water filtration plants, while
lung diseases and breathing problems are caused by dirty air. Rapidly
expanding cities are often characterized by huge traffic problems, something
that contributes to unclean air. All of these health problems are made worse
when people don't have access to reliable and low-cost health care.
http://www.thewip.net/talk/2010/02/the_impact_of_rapid_urbanizati.html

5. Explain the concept ‘infrastructural poverty’

Answer:

Infrastructure is a key element of poverty alleviation. It often acts as a catalyst

to development and enhances the impact of interventions to improve the poor’s access to

other assets, e.g., human, social, financial, and natural assets. Its impact is felt both on the

economic and social sectors. Without roads, the poor are not able to sell their output on

the market. In India, it has been shown that roads alone account for seven percent of the

growth in aggregate output of the rural areas. Without electricity, the

industrialization process, which provides the poor an important source of employment is

unlikely to take off. In Costa Rica, a retrospective review of the rural electrification
experience through electrification cooperatives indicates that for one of these

cooperatives the number of major businesses jumped from 15 to 86 after electrification. Without
potable water and sanitation health is at risk. The social and

economic impact often go hand in hand. The retrospective evaluation of a feeder road

project in Morocco shows that beyond its impact on agricultural production, it was

associated with a trebling in the enrolment of girls in primary schools. And the use of

health care facilities nearly doubled. In Bangladesh, electrification has

been shown to have a substantial impact on the reduction in women’s fertility (paragraph

However, the link between infrastructure and poverty is no more obvious than

that between famine and crop production. As pointed out by Amartya Sen, the key is

entitlement and capacity. The most devastating famines were not primarily the result of

inadequate production but of inadequate entitlement to food. In infrastructure terms,

entitlement translates into access. For the poor, the most dramatic impact of inadequate

infrastructure may be less the result of lack of infrastructure per se but more the lack of

access to that infrastructure.